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AMERICAN HISTORY
Connecting with the Past | FIFTEENTH EDITION

Volume 1: to 1865

ALAN BRINKLEY
Columbia University
AMERICAN HISTORY: CONNECTING WITH THE PAST, 15E
Alan Brinkley

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Brinkley, Alan.
American history : connecting with the past / Alan Brinkley.—Fifteenth edition.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
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 BRIEF CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii

1 THE COLLISION OF CULTURES 1

2 TRANSPLANTATIONS AND BORDERLANDS 34
3 SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN PROVINCIAL AMERICA 65
4 THE EMPIRE IN TRANSITION 98
5 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 128
6 THE CONSTITUTION AND THE NEW REPUBLIC 159
7 THE JEFFERSONIAN ERA 180
8 VARIETIES OF AMERICAN NATIONALISM 214
9 JACKSONIAN AMERICA 229
10 AMERICA’S ECONOMIC REVOLUTION 254
11 COTTON, SLAVERY, AND THE OLD SOUTH 293
12 ANTEBELLUM CULTURE AND REFORM 314
13 THE IMPENDING CRISIS 339
14 THE CIVIL WAR 364
15 RECONSTRUCTION AND THE NEW SOUTH 399

APPENDIXES A-1

CREDITS C-1

INDEX I-1

• ix
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Alan Brinkley is the Allan Nevins Professor of History at Columbia University. He served
as University Provost at Columbia from 2003 to 2009. He is the author of Voices of Protest:
Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression, which won the 1983 National Book
Award; The Unfinished Nation: A Concise History of the American People; The End of Reform: New
Deal Liberalism in Recession and War; Liberalism and Its Discontents; Franklin D. Roosevelt; and
The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century. He was the chair of the board of the
National Humanities Center, the chair of the board of the Century Foundation, and a trustee
of Oxford University Press. He is a member of the Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1998–1999,
he was the Harmsworth Professor of History at Oxford University, and in 2011–2012, the Pitt
Professor at the University of Cambridge. He won the Joseph R. Levenson Memorial Teaching
Award at Harvard, and the Great Teacher Award at Columbia. He was educated at Princeton
and Harvard.

x •

PREFACE xvii
THE COLLISION OF
1 CULTURES 1
SETTING THE STAGE 2
AMERICA BEFORE
COLUMBUS 2
The Peoples of the
Precontact Americas 2
The Growth of Civilizations:
The South 3
The Civilizations of the
North 3
Tribal Cultures 7
EUROPE LOOKS WESTWARD 7
Commerce and Nationalism 8
Christopher Columbus 9
The Conquistadores 12
Spanish America 15
Northern Outposts 17
The Empire at High Tide 17
Biological and Cultural Exchanges
Africa and America 20
THE ARRIVAL OF THE ENGLISH 21
The Commercial Incentive 21
The Religious Incentive 23
The English in Ireland 27
The French and the Dutch in America 29
The First English Settlements 30
Roanoke 30
Debating the Past
Why Do Historians So Often Differ? 8
Debating the Past
The American Population before Columbus 10
America in the World
The Atlantic Context of Early American History 22
America in the World
Mercantilism and Colonial Commerce 26
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 32
TRANSPLANTATIONS AND
2 BORDERLANDS 34
SETTING THE STAGE 35
THE EARLY CHESAPEAKE 35
Colonists and Natives 35
Reorganization and
Expansion 36
Tobacco 37
Expansion 38
Exchanges of Agricultural Technology 38
CONTENTS
Maryland and the Calverts 39
Turbulent Virginia 40
Bacon’s Rebellion 41
THE GROWTH OF NEW ENGLAND 41
Plymouth Plantation 41
The Puritan Experiment 43
The Expansion of New England 45
Settlers and Natives 46
The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and
the Technology of Battle 47
THE RESTORATION COLONIES 49
The English Civil War 49
The Carolinas 49
New Netherland, New York, and New Jersey 51
The Quaker Colonies 52
BORDERLANDS AND MIDDLE GROUNDS 53
The Caribbean Islands 54
Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean 55
The Southwestern Borderlands 56
The Southeastern Borderlands 57
The Founding of Georgia 57
Middle Grounds 60
18
THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE 60
The Drive for Reorganization 60
The Dominion of New England 62
The “Glorious Revolution” 62
Debating the Past
Native Americans and the “Middle Ground” 58
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 63
SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN
3 PROVINCIAL AMERICA 65
SETTING THE STAGE 66
THE COLONIAL
POPULATION 66
Indentured Servitude 66
Birth and Death 68
Medicine in the
Colonies 69
Women and Families in the
Chesapeake 69
Women and Families in New England 71
The Beginnings of Slavery in British
America 71
Changing Sources of European Immigration 74
THE COLONIAL ECONOMIES 76
The Southern Economy 77
Northern Economic and Technological Life 78
The Extent and Limits of Technology 80
The Rise of Colonial Commerce 80
The Rise of Consumerism 81
• xi
xii • CONTENTS
PATTERNS OF SOCIETY 82
The Plantation 83
Plantation Slavery 84
The Puritan Community 85
The Witchcraft Phenomenon 86
Cities 87
Inequality 88
AWAKENINGS AND ENLIGHTENMENTS 89
The Pattern of Religions 89
The Great Awakening 90
The Enlightenment 91
Education 92
The Spread of Science 94
Concepts of Law and Politics 95
Debating the Past
The Origins of Slavery 72
Debating the Past
The Witchcraft Trials 90
Patterns of Popular Culture
Colonial Almanacs 92
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 96
THE EMPIRE IN
4 TRANSITION 98
SETTING THE STAGE 99
LOOSENING TIES 99
A Tradition of Neglect 99
The Colonies Divided 100
THE STRUGGLE FOR THE
CONTINENT 101
New France and the Iroquois
Nation 101
Anglo-French Conflicts 102
The Great War for the Empire 103
THE NEW IMPERIALISM 107
Burdens of Empire 107
The British and the Tribes 109
The Colonial Response 110
STIRRINGS OF REVOLT 112
The Stamp Act Crisis 112
Internal Rebellions 114
The Townshend Program 114
The Boston Massacre 115
The Philosophy of Revolt 117
The Tea Excitement 118
COOPERATION AND WAR 122
New Sources of Authority 122
Lexington and Concord 124
America in the World
The First Global War 104
Consider the Source
Tea Parties 120
Patterns of Popular Culture
Taverns in Revolutionary Massachusetts 122
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 126
THE AMERICAN
5 REVOLUTION 128
SETTING THE STAGE 129
THE STATES UNITED 129
Defining American War
Aims 129
The Decision for
Independence 130
Responses to
Independence 131
Mobilizing for War 131
THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 133
The First Phase: New England 133
The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region 135
The Iroquois and the British 138
Securing Aid from Abroad 139
The Final Phase: The South 140
Winning the Peace 143
WAR AND SOCIETY 143
Loyalists and Minorities 143
The War and Slavery 145
Native Americans and the Revolution 146
Women’s Rights and Women’s Roles 147
The War Economy 149
THE CREATION OF STATE GOVERNMENTS 150
The Assumptions of Republicanism 150
The First State Constitutions 150
Revising State Governments 150
Toleration and Slavery 151
THE SEARCH FOR A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 151
The Confederation 151
Diplomatic Failures 152
The Confederation and the Northwest 153
Indians and the Western Lands 155
Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays 155
Debating the Past
The American Revolution 132
America in the World
The Age of Revolutions 144
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 156
THE CONSTITUTION AND
6 THE NEW REPUBLIC 159
SETTING THE STAGE 160
FRAMING A NEW GOVERNMENT 160
Advocates of Centralization 160
A Divided Convention 162
 CONTENTS • xiii

Compromise 163 “Peaceable Coercion” 204

The Constitution of 1787 164 The “Indian Problem” and the British 205
The Limits of the Tecumseh and the Prophet 206
Constitution 166 Florida and War Fever 207
Federalists and Antifederalists 167
THE WAR OF 1812 208
Completing the Structure 168
Battles with the Tribes 208
FEDERALISTS AND Battles with the British 208
REPUBLICANS 169 The Revolt of New England 210
Hamilton and the Federalists 169 The Peace Settlement 210
Enacting the Federalist Consider the Source
Program 170
Religious Revivals 186
The Republican Opposition 171
America in the World
ESTABLISHING NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY 172
The Global Industrial Revolution 192
Securing the Frontier 172
Native Americans and the New Nation 172 Patterns of Popular Culture
Maintaining Neutrality 173 Horse Racing in Early America 196
Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty 174 END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 211
THE DOWNFALL OF THE FEDERALISTS 174
The Election of 1796 175
VARIETIES OF AMERICAN
The Quasi War with France 175
Repression and Protest 176
The “Revolution” of 1800 177
8 NATIONALISM 214
Debating the Past SETTING THE STAGE 215
The Meaning of the Constitution 164 BUILDING A NATIONAL
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 178 MARKET 215
Banking, Currency, and
Protection 215
Transportation 216
THE JEFFERSONIAN ERA
7 180
EXPANDING
WESTWARD 218
SETTING THE STAGE 181 The Great Migrations 218
THE RISE OF CULTURAL The Plantation System in the Southwest 218
NATIONALISM 181 Trade and Trapping in the Far West 219
Patterns of Education 181 Eastern Images of the West 220
Medicine and
Science 183 THE “ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS” 220
Cultural Aspirations in the The End of the First Party System 221
New Nation 183 John Quincy Adams and Florida 221
Religious Skepticism 184 The Panic of 1819 222
The Second Great Awakening 185 SECTIONALISM AND NATIONALISM 222
STIRRINGS OF INDUSTRIALISM 188 The Missouri Compromise 222
Technology in America 188 Marshall and the Court 223
Transportation Innovations 189 The Court and the Tribes 224
The Rising Cities 191 The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe
Doctrine 225
JEFFERSON THE PRESIDENT 192
The Federal City and the “People’s President” 193 THE REVIVAL OF OPPOSITION 226
Dollars and Ships 195 The “Corrupt Bargain” 226
Conflict with the Courts 195 The Second President Adams 227
Jackson Triumphant 227
DOUBLING THE NATIONAL DOMAIN 197 END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 228
Jefferson and Napoleon 197
The Louisiana Purchase 199
Lewis and Clark Explore the West 200
JACKSONIAN AMERICA
The Burr Conspiracy 201
EXPANSION AND WAR 202
9 229

Conflict on the Seas 202 SETTING THE STAGE 230

Impressment 203 THE RISE OF MASS POLITICS 230
xiv • CONTENTS
The Emergence of Andrew
Jackson 230
Expanding
Democracy 231
Tocqueville and Democracy
in America 232
The Legitimization of
Party 233
“President of the Common Man” 234
“OUR FEDERAL UNION” 235
Calhoun and Nullification 235
The Rise of Van Buren 236
The Webster-Hayne Debate 236
The Nullification Crisis 237
THE REMOVAL OF THE INDIANS 238
White Attitudes Toward the Tribes 238
The Black Hawk War 239
The “Five Civilized Tribes” 239
Trails of Tears 240
The Meaning of Removal 241
JACKSON AND THE BANK WAR 242
Biddle’s Institution 242
The “Monster” Destroyed 243
The Taney Court 243
THE CHANGING FACE OF AMERICAN POLITICS 244
Democrats and Whigs 245
Van Buren and the Panic of 1837 246
The Log Cabin Campaign 247
The Frustration of the Whigs 248
Whig Diplomacy 249
Debating the Past
The “Age of Jackson” 234
Patterns of Popular Culture
The Penny Press 250
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 252
AMERICA’S ECONOMIC
10 REVOLUTION 254
SETTING THE STAGE 255
THE CHANGING AMERICAN
POPULATION 255
The American Population,
1820–1840 255
Immigration and
Urban Growth,
1840–1860 256
The Rise of Nativism 259
TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATIONS, AND
TECHNOLOGY 262
The Canal Age 263
The Early Railroads 265
The Triumph of the Rails 266
Innovations in Communications and
Journalism 266
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 268
The Expansion of Business, 1820–1840 268
The Emergence of the Factory 269
Advances in Technology 269
MEN AND WOMEN AT WORK 270
Recruiting a Native Workforce 270
The Immigrant Workforce 276
The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition 277
Fighting for Control 278
“Free Labor” 278
PATTERNS OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY 279
The Rich and the Poor 279
Social Mobility 281
Middle-Class Life 281
The Changing Family 282
Women and the “Cult of Domesticity” 282
Leisure Activities 287
THE AGRICULTURAL NORTH 288
Northeastern Agriculture 288
The Old Northwest 288
Rural Life 290
Consider the Source
Nativism and Anti-Immigration Sentiment 260
Consider the Source
Rules for Employees 272
Consider the Source
Family Time 284
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 290
COTTON, SLAVERY, AND
11 THE OLD SOUTH 293
SETTING THE STAGE 294
THE COTTON
ECONOMY 294
The Rise of King
Cotton 294
Southern Trade and
Industry 295
Sources of Southern Difference 298
WHITE SOCIETY IN THE SOUTH 298
The Planter Class 298
“Honor” 300
The “Southern Lady” 300
The Plain Folk 301
SLAVERY: THE “PECULIAR INSTITUTION” 303
Varieties of Slavery 303
Life under Slavery 304
Slavery in the Cities 305
Free African Americans 306
The Slave Trade 307
Slave Resistance 309
THE CULTURE OF SLAVERY 311
Language and Music 311

African American Religion 312
The Slave Family 312
Debating the Past
The Character of Slavery 306
Patterns of Popular Culture
The Slaves’ Music 310
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 313
ANTEBELLUM CULTURE
12 AND REFORM 314
SETTING THE STAGE 315
THE ROMANTIC IMPULSE 315
Nationalism and Romanticism
in American
Painting 315
Literature and the Quest for
Liberation 316
Literature in the Antebellum
South 317
The Transcendentalists 317
The Defense of Nature 318
Visions of Utopia 318
Redefining Gender Roles 319
The Mormons 320
REMAKING SOCIETY 321
Revivalism, Morality, and Order 321
The Temperance Crusade 322
Health Fads and Phrenology 323
Medical Science 324
Reforming Education 325
Rehabilitation 326
The Indian Reservation 326
The Emergence of Feminism 327
THE CRUSADE AGAINST SLAVERY 330
Early Opposition to Slavery 330
Garrison and Abolitionism 331
Black Abolitionists 331
Anti-Abolitionism 332
Abolitionism Divided 333
Consider the Source
The Rise of Feminism 328
America in the World
The Abolition of Slavery 334
Patterns of Popular Culture
Sentimental Novels 336
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 336
THE IMPENDING CRISIS
13
SETTING THE STAGE 340
LOOKING WESTWARD 340
Manifest Destiny 340
CONTENTS • xv
Americans in Texas 342
Tensions between the United States
and Mexico 342
Oregon 343
Westward Migration 344
Life on the Trail 344
EXPANSION AND WAR 346
The Democrats and Expansion 346
The Southwest and California 347
The Mexican War 348
THE SECTIONAL DEBATE 351
Slavery and the Territories 351
The California Gold Rush 351
Rising Sectional Tensions 353
The Compromise of 1850 353
THE CRISES OF THE 1850S 354
The Uneasy Truce 354
“Young America” 355
Slavery, Railroads, and the West 355
The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy 355
“Bleeding Kansas” 356
The Free-Soil Ideology 357
The Pro-Slavery Argument 358
Buchanan and Depression 358
The Dred Scott Decision 358
Deadlock over Kansas 359
The Emergence of Lincoln 359
John Brown’s Raid 360
The Election of Lincoln 360
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 361
THE CIVIL WAR
14 364
SETTING THE STAGE 365
THE SECESSION CRISIS 365
The Withdrawal of the
South 365
The Failure of
Compromise 366
Fort Sumter 366
The Opposing Sides 368
THE MOBILIZATION OF
THE NORTH 368
Economic Measures 368
Raising the Union Armies 370
Wartime Politics 370
The Politics of Emancipation 372
African Americans and the Union Cause 376
The War and Economic Development 377
Women, Nursing, and the War 377
339
THE MOBILIZATION OF THE SOUTH 378
The Confederate Government 378
Money and Manpower 378
States’ Rights versus Centralization 379
Economic and Social Effects of the War 380
xvi • CONTENTS
STRATEGY AND DIPLOMACY 381
The Commanders 381
The Role of Sea Power 382
Europe and the Disunited States 383
The American West and the War 384
THE COURSE OF BATTLE 385
The Technology of Battle 385
The Opening Clashes, 1861 387
The Western Theater 388
The Virginia Front, 1862 388
The Progress of War 391
1863: Year of Decision 392
The Last Stage, 1864–1865 394
Debating the Past
The Causes of the Civil War 372
Consider the Source
Wartime Oratory 374
Patterns of Popular Culture
Baseball and the Civil War 384
America in the World
The Consolidation of Nations 386
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 397
RECONSTRUCTION AND
15 THE NEW SOUTH 399
SETTING THE STAGE 400
THE PROBLEMS OF
PEACEMAKING 400
The Aftermath of War and
Emancipation 400
Competing Notions of
Freedom 401
Issues of Reconstruction 402
Plans for Reconstruction 403
The Death of Lincoln 403
Johnson and “Restoration” 404
RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION 404
The Black Codes 405
The Fourteenth Amendment 405
The Congressional Plan 405
The Impeachment of the President 407
THE SOUTH IN RECONSTRUCTION 407
The Reconstruction Governments 407
Education 408
Landownership and Tenancy 409
The Crop-Lien System 410
The African American Family in
Freedom 412
THE GRANT ADMINISTRATION 412
The Soldier President 412
The Grant Scandals 412
The Greenback Question 413
Republican Diplomacy 413
THE ABANDONMENT OF
RECONSTRUCTION 414
The Southern States “Redeemed” 414
The Ku Klux Klan Acts 414
Waning Northern Commitment 414
The Compromise of 1877 415
The Legacies of Reconstruction 417
THE NEW SOUTH 418
The “Redeemers” 418
Industrialization and the “New South” 419
Tenants and Sharecroppers 420
African Americans and the New South 421
The Birth of Jim Crow 422
Debating the Past
Reconstruction 416
Patterns of Popular Culture
The Minstrel Show 420
Consider the Source
Remembering Black History 426
END-OF-CHAPTER REVIEW 428
APPENDIXES A-1
CREDITS C-1
INDEX I-1
 PREFACE

• Smartbook®—an online version of this book that adapts

WHY do so many people take an interest in history?
It is, I think, because we know that we are
the products of the past—that everything we know, everything
to each student’s reading experience by offering
self-quizzing and highlighting material that the student
we see, and everything we imagine is rooted in our history. It is struggling with.
is not surprising that there have been historians throughout • Connect History®—homework and quizzing exercises in-
almost all of recorded time. It is only natural that we are inter- cluding map understanding, primary source analysis, im-
ested in what the past was like. Whether we study academic age exploration, key terms, and review and writing
history or not, we all are connected to the past. questions.
Americans have always had a love of their own history. It is • Insight®—a first-of-its-kind analytics tool for Connect as-
a daunting task to attempt to convey the long and remarkable signments that provides instructors with vital informa-
story of America in a single book, but that is what this volume tion about how students are performing and which
attempts to do. The new subtitle of this book, “Connecting assignments are the most effective.
with the Past,” describes this edition’s focus on encouraging • Interactive maps—more than thirty maps in the ebook
readers to be aware of the ways in which our everyday experi- and Connect can be manipulated by students to encour-
ences are rooted in our history. age better geographical understanding.
Like any history, this book is a product of its time and reflects • Critical Missions®—an activity that immerses students in
the views of the past that historians of recent generations have pivotal moments in history. As students study primary
developed. A comparable book published decades from now will sources and maps, they advise a key historical figure on
likely seem as different from this one as this book appears differ- an issue of vital importance—for example, should
ent from histories written a generation or more ago. The writing President Truman drop the atomic bomb on Japan?
of history changes constantly—not, of course, because the past • A Primary Source Primer—a video exercise with
changes, but because of shifts in the way historians, and the pub- multiple-choice questions teaches students the impor-
lics they serve, ask and answer questions about the past. tance of primary sources and how to analyze them. This
There are now, as there have always been, critics of changes online “Introduction to Primary Sources” is designed for
in historical understanding. Many people argue that history is use at the beginning of the course, to save valuable class
a collection of facts and should not be subject to “interpreta- time.
tion” or “revision.” But historians insist that history is not and
In addition to content and scholarship updates throughout,
cannot be simply a collection of facts. They are only the begin-
we have added 4 new “Consider the Source” boxed features
ning of historical understanding. It is up to the writers and
that explore the topics of family time; wartime oratory; black
readers of history to try to interpret the evidence before them;
history; and race, gender, and military service. Our concluding
and in doing so, they will inevitably bring to the task their
chapter, “The Age of Globalization,” now brings American
own questions, concerns, and experiences.
History up-to-date through the summer of 2014 and includes
Our history requires us to examine the experience of the
coverage of the 2008 financial crisis, the rise of the Tea Party,
many different peoples and ideas that have shaped American
the 2012 election, the Affordable Care Act, and the ongoing
society. But it also requires us to understand that the United
federal gridlock.
States is a nation whose people share many things: a common
I am grateful to many people for their help on this book—
political system, a connection to an integrated national (and
especially the people at McGraw-Hill who have supported and
now international) economy, and a familiarity with a shared
sustained it so well for many years. I am grateful to Laura Wilk,
and enormously powerful mass culture. To understand the
Rhona Robbin, Art Pomponio, April Cole, Stacy Ruel, Emily
American past, it is necessary to understand both the forces
Kline, and Carrie Burger. I am grateful, too, to Deborah Bull for
that divide Americans and the forces that draw them together.
her help with photographs. I also appreciate the many sugges-
It is not only the writing of history that changes with time—
tions I have received from students over the last several years,
the tools and technologies through which information is deliv-
as well as the reviews provided by a group of talented scholars
ered change as well. Created as an integral part of the content
and teachers.
of this fifteenth edition are an array of valuable learning re-
Alan Brinkley
sources that will aid instructors in teaching and students in
Columbia University
learning about American history. These resources include:
New York, NY

• xvii
A GUIDED TOUR OF
AMERICAN HISTORY

AMERICAN HISTORY CONNECTS

STUDENTS TO THE RELEVANCE
OF HISTORY THROUGH
A SERIES OF ENGAGING
FEATURES

PaTTERNS OF POPULaR CULTURe Features

These twenty-six features bring fads, crazes,
hang-outs, hobbies, and entertainment into the
story of American history, encouraging students
to expand their definition of what constitutes
history, and to think about how we can best
understand the lived experience of past lives.

xviii •
CONSIDER THE SOURCE Features
These features guide students through careful analysis of
historical documents, both textual and visual, and prompt
them to make connections with contemporary events. New
topics in this edition include family time; wartime oratory;
black history; and race, gender, and military service.

• xix
 AMERICa IN THE WORLD Essays
These fifteen essays focus on specific parallels
between American history and that of other
nations, and demonstrate the importance of the
many global influences on the American story.
Topics like the global industrial revolution, the
abolition of slavery, and the origins of the Cold
War provide concrete examples of the
connections between the history of the United
States and the history of other nations.

UNDERSTaND, ANaLYZE, aND

EVaLUaTE Review Questions
Appearing at the end of every
feature essay, these questions
encourage students to move beyond
memorization of facts and names to
explore the importance and
significance of the featured content.

xx •
DEBaTING THE PaST Essays
Twenty-five essays introduce students to the contested quality of much of the
American past, and provide a sense of the evolving nature of historical scholarship.
From addressing the question of “Why do historians so often disagree?” to
examining specific differences in historical understandings of the Constitution, the
character of slavery, and the causes of the Great Depression, these essays
familiarize students with the interpretive character of historical understanding.

• xxi
LIST OF MAPS

1.1 North American Migrations 4 10.5 Lowell, Massachusetts, 1832 276

1.2 How the Early North Americans Lived 5 11.1 Slavery and Cotton in the South, 1820
and 1860 296
1.3 European Exploration and Conquest,
1492–1583 13 11.2 Plantations in Louisiana, 1858 297
1.4 Spanish America 16 11.3 A Georgia Plantation 299
1.5 Europe and West Africa in the Fifteenth 13.1 Expanding Settlement, 1810–1850 341
Century 24
13.2 Western Trails in 1860 345
2.1 The Growth of the Chesapeake, 1607–1750 37
13.3 The Oregon Boundary, 1846 346
2.2 The Growth of New England, 1620–1750 46
13.4 The Mexican War, 1846–1848 348
2.3 The Seventeenth-Century Caribbean 55
13.5 Southwestern Expansion, 1845–1853 350
3.1 North America in 1700 67
13.6 Slave and Free Territories under
3.2 Immigrant Groups in Colonial America, 1760 77 the Compromise of 1850 354
3.3 The “Triangular Trade” 81 14.1 The Process of Secession 367
3.4 African Population as a Proportion of 14.2 The War in the West, 1861–1863 389
Total Population, c. 1775 83
14.3 The Virginia Theater, 1861–1863 390
3.5 The New England Town: Sudbury, Massachusetts,
14.4 The Siege of Vicksburg, May–July 1863 392
Seventeenth Century 85
14.5 Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863 393
4.1 The Seven Years’ War 106
14.6 Virginia Campaigns, 1864–1865 394
4.2 The Thirteen Colonies in 1763 108
14.7 Sherman’s March to the Sea, 1864–1865 395
4.3 North America in 1763 110
15.1 Reconstruction, 1866–1877 406
4.4 The Battles of Lexington and Concord, 1775 124
15.2 The Southern Plantation before and after
5.1 The Revolution in the North, 1775–1776 137
Emancipation 409
5.2 The Revolution in the Middle Colonies,
15.3 The Crop-Lien System in 1880 423
1776–1778 139
16.1 Mining Towns, 1848–1883 440
5.3 The Revolution in the South, 1778–1781 141
16.2 The Cattle Kingdom, c. 1866–1887 441
5.4 The Conflict over Western Lands 152
16.3 The Indian Frontier 450
5.5 Land Survey: Ordinance of 1785 154
17.1 Railroads, 1870–1890 464
7.1 North America in 1800 194
18.1 The United States in 1900 488
7.2 Washington, D.C., in the Early Nineteenth
Century 194 18.2 Ethnic and Class Segregation in Milwaukee,
1850–1890 492
7.3 Exploring the Louisiana Purchase,
1804–1807 200 18.3 Streetcar Suburbs in Nineteenth-Century New
Orleans 497
7.4 The Indian Response to White Encroachment 205
19.1 Imperialism at High Tide, 1900 531
7.5 The War of 1812 209
19.2 The Spanish-American War in Cuba, 1898 542
8.1 The Missouri Compromise, 1820 223
19.3 The American South Pacific Empire, 1900 547
9.1 The Expulsion of the Tribes, 1830–1835 240
20.1 Establishment of National Parks and Forests 575
10.1 American Population Density, 1820 257
21.1 The United States and Latin America,
10.2 American Population Density, 1860 258
1895–1941 586
10.3 Canals in the Northeast, 1823–1860 264
21.2 America in World War I: The Western Front,
10.4 Railroad Growth, 1850–1860 267 1918 595

xxii •
 LIST OF MAPS • xxiii

21.3 African American Migration, 1910–1950 609 28.2 African American Migration, 1950–1980 771
22.1 Farm Tenancy, 1910–1930 621 29.1 The United States in Latin America,
1954–1996 792
24.1 The Tennessee Valley Authority 667
29.2 The War in Vietnam and Indochina,
26.1 World War II in the Pacific 706
1964–1975 797
26.2 World War II in North Africa and Italy: The Allied
30.1 Aboriginal Territories and Modern Reservations
Counteroffensive, 1942–1943 708
of Western Indian Tribes 814
26.3 World War II in Europe: The Allied
31.1 Growth of the Sunbelt, 1970–1990 844
Counteroffensive, 1943–1945 723
32.1 Crises in the Middle East 873
27.1 Divided Europe after World War II 739
27.2 The Korean War, 1950–1953 747
28.1 Chicago’s Annexations and the Suburban
Noose 776
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to the many advisers and reviewers who gen-
erously offered comments, suggestions, and ideas at various
stages in the development of this project.
Academic Reviewers
Eirlys Barker, Thomas Nelson Community College
Diane Boldt, Maple Woods Community College
Cathy Briggs, Northwest Vista College
Jeff Carlisle, Oklahoma City Community College
Annette Chamberlin, Virginia Western Community College
Amy Colon, SUNY Sullivan
Hugh Donahue, Rowan College
Mike Downs, University of Texas—Arlington
John Ehrhardt, Oklahoma City Community College
Mary Farmer-Kaiser, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Linda Foutch, Walters State Community College
Brandon Franke, Blinn College
Keith Freese, Itawamba Community College
Wendy Gunderson, Collin County Community College
Susan Haber, Cuyamaca College
Michael Harkins, William Rainey Harper College
Timothy Holder, Walters State Community College
Kelly Hopkins, University of Houston
Bruce Ingram, Itawamba Community College
Greg Kelm, Dallas Baptist University
Wendy Kline, University of Cincinnati
Donna Kumler, Grayson County College
Jennifer Lawrence, Tarrant County College
Pat Ledbetter, North Central Texas College
John W. Meador, Central New Mexico Community College
Marc McClure, Walters State Community College
Darrel McGhee, Walters State Community College
xxiv •
Derrick McKisick, Fairfield University
Rachel Mitchell, Itawamba Community College
Michael Namorato, University of Mississippi
Jessica Patton, Tarrant County College
Justin Pettegrew, Shorter University
Susan Richards, Central New Mexico Community College
Esther Robinson, Lone Star College—Cyfair
Horatio Salinas, Laredo Community College
Erik Schmeller, Tennessee State University
Manfred Silva, El Paso Community College
David Snead, Liberty University
Lori Strader, Vernon College
Armando Villarreal, Tarrant County College South
Roger Ward, Collin County Community College
Eddie Weller, San Jacinto College, South
Geoffrey Willbanks, Tyler Junior College
Bill Zeman, Citrus Community College
Digiposium Attendees
Shelly Bailess, Liberty University
Patrice Carter, Wharton County Junior College
Tonia Compton, Columbia College of Missouri
Jane England, North Central Texas College
Yvonne Davis Frear, San Jacinto College
Traci Hodgson, Chemeketa Community College
Joy Ingram, Pellissippi State Community College
Alan Lehmann, Blinn College
Sandy Norman, Florida Atlantic University
Andrea Oliver, Tallahassee Community College
Richard Verrone, Texas Tech University
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Constitution of the United States nor to any existing treaty
of the United States, shall remain in force until the Congress
of the United States shall otherwise determine. Until
legislation shall be enacted extending the United States
customs laws and regulations to the Hawaiian Islands the
existing customs relations of the Hawaiian Islands with the
United States and other countries shall remain unchanged. The
public debt of the Republic of Hawaii, lawfully existing at
the date of the passage of this joint resolution, including
the amounts due to depositors in the Hawaiian Postal Savings
Bank, is hereby assumed by the Government of the United
States; but the liability of the United States in this regard
shall in no case exceed four million dollars. So long,
however, as the existing Government and the present commercial
relations of the Hawaiian Islands are continued as
hereinbefore provided said Government shall continue to pay
the interest on said debt.

"There shall be no further immigration of Chinese into the

Hawaiian Islands, except upon such conditions as are now or
may hereafter be allowed by the laws of the United States; and
no Chinese, by reason of anything herein contained, shall be
allowed to enter the United States from the Hawaiian Islands.

"The President shall appoint five commissioners, at least two

of whom shall be residents of the Hawaiian Islands, who shall,
as soon as reasonably practicable, recommend to Congress such
legislation concerning the Hawaiian Islands as they shall deem
necessary or proper.

{257}

"SECTION 2.
That the commissioners hereinbefore provided for shall be
appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate.
"SECTION 3.
That the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, or so much
thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated, out of
any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and to
be immediately available, to be expended at the discretion of
the President of the United States of America, for the purpose
of carrying this joint resolution into effect."

There was no strict division of parties on the passage of the

resolution; but only three Republicans in the House voted
against it. Speaker Reed, who had strenuously opposed the
measure, was absent. Two Republican senators voted against the
resolution and three who opposed it were paired. A large
majority of the Democrats in both Houses were in opposition.
The policy advocated by the opponents of annexation was set
forth in the following resolution, which they brought to a
vote in the House, and which was defeated by 205 to 94:

"1. That the United States will view as an act of hostility

any attempt upon the part of any government of Europe or Asia
to take or hold possession of the Hawaiian islands or to
account upon any pretext or under any conditions sovereign
authority therein.

2. That the United States hereby announces to the people of

those islands and to the world the guarantee of the
independence of the people of the Hawaiian islands and their
firm determination to maintain the same."

Immediately upon the passage of the resolution of annexation,

preparations were begun at Honolulu for the transfer of
sovereignty to the United States, which was performed
ceremoniously August 12. Meantime, the President had
appointed, as commissioners to recommend legislation for the
government of the Islands, Messrs. Shelby M. Cullom, John T.
Morgan, Robert R. Hitt, Sanford B. Dole, and Walter F. Frear.
In the following November the Commission presented its report,
with a draft of several bills embodying the recommended
legislation. When the subject came into Congress, wide
differences of opinion appeared on questions concerning the
relations of the new possession to the United States and the
form of government to be provided for it. As the consequence,
more than a year passed before Congress reached action on the
subject, and Hawaii was kept in suspense for that period,
provisionally governed under the terms of the resolution of
annexation. The Act which, at last, determined the status and
the government of Hawaii, under the flag of the United States,
became law by the President's signature on the 30th of April,
1900, and Sanford B. Dole, formerly President of the Republic
of Hawaii, was appointed its governor.

The fundamental provisions of the "Act to provide a government

for the Territory of Hawaii" are the following:

SECTION 2.
That the islands acquired by the United States of America
under an Act of Congress entitled "Joint resolution to provide
for annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States,"
approved July seventh, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight,
shall be known as the Territory of Hawaii.

SECTION 3.
That a Territorial government is hereby established over the
said Territory, with its capital at Honolulu, on the island of
Oahu.

SECTION 4.
That all persons who were citizens of the Republic of Hawaii
on August twelfth, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, are
hereby declared to be citizens of the United States and
citizens of the Territory of Hawaii. And all citizens of the
United States resident in the Hawaiian Islands who were
resident there on or since August twelfth, eighteen hundred
and ninety-eight, and all the citizens of the United States
who shall hereafter reside in the Territory of Hawaii for one
year shall be citizens of the Territory of Hawaii.

SECTION 5.
That the Constitution, and, except as herein otherwise
provided, all the laws of the United States which are not
locally inapplicable, shall have the same force and effect
within the said Territory as elsewhere in the United States:
Provided, that sections eighteen hundred and fifty and
eighteen hundred and ninety of the Revised Statutes of the
United States shall not apply to the Territory of Hawaii.

SECTION 6.
That the laws of Hawaii not inconsistent with the Constitution
or laws of the United States or the provisions of this Act
shall continue in force, subject to repeal or amendment by the
legislature of Hawaii or the Congress of the United States. …

SECTION 12.
That the legislature of the Territory of Hawaii shall consist
of two houses, styled, respectively, the senate and house of
representatives, which shall organize and sit separately,
except as otherwise herein provided. The two houses shall be
styled "The legislature of the Territory of Hawaii." …

SECTION 17.
That no person holding office in or under or by authority of
the Government of the United States or of the Territory of
Hawaii shall be eligible to election to the legislature, or to
hold the position of a member of the same while holding said
office. …

SECTION 55.
That the legislative power of the Territory shall extend to
all rightful subjects of legislation not inconsistent with the
Constitution and laws of the United States locally applicable.
…
 SECTION 66.
That the executive power of the government of the Territory of
Hawaii shall be vested in a governor, who shall be appointed
by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate of the United States, and shall hold office for four
years and until his successor shall be appointed and
qualified, unless sooner removed by the President. He shall be
not less than thirty-five years of age; shall be a citizen of
the Territory of Hawaii; shall be commander in chief of the
militia thereof; may grant pardons or reprieves for offences
against the laws of the said Territory and reprieves for
offences against the laws of the United States until the
decision of the President is made known thereon. …

SECTION 68.
That all the powers and duties which, by the laws of Hawaii,
are conferred upon or required of the President or any
minister of the Republic of Hawaii (acting alone or in
connection with any other officer or person or body) or the
cabinet or executive council, and not inconsistent with the
Constitution or laws of the United States, are conferred upon
and required of the governor of the Territory of Hawaii,
unless otherwise provided. …

{258}

SECTION 80.
That the President shall nominate and, by and with the advice
and consent of the Senate, appoint the chief justice and
justices of the supreme court, the judges of the circuit
courts, who shall hold their respective offices for the term
of four years, unless sooner removed by the President. …

SECTION 81.
That the judicial power of the Territory shall be vested in
one supreme court, circuit courts, and in such inferior courts
 as the legislature may from time to time establish. …

SECTION 85.
That a Delegate to the House of Representatives of the United
States, to serve during each Congress, shall be elected by the
voters qualified to vote for members of the house of
representatives of the legislature; such Delegate shall
possess the qualifications necessary for membership of the
senate of the legislature of Hawaii. … Every such Delegate
shall have a seat in the House of Representatives, with the
right of debate, but not of voting.

SECTION 86.
That there shall be established in said Territory a district
court to consist of one judge, who shall reside therein and be
called the district judge. The President of the United States,
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United
States, shall appoint a district judge, a district attorney,
and a marshal of the United States for the said district, and
said judge, attorney, and marshal shall hold office for six
years unless sooner removed by the President. Said court shall
have, in addition to the ordinary jurisdiction of district
courts of the United States, jurisdiction of all cases
cognizable in a circuit court of the United States, and shall
proceed therein in the same manner as a circuit court. …

SECTION 88.
That the Territory of Hawaii shall comprise a customs district
of the United States, with ports of entry and delivery at
Honolulu, Hilo, Mahukona, and Kahului.

HAWAII: A. D. 1900.
Census of the Islands.
Progress of educational work.

"The last Hawaiian census, taken in the year 1896, gives a

total population of 109,020, of which 31,019 were native
Hawaiians. The number of Americans reported was 8,485. The
results of the Federal census taken this year [1900] show the
islands to have a total population of 154,001, an increase
over that reported in 1896 of 44,981, or 41.2 per cent. The
total land surface of the Hawaiian Islands is approximately
6,449 square miles: the average number of persons to the
square mile at the last three censuses being as follows: For
1890, 13.9; 1896, 16.9; 1900,23.8.

"Education in Hawaii is making favorable progress. In Honolulu

two large schoolhouses have recently been erected at a cost of
$24,778 and $20,349, respectively. The department of education
is under the management of a superintendent of public
instruction, assisted by six commissioners of public
instruction, two of whom are ladies. The tenure of office of
the commissioners is six years, the term of two of them
expiring each year. They serve without pay. The system is the
same as that existing under the Republic of Hawaii. In the
biennial period ending December 31 there were 141 public and
48 private schools in the Hawaiian Islands; 344 teachers in
the public schools, of whom 113 were men and 231 were women,
and 200 teachers in the private schools, of whom 79 were men
and 121 were women. In the same period there were 11,436
pupils in the public schools, of whom 6,395 were boys and
5,041 were girls, and 4,054 pupils in the private schools, of
whom 2,256 were boys and 1,798 were girls. This gives a total
of 15,490 pupils, of whom 8,651 were boys and 6,839 were
girls. … Of the 15,490 pupils, 5,045 were Hawaiian, 2,721 part
Hawaiian, 601 American, 213 British, 337 German, 3,882
Portuguese, 84 Scandinavian, 1,141 Japanese, 1,314 Chinese, 30
South Sea Islanders, and 124 other foreigners. Each
nationality had its own teacher. The expenditures for the two
years ending December 31, 1899, were $575,353. Since the year
1888 nearly all the common schools, in which the Hawaiian
language was the medium of instruction, have been converted
into schools in which English alone is so employed, 98 per
cent. of the children being at present instructed by teachers
 who use English."

United States, Secretary of the Interior,

Annual Report, November 30, 1900.

----------HAWAII: End--------

HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY, The.

See (in this volume)

CANAL, INTEROCEANIC:
A. D. 1900 (DECEMBER); and 1901 (MARCH).

HAYTI: A. D. 1896.
Election of President Sam.

Hayti elected a new President, General Theresias Simon Sam, to

succeed General Hippolyte, who died suddenly on the 24th of
March.

HAYTI: A. D. 1897.
Quarrel with Germany.

The government of Hayti came into conflict with that of

Germany, in September, 1897, over what was claimed to be the
illegal arrest of a Haytien-born German, named Lueders, who
had secured German citizenship. Germany demanded his release,
with an indemnity at the rate of $1,000 per day for his
imprisonment. The demand not being acceded to promptly, the
German consul at Port-au-Prince hauled down his flag. Then the
United States Minister persuaded the Haytien President,
General Simon Sam, to set Lueders free. But the demand for
indemnity, still pending, brought two German war-ships to
Port-au-Prince on the 6th of December, with their guns ready
to open fire on the town if payment were not made within eight
hours. For Hayti there was nothing possible but submission,
and $30,000 was paid, with apologies and expressions of
 regret.

HEBREWS, The ancient:

Their position in history as affected by recent archæological
research.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH; IN BIBLE LANDS.

HECKER, Father Isaac Thomas,

and the opinions called "Americanism."

See (in this volume)

PAPACY: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY).

HELIUM, The discovery of.

See (in this volume)

SCIENCE, RECENT; CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

HENRY, General Guy V.: Military Governor of Porto Rico.

See (in this volume)

PORTO RICO: A. D. 1898-1899 (OCTOBER-OCTOBER).

HERVEY, or COOK, ISLANDS:

Annexation to New Zealand.

See (in this volume)

NEW ZEALAND: A. D. 1900 (OCTOBER).

HEUREAUX, President: Assassination.

See (in this volume)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: A. D. 1899.

{259}
HICKS-BEACH, Sir Michael,
Chancellor of the Exchequer, in the British Cabinet.

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1894-1895.

HILPRECHT, Professor H. V.:

Researches on the site of ancient Nippur.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA: AMERICAN
EXPLORATION.

HINTCHAK, The.

See (in this volume)

TURKEY: A. D. 1895.

HINTERLAND.

A German word which has come into general use to describe

unnamed and poorly defined regions lying behind, or on the
inland side, of coast districts, in Africa more especially,
which have been occupied or claimed by European powers.

HISTORICAL DISCOVERIES, Recent.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

HOAR, Senator George F.:

Action to recover the manuscript of Bradford's History.

See (in this volume)

MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1897.
HOAR, Senator George F.:
Speech in opposition to the retention of the
Philippine Islands as a subject State.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1900 (APRIL).

HOBART, Garret A.: Vice President of the United States.

Death.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1899 (November).

HOBOKEN, Great fire at.

On the 30th of June, 1900, between 200 and 300 people lost
their lives in a fire which destroyed the pier system of the
North German Lloyd steamship line, at Hoboken, N. J. The fire
wrecked three of the large ships of the company, and is said
to have been the most destructive blaze that ever visited the
piers and shipping of the port of New York. An estimate placed
the loss of life at nearly 300, and the damage to property at
about $10,000,000, but the company's estimate of the loss of
life and the value of the property wiped out was considerably
less. The fire started in some cotton on one of the four large
piers at 4 o'clock in the afternoon. In a few minutes the pier
on which it broke out was enveloped in flames, and in six
minutes the whole pier system was burning. The flames spread
so quickly that many men on the piers and on the vessels,
lighters and barges were hemmed in before they realized that
their lives were in danger.

HOBSON, Lieutenant Richmond Pearson:

The sinking of the collier Merrimac at Santiago.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).
HOLLAND.

See (in this volume)

NETHERLANDS, THE KINGDOM OF THE.

HOLLS, Frederick W.:

American Commissioner to the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

HOLY YEAR 1900, Proclamation of the Universal Jubilee of the,

Its extension.

See (in this volume)

PAPACY: A. D. 1900-1901.

HONDURAS.

See (in this volume)

CENTRAL AMERICA.

HONG KONG: A. D. 1894.

The Bubonic Plague.

See (in this volume)

PLAGUE.

HONG KONG: A. D. 1898.

British lease of territory on the mainland.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-AUGUST).

HORMIGUEROS, Engagement at.

 See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: PORTO RICO).

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, The United States:

The "Spoils System" in its service.

See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1901.

HOVA, The.

See (in this volume)

MADAGASCAR.

HUA SANG, Massacre of missionaries at.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1895 (AUGUST).

HUDSON BAY, Investigation of.

See (in this volume)

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1897.

HUMBERT I., King of Italy: Assassination.

See (in this volume)

ITALY: A. D. 1899-1900; and 1900 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

HUNGARY.

See ((in this volume)

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

HUSBANDISTS, The.
 See (in this volume)
GERMANY: A. D. 1901 (FEBRUARY).

I.

ICELAND, Recent exploration of.

See (in this volume)

POLAR EXPLORATION, 1898-1899.

IDAHO: A. D. 1896.
Adoption of Woman Suffrage.

On the 11th of December, 1896, an amendment of the

constitution of Idaho, extending the suffrage to women, was
submitted to the then voters of the State, and carried by
12,126, against 6,282. Though carried by a large majority of
the votes given on the suffrage issue, it did not receive a
majority of the whole vote cast on other questions at the same
election; but the supreme court of the State decided that the
amendment had been adopted.

I-HO-CH'UAN, The.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JANUARY-MARCH).

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1898.
Strike of coal miners.
Bloody conflict at Virden.

See (in this volume)

INDUSTRIAL DISTURBANCES: A. D. 1898.

ILOCANOS, The.

See (in this volume)

 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: THE NATIVE INHABITANTS.

ILOILO: The American occupation of the city.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).

ILORIN, British subjugation of.

See (in this volume)

AFRICA: A. D. 1897 (NIGERIA).

IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY:

Transfer of territory to the British Government.

See (in this volume)

AFRICA: A. D. 1895 (BRITISH EAST AFRICA).

IMPERIAL CONFERENCE:
Meeting of British Colonial Prime Ministers at the Colonial
Office, London.

See (in this volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (JUNE-JULY).

IMPERIALISM:
The question in American politics.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1900 (APRIL); and (MAY-NOVEMBER).

{260}

INCOME TAX: Decision against by United States Supreme Court.

See (in this volume)

 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1895 (APRIL-MAY).

INDIA: A. D. 1894.
The Waziri War.

A fierce attempt to interrupt the demarcation of the Afghan

boundary was made by the Waziris. The escort of 5,000 troops,
consisting mainly of Sikhs and Goorkhas, was desperately
attacked in camp at Wano, November 3. The attack was repulsed,
but with heavy loss on the British side. It became afterwards
necessary to send three strong columns into the country, under
Sir William Lockhart, in order to carry out the work.

INDIA: A. D. 1895 (March-September).

The defense and relief of Chitral.
The British frontier advanced.

At the extreme northwestern limit of British-Indian dominion

and semi-dominion, under the shadow of the lofty Hindu-Kush
mountains, lie a group of quasi-independent tribal states over
which the Amir of Afghanistan claimed at least a "sphere of
influence" until 1893. In that year the Amir and the
Government of India agreed upon a line which defined the
eastern and southern frontier of Afghanistan, "from Wakhan to
the Persian border," and agreed further as follows: "The
Government of India will at no time exercise interference in
the territories lying beyond this line on the side of
Afghanistan, and his Highness the Amir will at no time
exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this
line on the side of India. The British Government thus agrees
to his Highness the Amir retaining Asmar and the valley above
it, as far as Chanak. His Highness agrees, on the other hand,
that he will at no time exercise interference in Swat, Bajaur,
or Chitral, including Arnawai or Bashgal valley." Under this
agreement, the Indian Government prepared itself to be
watchful of Chitral affairs. The little state was notoriously
a nest of turbulence and intrigue. Its rulers, who bore the
Persian title of Mehtar, signifying "Greater," can never have
expected to live out their days. Changes of government were
brought about commonly by assassination. The reigning prince,
Nizam-ul-Mulk, owed his seat to the murder of his father,
Aman-ul-Mulk, though not by himself. In turn, he fell, on New
Year's day, 1895, slain at the instigation of his
half-brother, Amir-ul-Mulk, who mounted the vacant chair of
state. The usurper was then promptly assailed by two rivals,
one of them his brother-in-law, Umra Khan, a mountain
chieftain of Bajaur, the other an uncle, Sher Afzul, who had
been a refugee at Kabul. On the news of these occurrences at
Chitral, the Government of India sent thither, from Gilgit,
its political agent, Surgeon-Major Robertson, with a small
escort, to learn the state of affairs.

The result of Dr. Robertson's attempt to settle matters was an

alliance of Umra Khan and Sher Afzul in a desperate attempt to
destroy him and his small force of native troops, which had
five English officers at its head. The latter took possession
(March 1) of the fort at Chitral, a structure about 80 yards
square, walled partly with wood, and so placed in a valley
that it was commanded from neighboring hills. In this weak
fortification the little garrison held off a savage swarm of
the surrounding tribes during 46 days of a siege that is as
thrilling in the story of it as any found in recent history.
The first reinforcements sent to Dr. Robertson, from near
Gilgit, were disastrously beaten back, with the loss of the
captain in command and 50 of his men. As speedily as possible,
when the situation was known in India, an army of about 14,000
men was made ready at Peshawur, under the command of
Major-General Sir Robert Low, and relieving columns were
pushed with great difficulty through the Malakand Pass, then
filled deep with snow. A smaller force, of 600 men, under
Colonel Kelly, fought its way from Gilgit, struggling through
the snows of a pass 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Colonel Kelly was the first to reach Chitral, which he did on
the 20th of April. The besiegers had fled at his approach. The
beleaguered garrison was found to have lost 40 killed and 70
wounded, out of its fighting force of about 370 men. Sher
Afzul was caught by the Khan of Dir, who led 2,000 of his
followers to the help of the British. Umra Khan escaped to
Kabul, where he was imprisoned by the Amir. Shuja-ul-Mulk, a
younger brother of Amir-ul-Mulk was declared Mehtar. The
question whether British authority should be maintained in
Chitral or withdrawn was now sharply debated in England; but
Lord Salisbury and his party, coming into power at that
moment, decided that the advanced frontier of Indian Empire
must be held. The young Mehtar was installed in the name of
the Maharaja of Kashmir as his suzerain, and the terms under
which his government should be carried on were announced at
his installation (September 2, 1895) by the British Agent, as
follows:

"The general internal administration of the country will be

left in the hands of the Mehtar and of his advisers. The
Government of India do not intend to undertake themselves the
management of the internal affairs of Chitral, their concern
being with the foreign relations of the State, and with its
general welfare. It, however, has to be remembered that
Shuja-ul-Mulk is only a boy, and that, at an age when other
boys are engaged in education and amusement, he has been
called upon to hold the reins of State. Bearing this fact in
mind, the Government of India recognise the necessity of his
receiving some help during the time of his minority, and it
has consequently been decided to leave at Chitral an
experienced Political Officer upon whom the Mehtar may always
call for advice and assistance, while it is proposed to
appoint three persons, Raja Bahadur Khan, the Governor of
Mastuj, Wazir Inayat Khan and Aksakal Fateh Ali Shah, to give
him help, instruction and advice in the management of his
State and in the laws and customs of the people. Ordinarily
the entire country will be governed in accordance with their
experience and judgment; but nevertheless the Assistant
British Agent, if he thinks it necessary to do so, may, at any
 time, ask the Mehtar to delay action recommended by his three
advisers, until the opinion of the British Agent at Gilgit has
been obtained, whose decision shall be final and
authoritative.

{261}

"The desirability of abolishing traffic in slaves is a matter

to which the Government of India attach much importance, and
that they have lately interested themselves with some success
in procuring the release of Natives of Kashmir and her
dependencies, including Chitralis, who are held in bondage in
Chinese Turkistan. It is in accordance therefore with the
general policy of the Government of India that in Chitral also
all buying and selling of slaves, whether for disposal in the
country or with the intention of sending them abroad, should
be altogether prohibited. Any such selling of slaves is
therefore from this time forward absolutely illegal."

Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications:

Papers by Command, 1896 (C.-8037).

Also in:
C. Lowe,
The Story of Chitral
(Century magazine, volume 55, page 89).

INDIA: A. D. 1895 (April).

Report of the Opium Commission.

"The long-deferred publication of the report of this

commission was made in April, and the report was signed by
eight out of nine members of the commission. The commissioners
declared that it had not been shown to be necessary, or to be
demanded by the people, that the growth of the poppy and the
manufacture of opium in British India should be prohibited.
Such a prohibition, if extended to the protected States, would
 be an unprecedented act of interference on the part of the
paramount Power, and would be sure to be resisted by the
chiefs and their people. The existing treaties with China in
regard to the importation of Indian opium into that country
had been admitted by the Chinese Government to contain all
they desired. The evidence led the commissioners to the
conclusion that the common use of opium in India is moderate,
and its prohibition is strongly opposed by the great mass of
native opinion."

Annual Register, 1895,

pages 337-338.

INDIA: A. D. 1896-1897.
Famine in northwestern and central provinces.

A failure of rains, especially in northwestern and central

India, produced the inevitable consequence of famine, lasting
with awful severity from the spring of 1896 until the autumn
of 1897. In December of the former year there were 561,800
persons employed on relief works which the Indian government
organized. In the following March the number had risen to more
than three millions, and in June it exceeded four millions.
Rain fell in July, and August, and the distress began soon
afterwards to grow less. In addition to the heavy expenditures
of the government, the charitable contributions for the relief
of sufferers from this famine were officially reported to have
amounted to 1,750,000 pounds sterling ($8,750,000).

INDIA: A. D. 1896-1900.
The Bubonic Plague.

See (in this volume)

PLAGUE.

INDIA: A. D. 1897.
Change in the government of Burmah.