National Conferance On Animal Genetics & Breeding

VIIIth Natioanl Conference on Animal Genetics and Breeding, 8-10 March, 2005
Proceedings of
VIII NATIONAL CONFERENCE
ON
ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING
(National Livestock Breeding Policy)
March 8-10, 2005
LEAD PAPERS
CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH ON GOATS

Makhdoom, Farah-281 122 Mathrua (UP) India
by
INDIAN SOCIETY OF ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING
CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 212 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Edited by
Dr. S.K. Singh
Dr. M.K. Singh
Dr. P.K. Rout
Compiled by
Dr. S.K. Singh
V.P. Singh
Published by
Dr. S.K. SINGH
Organizing Secretary
&
Dr. R.P. Misra
Director
Central Institute for Research on Goats

Makhdoom, Farah-281 122 Mathrua (UP) India
Phone: +91-565-2766346, +91-565-2763325 (O)
+91-565-2763334 (R); +91-9897090044 (Mobile)
Website: www.cirg.res.in/isagb
E.mail: isagb@cirg.res.in and isagb@cirg.ernet.in
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Co-sponsored by
SWISS AGENCY FOR DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION SDC
CALPI
Capitalisation of Livestock Programme Experiences India

CONTENTS
LEAD PAPERS
1. CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF INDIAN CATTLE BREEDS 1-12
— S.P.S. AHLAWAT AND P.K. SINGH
2. LIVESTOCK INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDIA –AN APPROACH 13-20
— S.K. SINGH
3. INDIGENOUS CATTLE MILCH BREEDS – THEIR POTENTIAL AND IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES 21-28
— B.K. JOSHI AND AVTAR SINGH
4. BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR SELF-SUSTENANCE OF INDIAN CATTLE 29-37
— R.S. GANDHI AND ARJAVA SHARMA
5. EXPERIENCES OF CROSSBREEDING IN CATTLE IN INDIA 38-49
— G.K. GAUR, R.C. GARG AND KRIPAL SINGH
6. BUFFALO WEALTH AND GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES IN INDIA 50-59
— R.K. SETHI AND S.N. KALA
7. ROLE OF INDIAN BUFFALOES IN THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES WORLD-WIDE 60-66
— S.C. CHOPRA AND B.S. PUNIA
8. BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION OF BHADAWARI BUFFALOES IN UTTAR PRADESH 67-71
— K.C. SHARMA, RAKESH GOEL, M.R. SINGH, SHARAD KUMAR AND H.N. SINGH
9. EVALUATIONS OF DIFFERENT GOAT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN INDIA AND BREEDING STRATEGY FOR
IMPROVEMENT 72-79
— S.K. SINGH, M.K. SINGH AND B. RAI
10. STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF GOATS IN INDIA 80-90
— M.K. SINGH, S.K. SINGH AND B. RAI
11. APPROACHES FOR ENHANCING GOAT PRODUCTIVITY IN INDIA 91-101
— R. ROY, A. MANDAL AND P. K. ROUT
12. CROSS BREEDING IN SHEEP: EXPERIENCE IN INDIA 102-113
— A.L. ARORA AND A.K. MISHRA
13. BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR SHEEP IN TAMIL NADU 114-118
— P.KANAKARAJ AND S.M.K.KARTHICKEYAN
14. SHEEP AND RABBIT BREEDING FOR WOOL AND MEAT PRODUCTION IN NORTH TEMPERATE HILLS OF INDIA 119-130
— K.S. RISAM AND R.S. BHATT
15. CONSERVATION OF INDIGENOUS POULTRY BREEDS 131-135
— B.P. SINGH AND B. SINGH
16. EQUINE RESOURCES IN INDIA AND STRATEGY FOR THEIR CONSERVATION 136-142
— M.K. SINGH AND M.P. YADAV
17. GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF MITHUN (BOS FRONTALIS) IN INDIA – AN EVALUATION AND FUTURE BREEDING
POLICY 143-148
— CHANDAN RAJKHOWA
18. BREEDING AND MANAGEMENTAL ASPECTS OF MITHUN IN NORTH EAST HILL REGION OF INDIA 149-152
— SAKET BHUSAN, C. RAJKHOWA AND K.M. BUJARBARUAH
19. UTILITY OF YAK (POEPHAGUS GRUNNIENS. L) AS A PACK ANIMAL 153-156
— D.N. DAS AND A. CHATTERJEE
20. GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF YAK IN INDIA- AN EVALUATION AND BREEDING POLICY 157-163
— K.P. RAMESHA AND M.BHATTACHARYA
21. GENOMICS FOR HIGH LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY: THE BOVINE GENOME PROJECT 164-166
— P.K. ROUT, A. MANDAL AND R.ROY
22. GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES FOR CAMEL IN INDIA: PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND
BREEDING POLICY 167-174
— M.S.SAHANI AND S.C.MEHTA
23. EQUINE WEALTH OF INDIA: PRESENT STATUS OF SELECTION AND EVALUATION PROGRAMMES FOR EQUINES 175-178
— S.K. DWIVEDI
24. GENETIC ENGINEERING OF MILK: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS 179-183
— BONY DE KUMAR AND SATISH KUMAR

25. FUTURE OF DRAFT BREEDS OF LIVESTOCK IN INDIA 184-189
— R.C. UPADHYAY AND S.V. SINGH
26. BREEDING POLICY FOR CATTLE AND BUFFALOES IN SOUTHERN INDIA 190-198
— M.G.GOVINDAIAH
27. LIVESTOCK CENSUS IN INDIA 199-202
— R.S.KHATRI, J.P.GOYAL AND H.V.L.BATHLA
28. ROLE OF CLONING AND TRANSGENESIS IN ANIMAL BREEDING 203-211
— K. P. AGRAWAL

ISAGB /1
CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF INDIAN CATTLE BREEDS

S.P.S. AHLAWAT AND P.K. SINGH
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal
The cattle biodiversity in India constitutes 30 well-defined breeds of cattle apart from non-descript
types and some lesser known breeds which constitute around 80% of the total cattle population. Total
population of cattle was 187.38 million as per livestock census of 2003. The total milk production of
India was 85.7 million tonnes during 2001-02 and expected to be 92.23 million tonnes during 2003-
04. The cattle and buffalo account for more than 75 per cent of the total output value of the livestock
sector. Various indigenous breeds of cattle in the country are the result of thousands of years of
selection, evolution and development of the wild species in the process of domestication suiting to the
local agro-climatic conditions. These breeds are now losing ground due to stiffer competition from
other breeds and due to their poor economic viability under the present system of management.
The Indian cattle breeds were developed mainly for agricultural operations therefore, majority of
these breeds belong to draft category (Nagori, Bachaur, Kenkatha, Malvi, Kherigarh, Hallikar,
Amritmahal, Khillari, Bargur, Kangayam, Ponwar, Siri, Gaolao, Krishna Valley etc.). The milk production
of these breeds is very low therefore uneconomical, if kept for milk purpose only. This resulted in
decline of many cattle breeds in the present day production system. The mechanization and
commercialization of agriculture has influenced the utility of these breeds as draft animals. Dairy type
cattle breeds are Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej and Rathi. Cows of these breeds are high milk
producers but bullocks are of poor draft quality. The dual-purpose cattle breeds viz. Hariana, Ongole,
Tharparkar, Krishna Valley, Mewati, Deoni and Gaolao are fairly good milkers and bullocks provide
good draft power.
The cattle breeds of North West region adjoining to Pakistan viz. Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and
Tharparkar have their breeding tract in Pakistan and very few animals are available in the country.
The situation is critical for Sahiwal and Red Sindhi animals, which can be put in category of threatened
breeds. The population of Tharparkar though more than these two breeds but it also calls for
conservation through genetic improvement. Due to the mechanization, the use of bullocks as draft
power has reduced resulting in to steep decline in the population of the most famous dual-purpose
breed of North India, Hariana. Rathi and Nagori breeds also do not seem to have a bright prospect.
Breeds in the central India particularly, Malvi and Nimari have also been exploited by introduction of
crossbreeding and have shown decline in the population.
Dangi, Deoni, Khillar and Gaolao breeds in Maharashtra region and Gir and Kankrej in Gujarat
region have a better population status due to their economic viability. The Red Kandhari strain of
cattle of Maharashtra has also a very small population but it secured due to preference of this breed
as draft animal by the farmers of the area. The Kangayam and Ongole still have a good population
and some improvement programmes are going on. In the last decade two small sized breeds have
been cited namely ‘Punganur’ in Andhra Pradesh and ‘Vechur’ in Kerala, which have a small population

and are in threatened category. The fate of some of the breeds such as Ponwar, Mewati, Kherigarh,
and Bargur cattle needs also detailed characterization and evaluation and breed improvement programs
need to be laid down.
Cattle Population in India: The trend of cattle population in India indicted a decline of 2.8% during
1992-97 and 5.8% during 1997-2003 with increase in buffalo population during same period. This
shows that buffalo is accepted as the choice of animal for milk in India.
Category Population in thousands Percent Percent Increase/

Increase/decrease decrease
1992 1997 2003 1992-97 1997-2003
Crossbred 15215 20099 22631 32.1 12.6
Indigenous 189369 178782 164751 -5.6 -7.85
Total 204584 198881 187382 -2.8 -5.78
As per livestock census 2003, cattle are about 39% of total livestock population in the country
(482776 thousands). Therefore, it is very important to make judicious use of this cattle wealth in
national economy.
Utility of indigenous cattle genetic resources: The primary reason for cattle husbandry in India
has been the draft utility of bullocks for different kind of agricultural operations. As per Singh (1999)
with the modernization of agriculture, the use of mechanical power in agriculture has increased but
draught animal power (DAP) continues to be used on Indian Farms due to small holding and hill
agriculture. More than 55% of total cultivated area is still being managed by using draught animals
against about 20% by tractors. India possessed the finest breeds of draught animals and bullocks of
these breeds are fit for all kinds of agricultural operation. It is unfortunate that the DAP is not getting
due weightage when contribution of cattle to national GDP is estimated. With the increasing demand
of milk, some of the breeds were improved genetically for higher milk production and about 42% of the
total milk of the country comes from cows. Different utility of cattle in India is given below:
1. They produce motive power for agricultural operations in terms of bullock.
2. They produce milk, which supply the essential nutrients to the farmers’ families and cater
the requirement of urban population.
3. It provides considerable job opportunities to the large rural population specially women
and youth.
4. They produce fertilizer in terms of compost from freshly laid dung. The dung is also made
into cakes, sun dried and used as fuel in rural sector.
5. The skin of animals form basic material for tanning industry.
Origin, Distribution and present population status of Indian cattle breeds: The origin,
distribution and present status of Indian cattle breeds have been depicted in the following Table:

Table: Origin, distribution and present status of Indian cattle breeds

SN Breed Category Breeding tract Approximate Reference
population
1 Amritmahal Draft Hassan, Chikmagalur and 25,000 Network Project on
Chitradurga districts of AnGR-2000-2002
Karnataka
2 Bachaur Draft Sitamari and some part of 10,948 Network Project on
Madhubani, Darbhanga AnGR-2000-2002
Samastipur and Muzaffarpur
districts of Bihar
3 Bargur Darft Bargur hills in Bhavani taluk NA
of Erode district of
Tamil Nadu
4 Dangi Darft Nasik and Ahmednagar districts 1,08,197 Network Project on
of Maharastra AnGR-2000-2002
5 Deoni Dual Marathwada region of 1,18,945 Network Project on
Maharashtra State AnGR-1998-2000
6 Gaolao Wardha district of Maharastra NA
7 Gir Milch Gir hills and forest of Kathiawar 9,17,081 Network Project on
comprising Junagarh, Bhavnagar AnGR-1998-2000
and Amreli districts of Gujrat
8 Hallikar Darft Mysore, Mandya, Banglore, NA
Kolar, Tumkur, Hassan and
Chitradurga districts of
Karnataka.
9 Hariana Dual Rohtak, Hisar and Gurgaon NA
districts of the Haryana State.
10 Kangayam Darft Kangayam, Dharapuram, 4,79,200 AnGR of India- Cattle
Perundurai, Erode, Bhavani Nadu.& Buffalo
districts of Tamil
11 Kankrej Milch Southeast Rann of Kutch of NA
Gujrat and Barmar and Jodhpur
districts of Rajsthan
12 Kenkatha Draft Bundelkhand comprising Lalitpur, NA
Hamirpur and Banda districts
of UP
13 Kherigarh Draft Lakhimpur-Khari district of UP. 15,709 NBAGR Pilot project-
2002
14 Khillar Draft Kolapur, Solapur, Sangli and NA
Satara district of Maharastra.

15 Krishna Valley Draft Solapur, Sangli and Satara NA

district of Maharastra
16 Malvi Dual Indor, Ratlam, Mandsaur, 53,700 JNKVV Research
Dewas, Sajapur, Ujjain and Bulletin
Rajgarh districts of MP.and DRS/2002/01
Jhalwar district of Rajsthan
17 Mewati Dual Alwar and Bharatpur districts NA
of Rajsthan and Mathura and
Kosi in western UP.
18 Nagori Draft Nagaur and Jodhpur districts 1.73 Lakhs NBAGR Research
of Rajasthan. Bulletin No. 6- 1997
19 Nimari Draft Narmada velly in M. P. and some 1.10 Lakhs JNKVV Research
also found Jalgaon district of Bulletin DRS/2001/9
Maharastra
20 Ongole Draft Coast from Nellore to 7341 in 60 Network Project on
Vizianagaram, Chittoor, villages under AnGR-1998-2000
Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur, survey
Nalgonda, Mahabubnagar and
Khammam districts of AP.
21 Ponwar Draft Piliphit district of UP 10,667 NBAGR Pilot project-
2002
22 Punganur Draft Chittoor district of Andhra In hundreds
Pradesh only
23 Rathi Milch Bikaner, Ganganagar and NA
Jaisalmer districts of Rajasthan.
24 Red Kandhari Draft Kandhar, Nanded, Latur and 1,40,00 Maharashtra AHD
Parbhani districts of census
Marathwara region
25 Red Sindhi Milch Karachi and Hydrabad districts NA
of Pakistan
26 Sahiwal Milch Fazilka and Abohar towns of NA
Ferozepur districts of Punjab
27 Siri Draft Bhutan, Sikkim and West Bengal 10,000 AHD, Sikkim
28 Tharparkar Dual Thar desert Tharparker district NA
of southeast Sindh in Pakistan
29 Umblachery Draft Coastal plains of Thiruvarur 2.83 Lakhs Network Project on
and Nagapattinam districts AnGR-1998-2000
of Tamilnadu.
30 Vechur Draft Kottayam distric of south Kerala In hundreds only

Some Lesser Known Cattle Breeds are Vatakura and Kasargod (Kerala), Malnad Gidda
(Karnataka), Alambadi, Pulikulam (Tamilnadu), Trinket (A&N Islands), Bengali (WB), Binjharpuri,
Ghumsuri (Orissa), Gangatiri (U.P.& Bihar), Kumauni (Uttranchal), Purnea (Bihar) and Tho Tho in NE
region of the country. Some cattle strains like Frieswal, Karanswiss, Karanfries, Sunandini, Jersind
are also present but in limited number at organized herd.
Evaluation and Cataloguing of Animal Genetic Resources:
A methodology for survey was evolved by developing questionnaires for different species of
livestock and poultry. These questionnaires included information on socio-economic status of the
farmers and observations on individual animals with respect to their morphological, production and
reproduction traits, and also their genetic characterization by using cytogenetic, blood groups and
biochemical markers. The questionnaires have been prepared keeping in view the technical programme
proposed for each species of livestock by FAO. The questionnaires have been appropriately modified
for use under Indian conditions. The formats have also been evolved so that the information collected
through surveys could be computerized and used for developing descriptors for each species of
livestock. The genetic characterization is being undertaken by using 25 FAO recommended
microsatellite markers. The status of molecular and Physical characterization of cattle breed is given
below:
Sl. No. Breed Physical characterization Molecular characterization
1 Punganur Detailed Study under NATP (MM) Project Completed
2 Hariana Pilot study Completed
3 Nagori Pilot study -
4 Sahiwal Pilot study Completed
5 Tharparkar Pilot study Completed
6 Siri Pilot study -
7 Kangayam Detailed Study under Ad-hoc project ICAR Completed
8 Deoni Detailed Study under NWP Completed
9 Umblachery Detailed Study under NWP Completed
10 Vechur Detailed Study under NATP Project -
11 Gir Detailed Study under NWP Completed
12 Ongole Detailed Study under NWP Completed
13 Nimari Detailed Study under Ad-hoc ICAR -
14 Malvi Detailed Study under Ad-hoc ICAR -
15 Red Kandhari Pilot study Completed
16 Rathi Pilot study Completed
17 Gaolao Detailed Study under NWP ongoing -
18 Khillar Detailed Study under NWP ongoing -
19 Hallikar Pilot study -

20 Ponwar Pilot study Completed

21 Kherigarh Pilot study Completed
22 Kenkatha Pilot study -
23 Mewati Pilot study -
24 Amritmahal Detailed Study under NWP Completed
25 Bachaur Detailed Study under NWP -
26 Kankrej Pilot study Completed
27 Dangi Detailed Study under NWP -
28 Bargur - -
29 Krishna Valley - -
30 Red Sindhi - -
NWP: Network Project on AnGR
Breeding policy for genetic improvement of cattle:
The breeding policy is a programme document for genetic improvement of livestock wealth of
the area. It mainly depends on the livestock wealth, their production level and utility, infrastructure
and resources available. It should focus on judicious use of input per unit of output for attaining
sustainable animal production and management. The genetic improvement programmes should be
based on perception and wishes and needs of farmers, which would enhance acceptability and facilitate
easy implementation of the policies. In the normal course a breeding policy shall be part of the overall
developmental objectives and livestock production system.
The breeding policies should be different for the different species of livestock. Livestock is a
state sector activity. Thus states had to evolve their own breeding policies; of course in tune with the
overall guidelines prescribed by Govt. of India. States who have made programme according to the
availability of resources made a good progress. For many states the breeding policy was a document
prepared with lot of minute details but little planning on its operational feasibility. Therefore, the
success in implementing these policies varied from state to state.
A national policy for cattle and buffalo breeding was postulated as early as in 1962 and was
reviewed and revised in accordance with the changing needs and availability of newer technologies.
As on date the national breeding policy for cattle and buffalo is selective breeding of Indian breeds of
cattle for milk production and draft; selective breeding of the major buffalo breeds for milk; grading up
of the nondescript and minor breeds of buffaloes by Murrah; cross breeding of non descript cattle
with exotic dairy breeds Jersey and H.F.- limiting the level of exotic inheritance to around 50%.
A number of studies have been carried out to analyze the performance of crossbreds. Studies
have shown that age at first calving in crossbreds (26-42 months) is much lower than that in some of
well-known indigenous breeds (36-52 months). Average lactation yield in crossbreds varied from
1139 to 4039 kg. Vs. 1438-2326 kg in breeds of Indian cattle having good potential for milk production
like Gir, Sahiwal, Rathi, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Kankrej. Cows producing good quality of milk have

been recorded under Central Head Registration Scheme for breeds like Gir (3038-3263 kg), Ongole
(2000-2544 kg.) and Hariana (1671-4015 kg.). This indicates that there exists genetic potential for
high milk production in indigenous breeds but this needs to be exploited. The differences in milk
production of crossbreds and indigenous milch breeds do not seem to be substantial considering the
fact that not much selection has gone into the improvement of indigenous breeds for milk yield.
Further the performance of crossbreds deteriorates from F1 to F2 and further generations.
There is nothing wrong with crossbreeding as such but it needs to be implemented with caution.
The need to utilize between-breed genetic differences via crossbreeding (where it is appropriate) is
fully appreciated but there is an urgent need to give greater emphasis to the locally adapted animal
genetic resources. Indigenous breeds survive, produce and reproduce in the environmental conditions
under which they have developed. Crossbreds can produce more milk but they need more and better
feed, and resources to exploit the potential. There is not going to be any major change in the production
system-involving medium to low input in foreseeable future. Hence, under these conditions, locally
adapted indigenous breeds should be favoured. Further, relative variability amongst animals for the
traits of interest is often very much higher in the locally adapted breeds. This between animal variability
can be exploited for higher genetic gains through well planned and executed breeding programmes.
Breeding policy should be framed as
l Recognized breeds of Indian cattle especially milch breeds should be left out of
crossbreeding programme to be improved through selective breeding only. These breeds
should be used to upgrade local cattle in areas having low availability of feed, fodder and
other resources.
l Crossbreeding should be implemented only in potential areas having availability of quality

feeds at relatively low prices, demand for cow milk, low demand for draught animals and
accessibility to veterinary facilities. Only the non-descript or low producing animals should
be bred through crossbreeding.
Artificial Insemination: Artificial insemination is a tool to implement breeding policy in cattle and
buffaloes in India. India has the world’s largest A.I. infrastructure consisting 73 frozen semen stations
keeping around 2500 bulls and having capacity to produce 36 million doses of frozen semen annually.
The total AI done in the country is something around 27 million during 1999-2000. AI for cattle and
buffalo is one of the most important services provided by State Govt. Different AI centers and mobile
units are also working in the country by milk cooperatives and NGOs. The growth in AI is steady,
however the AI coverage on a national level is around 12% and in many parts of the country is far
from satisfactory. The Govt. of India has proposed to increase the coverage of AI from the present 12
to 40 percent in the coming 10 years. State Governments have to ensure the quality of semen from
collection to insemination so as to develop the faith of farmers in AI programme. Further, the semen of
extraordinary bulls/progeny tested bulls should be used to get good results in succeeding generations.
In India, so far preserved frozen semen of exotic breeds of cattle and only the important breeds of
cattle is available. The following breeds of cattle has been taken up under AI programme so far:

Amritmahal, Deoni, Gir, Hallikar, Hariana, Kangayam, Kanjkrej, Khillari, Malvi, Nagori, Ongole,
Rathi, Red kandhari, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparkar and Umblacherry.
Present genetic improvement programme for cattle and buffalo in India:
A new comprehensive scheme, National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding (NPCBB) has been
formulated with following innovations over previous programme:
1. Integration of states’ breeding policies with breeding programmes for better implementation
of policy.

2. Developing synergies of all major players including ICAR-SAU system, NGOs and Gaushalas.
3. Institutional reforms in organizations undertaking cattle and buffalo breeding activities and
more autonomy to implementing agencies in the states.
4. Promoting use of registered quality bulls for breeding.
5. Increased use of indigenous breeds for grading up non descript stock.
6. Promoting breed organizations.
7. Improving quality and coverage of AI through mobile AI services.
8. Programmes for areas covered under natural service and replacement of inferior bulls.
Conservation of Cattle Genetic Resources:
The gigantic task of conservation of cattle genetic resources can be taken up by in situ and ex
situ methodologies. The Ex situ conservation involves the conservation of genetic material in vivo, but
out side its natural habitat and in vitro including the cryo-conservation of semen, oocytes, embryos,
cells or tissues. The cryo storage of living cells for longer duration became possible since last 50
years with the discovery of cryo-protective agents. Sperms and Embryos of most of the domestic
livestock species especially cattle and buffaloes can now easily be cryo-preserved in liquid nitrogen
at –1960C. These techniques can be used for the conservation of endangered bovine genetic resources
ex situ e.g. deep freezing of sperms , oocytes, embryos, storage of DNA templates and cell lines. The
facilities for deep freezing of semen is quite common through out the country. The standard technique
of freezing, storing and thawing of semen is well-documented for cattle and buffaloes. Smith (1984)
estimated that 25 sires per breed are essential to prevent inbreeding when the males are used
rotationally on each other’s daughters. However, in case of recreation of lost breed it would require 8-
10 generations, as it contribute only haploid set of genome to the population. Further, oocytes also
need to be cryo-preserved and these can be utilized with the refinement of in-vitro fertilization technique.
The other genetic material like embryos and DNA templates can also be cryo-preserved.
Embryo storage is important from the point of view that all the genetic information is stored in
diploid zygote. However, it is still relatively expensive to obtain embryos and their cryopreservation
technique needs further refinement for economical use. The major problem with embryo
cryopreservation is the cost factor. Brem (1988) taking various parameters into account has estimated
the number of frozen embryos needed for preservation of breed to be nearly 500 per breed. Brem
(1988) estimated the number of frozen embryos required for preservation of breed in cattle as under:
Survival Rate of Embryos Pregnancy rates
20 30 40 50 60
50 616 411 308 247 206
60 513 342 257 206 171
70 440 293 220 176 147

80 385 257 193 154 129

90 343 228 171 137 114
Some of the government and private institutions have facilities for the multiple ovulation, embryo
collection and transfer in cattle and buffaloes. Embryo collection, culture and cryopreservation are
very expensive. The limited resources in terms of facilities and trained manpower can be utilized for
the ex situ conservation of endangered breeds of livestock. However, a priority list of rare breeds
must be prepared depending upon its current status and population trends. The breed societies can
play a significant role in ex situ conservation also.
Somatic Cell: The recent results of Wilmut et al. (1997) have been suggested that in future it may be
possible to produce a live animal from stored somatic cells. This possibility is very important since the
protocols for collecting samples of somatic cells are less demanding and inexpensive in comparison
for collecting spermatozoa and embryos. From recent production of Amy and many other calves from
frozen and thawed skin fibroblasts from adult animals (a top milk producing Holstein cow in USA),
made it further clear that these samples can be very effective in producing live animals at any time.
Therefore, the use of somatic cells for conservation and production of live animals from them as and
when desired, is an achievable target. This approach has enormous potential and scientific progress
made in this direction needs to be monitored globally.
DNA: Cryogenic storage of DNA is another method of preservation of genetic material. It has several
advantages over the live cells, avoiding the complication of spreading of disease while its transportation.
Within and across different countries the storage of uncatalogued DNA is already possible but the
genome maps of different farm species are not yet available which may prevent it from becoming the
normal method of preservation at present. Serious efforts are not being made in several laboratories
all over the world for mapping of genes in livestock species. Nevertheless, in planning for a long-term
preservation of endangered breeds, the prospects of DNA storage must be taken very seriously.
Keeping the above points in view, there is a need to establish a National Gene Bank along with
several Regional gene Banks for conservation of prestigious cattle genetic resources of the country.
The breeds on which ex-situ conservation programme in going on include Rathi, Nagori and Kangayam
under Network Project on AnGR.
Data recording system, Data evaluation: The recording of animals under field conditions may
play an important role for formulating the genetic improvement and other livestock development
programmes. In India the performance recording of animals were mainly done at organized Livestock
Farms under government and non-government sectors. In the recent past, emphasis has been given
on recording of data for the animals kept under field conditions so as make more meaningful genetic
improvement programmes. The agencies involved in such work include Central Herd Registration
Scheme (CHRS) by GOI, NDDB, KLDB, NDRI, BAIF, NBAGR, PAU etc. The field performance recording
conducted through systematic survey under the guidance of NBAGR was aimed to evaluate the
performance of different cattle breeds in their home tracts. Under CHRS government of India has

established CHRS units at Rohtak (Haryana), Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Ongole
(A.P.). The breeds included under CHRS are Hariana, Gir, Kankrej, Tharparkar, Rathi and Ongole
cattle.
Some of the records are important for formulating any Livestock improvement Strategy. These
include:
Breeding Records- Animal number; Sire & Dam number; Date of Birth, first service, first calving
and subsequent calving; Date of first ejaculation and service in males; information about AI, pregnancy,
abnormal pregnancy, normal birth, sex and weight of calf etc.
Health records- information about sickness and treatment, Prophylaxis measures against diseases
like vaccination, deworming etc. The diseases of mammary system and reproductive system needs
special mention.
Production records- Milk production in the lactation, lactation length, peak yield, milk constituents
like SNF, Fat, and Protein etc. should be recorded on monthly interval.
The records generated under field conditions should be compiled and analyzed by the agency
involved in such work.
Recommendations:
1. Accurate breed wise census of all the cattle breeds and lesser-known breeds should be
carried out by the department of Animal Husbandry.
2. A Breed Registration Authority should be constituted at national level so as to register all
livestock and poultry breeds.
3. The performance recording of field animals along with breeding and health parameters
recording may be planned with the involvement of Government and non-government
agencies. The data and information collected from the farmers must be accurate and
properly documented for future use.
4. Every State must develop its livestock breeding policy, review and revise the same
periodically. The livestock policies and programmes to be adopted by State should be
developed by a group of experts and thoroughly discussed with all stakeholders before its
release as government order. Based on State breeding policy, species and breed wise
breeding schemes, breeding plans and breeding operations must be framed and
implemented.
5. The genetic improvement and conservation programmes should be formulated and
implemented. Immediate action is needed for endangered breeds from respective state
government.
6. Recognized breeds of Indian cattle especially milch breeds should be left out of
crossbreeding programme to be improved through selective breeding only. These breeds
should be used to upgrade local cattle in areas having low availability of feed, fodder and

other resources. Crossbreeding should be implemented only in potential areas having

availability of quality feeds at relatively low prices, demand for cow milk, low demand for
draught animals and accessibility to veterinary facilities. Only the non-descript animals
should be bred through crossbreeding.
References:
Brem G. 1988. Ex situ Kryokonservierung von Genome and Gene gefahrdeter Rinderrassen(fide Hudges J.
1990. Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources in Developing Countries. Genetic Conservation of
Domestic Livestock. (Ed.) Lawrence Alderson. CAB International, England pp 128-45).
Singh, G. 1999. Draught animal energy research in India. Proceedings of the workshop of Animal Traction
th
Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) held 20-24 September 1999, South Africa 344p.
Smith C.1984. Genetic aspects of conservation in farm animals. Livestock Production Science 11:37-48.
Wilmut I., Schnieke A.E., McWhir J., Kind A.J. and Campbell K.H. (1997). Viable offspring derived from fetal
and adult mammalian cell. Nature, 385: 810-813.

ISAGB /02
LIVESTOCK INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDIA AN APPROACH

S.K. SINGH
Senior Scientist and Incharge Agriculture Research Information System Cell,
CIRG, Makhdoom, Mathura, 281122 India
The animal evaluation is a continuous process in Livestock Breeding Programmes. In rural

livestock farming systems, the farmers do not record production data. This is, in spite of fact that
above 90 percent rural based farmers are maintaining livestock. In such situations, animal evaluation
for genetic worth becomes very difficult. On other hand, at organized and Institutional farms, data is
generated on small number of animals. Estimating precise genetic and phenotypic parameters from
such flock is most often not possible as they lack computational requirement and hypothesis of
experimental design. In most of the farms, data is recorded on hard copy and then it is posted to herd
registers for compilation, recoding and feeding in computer for analysis. This is often not a regular
process even in many institutional farms. Very few breeding programmes in India evaluate the sire/
animal for its genetic worth while the same in the stage of production. This is due to lack of information
on electronic form at and for lack of a proper animal evaluation system. The need of time is to develop
proper animal evaluation system while the same is in the stage of production. Livestock Information
Management System (LIMS) species/breed wise can do this. This is high time when serious debate
must be initiated before adopting a electronic model for Livestock Information Management System.
The LIMS should have an inbuilt facility for on line data recording, update, compilation, and report
generation, etc. at National and State level for decision support system. Very recently, the BSNL has
announced it Broad Band Internet service in most districts of India. This may help in developing a
useful network for LIMS across the territories. Apart from Hardware component, the most costly and
recurring nature expenditure of LIMS is software. The life of commercial software is approximately
three years. This makes the use of LIMS very expensive in long run as heavy funds on software
update would be required every after 3 years for system sustainability. The Open Source Software /
Free Software (OSS/FS) consorium has come up with strong Software package base which can be
used effectively with little cost, high precision, speed and reliability. Use of OSS/FS can reduce the
cost of establishment by 90 percent. The model proposed requires a dedicated hub at central location
for each cattle/buffaloes breed. This hub should have a high power server, database software and
online internet/ intranet connectivity, with a dedicated DNS name and an IP address. Then each sub
center should have PC having broadband Internet connectivity. Following Indian Railway Reservation
System as a role model these centers then can connect to central hub for data recording, updating
and retrieval. The Linux Operating System, MySQL, PHP, COBA are some of the OSS/FS softwares
which can effectively be used for LIMS. Most of the analytical packages i.e. DFREMI, MTDFREML,
REML ASREML, VCE are available on Linux platform making this OS as most suitable for animal
breeding data management system. Thus, it is high time that State Livestock Development Boards
should think seriously to have a LIMS, which should be cost effective, efficient, user friendly and
secure so as to know the livestock wealth they are aiming to improve upon and amount of improvement

obtained over generations.
Introduction
The systematic data recording for Livestock in India exists only in Institutional, Government,
Dairy Co-Operatives and few Farms owned by govt. institutions and elite group of farmers. This too
is limited to large ruminant species i.e. cattle and Buffaloes. Only few organized farms are found for
small ruminant in India. The fact remains that our country has one of the highest populations for most
of the livestock species, breeds available within the species are also very large when compared to
European and American continent and is highest milk producer in the world. Other alarming fact is
that systematic production records and heard registers are not prepared for approx 90% of cattle,
buffaloes and is practically do not exist for other species or limited to few breeding farms.
The USA and Canada joined hands and clubbed data on Holstein cows to increase the precision
in estimation of genetic variances and co-variances so as to evaluate higher number of bulls (Powell
and Norman, 1998) for BLUP. Contrary to this data being recorded from Indian Livestock farming
system are reducing by number as the flock strength of most of the institutional farms are decreasing
or low because of cost involved in management, administrative reasons and shifting priorities, etc.
This makes the estimation of breeding value less precisely as the sufficient numbers of records
required as per hypothesis of statistical technique used in evaluations are often not fulfilled. Further,
with few exceptions like CHRS, Kerala State, Meshnana Diary Federation Gujrat etc field recording
system in India do not exist or inadequate (Rao and Das 2005). Creation of State Livestock
Development Boards might help in establishing sustainable animal identification and performance
recording system in the Country.
Present Status
In numerous presentations at National Symposium on “Domestic Animal Diversity: Status,

Opportunities and challenges” held at NBAGR, Karnal between Feb, 10-11 and during National Seminar
on ”Field Progeny Testing in Dairy Animals Methodology, Constraints and Solution” IVRI Bareilly Feb.
24-25, 2005 various scientists and livestock development agencies repeatedly emphasized about the
difficulties and constraint on field data recording in India. The Kerala livestock Developing Board
observed that to get fifty daughters up to first lactation stage from a bull they had to do 1500 A.I.,
Similarly, Mehsana Project observed that for the same number of progenies they required approximately
2500 AI. Considering 40% conception rate from AI as it is being claimed and 10% calf mortality, only
300 AI services are theatrically required (Table 1) to produce 50 heifers. However, such large number
of AI required to produce 50 heifers per bull in field condition clearly indicates that system requires
major redesigning and new technological tools are to be applied to enhance the efficiency of each
step involved in Animal identification and data recording.
This much loss in progeny information affects the programme in following manner.
l Increased cost of data recording system
l Require more space, thereby infrastructure, manpower etc
l Time in estimation of bull Breeding Value increase.

l This reduces the genetic gain over a time period.
Table 1: Loss in data from heifers due to migration, sale and change of ownership in
project Animals
Sr.No. Place Number of AI required Number of Actual Percent loss in

to get performance on Progenies expected Progeny Information
50 heifers up to first theoretically with due to migration sale
lactation age same numbers of etc .
AI as indicatedion
previous column
1. Kerla State* 1500 255 80
2. Mehsana Project 2500 425 80
Electronic Identification System
The Australia adopted Livestock identification system called ALIS during 2004-2005 in new
NSW province with the goal to tag calves born by 30th June,2005 and from July 1 they aim to identify all
cattle of NSW provinces by ALIS electronic device. Irish Cattle Breeding Society started national data
bank during 1998 ( Wickman 2002). The US started animal identification plan for Sheep species
during 2004. The electronic device tagged in to the ear had animal identification number, which was
based on postal ZIP address. They planed to tag 1 million sheep, lamb out of 4 millions born every
year.
To automatic data recording in Swine, Kevin Maher (1994) described National ID and Electronic
Information Systems, which included pocket size cards to record weekly events such as the breeding,
furrowing, and weaning of a sow and her litter. He used an electronic transporter, which is attached to
an animal’s ear. This facilitated use of hand held computer scanner to initially down load the data in
one go. The European community (EC) started electric identification using implantable transponders
under FEOGA Project on Farm Animals and AIR 2304 research Project “
Coupling Active and Passive Telemetric Data Collection for Monitoring,
Control and Management of Animal Production at Farm and Sectorial
Level”. The result obtained under the project were encouraging and
suggested successful use of EID system for animal identification system.
However, they came out with certain standards. Canada started NLIS with
funds of 20 millions dollar to identify 1 million cattle. This indicate the
importance of animal identification system and livestock conservation
system and genetic improvement programmes world over
Our country lags behind in keeping the animal inventory system by

centuries but we should not miss bus as the available electronic
identification modules, devices which can be tagged into the year or put

subcutaneous are by minor surgery. Many of the developed countries have evolved electronic livestock
identification system as per their requirement, climate and farming system. This is to be done on
priority to conserve the Livestock Biodiversity, which is depleting fast.
India being a major world power in the field of human-ware, soft ware and Livestock Biodiversity
should take the challenge by head and device its own Animal Identification and Performance Recording
Modules (AIPRM) with the help of IIT’s, IIM’s, IIIT’s and Animal Science Institutions. We have capability,
capacity to create such electronic device. The Simputer (http://www.simputer.org) deigned by Indian
Scientist’s can be used along with such modules to convert the dream of identifying the livestock
wealth of India and also recording the performance into reality in cost effective manner.
The Simputer (picture from http://www.simputer.org)
Table 2: Number of records available from two organized farms
Breed/ Period Sires Dams Lactation Growth

Species Used Available Records* Records
Sahiwal, UP 1955-2001 67 882 4400 —

Livestock farm
Chack Ganjaria
Barbari Goat farm 1983-2004 280 1044 3028 3626 (up to 9m

CIRG, Makhdoom, of age)
Mathura
*Including Purchased animals
The data available from organized/institutional farms are less in magnitude (Table 2) The Sahiwal
cattle maintained at Chack Gajaria Farm Lucknow had 882 dams with first lactation record between
1955-2001. These were progenies of by 67 sires. It is extremely difficult for any statistical tool to
predict the breeding value on such a small data spread over long period of time. The variance due to
environment might be high, in such situations selection is often done on type traits of animals which is
not a good method for predicting individual’s genetic merit. Thus, genetic progress in most livestock
species in India could not be measured precisely even in organized farms.
The other fact remains that the milk, meat and fibre production of the country is increasing but
the animals related to a particulars breed in most species are decreasing. This resulted into a population
which is non descript in nature therefore, cannot be classified as a breed, making any breeding and
any conservation policy difficult. The genetic progress in country is measured only when systematic
data recording on production traits and pedigree is maintained, breed-wise. Approximately 30% animals
should be covered under Indian conditions for data recording, then only sufficient information will be
available for chalking out policy and managemental practices.
Animal Identification and Data recording System:

Availability of performance and pedigree records of animals enable the Planners, Dairy Farm

Managers to chalk out management strategies and policy for future development. This provides an
opportunity to estimate feed and fodder requirement at the time it is produced. While the animal
identification and performance recording started during late 19th Century ( Groeneveld 2003,Rao and
Das, 2005) our country lacks systematic data recording system. Although, the realization to this effect
is there among the scientists, planners, livestock owners but the ground realities remains that more
than 90 percent livestock remains unidentified and die unrecorded under the rural livestock farming
systems the low priority as given to pedigree management by state governments poor infrastructure
tune, poverty and low economics conditions of the farmers are same other factors responsible for
lack of animal identification and data recording system in our country.
National Electronic ID Classification System:
Before adopting any animal identification system it is necessary to review the present classification
system being following by different
departments and other agencies. Few systems
have been given in table –3. Out of systems
available I feel that the present postal index
number (PIN) and the district identification
number followed by transport department
should be used together for better
identification system. A prototype of an
Fig. 1: Prototype of an electronic ID
electronic ID is depicted in figure 1. Since, this
is electronic system it is recommended to use Global Positioning System (GPS) alongwith present
EID.
Table 3: Identification System being followed by Different Department.
Sl. No. Department Classification System

1. Post & Telegraph, Govt.of India PIN (Postal Index Number)
2. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited STD code
3. Income Tax & Passport Department. District level codes for tax transection etc.
4. Transport District level unique identification number
5. GIS Latitude and longitude
Analytical Software:
After all the basic objective of data collection and compilation is to generate information on
animals to estimate genetic potential, trace pedigree, make inventory of livestock and conserve
genetic resources of slaughter rate, expenditure etc. for these are required, as saved analytical
software and operating system.
With the invention of Internet the Software for Animal Breeding data are available readily. Some
are commercially available but few important follows GNU GPL License. Which can be downloaded

freely. A list of Animal Breeding software is shown in web site. Many others can be downloaded from
Internet. (http://www.math.usu.edu/~vukasino/ANSCI/soft_anbr.htm, http://animalregister.net http://
www.zod.wau.nl/abg/hs/links/software.html) The authors has also developed ‘Brendex’ and ‘Sindex’
computer programs which is used to estimate selection indices and available on request via Internet.
I have been using software from GNU Community since 1996 and find them quite useful, therefore,
propose use of software form FSF/FS foundation (www.fsf.org) following GPL License (www.gnu.org).
The Linux Operating system from this group has excellent support base and utility software. This
operating system along with other software must form the basis for Indian Animal Identification and
Production Recording System. (AIPRS) for Indian National Livestock Information System.
National Network Plan and Infrasturcture
A detailed lay out of National Network and Infrastructure is shown in figure 2. The use of Linux
operating system MYSQL RDBMS will reduce the cost of setting up Network Infrastructure by about

70% . This is due to the facts that the Head Quarter of ICAR and Department of Animal Husbandry
and Dairying (Govt. of India) are equipped with high speed Internet, therefore, same can be used
without extra cost. The same is true for Animal Husbandry Department of State Govt. However, Hardware
infrastructure may be required in District and Block level centers.
The broadband internet service which is under rapid development may be used alongwith lease
line connectivity to inter connect block⇔district⇔state⇔national servers/computer. Mirroring
software can be used to exchange the data.
Table 3: Hardware and Software Requirements for AIPRS

S.N. Particulars Hardware Software Work to be
(major Components) performed
1. Country Computer Quad Xeon or AMD Linux Operating System, National data base server.
Server for Animal Athelon Based (64 Bit) including RDBMS Server email server, web server.
Identification and Server Mother board, (MySql or PostGress And national Hub for
Production Recording 4 GB RAM, 72*6 RAID SQL Server), Email AIPRS.
System. (AIPRS 5 based Ultra 320 SCSI Server (Sendmail or
Hard Disk, Qmail), Web server
Gigabit Ethernet cards, ( Apache), Mailing list
DVD Writer, etc. server. PHP, CORBA,
(Approx Cost Rs. Perl etc. (free)
4 lakhs)
2. State Computer Dual Xeon or AMD Linux Operating System, State data base server.
Server for Animal Athelon Based (64 Bit) including RDBMS Server
Identification and Server Mother board, (MySql or PostGress SQL
Production 2 GB RAM, 72*3 RAID Server), Email Server
Recording system. 5 based Ultra 320 SCSI (Sendmail or Qail), Web
(AIPRS) Hard Disk Drivers, server ( Apache), Mailing
Gigabit Ethernet cards, list server. PHP, CORBA,
DVD Writer, etc. Perl etc. (Free)
(Approx Cost Rs. 2 lakhs)
3. Equipment for Router, Leased line — To link Country server with
leased line Modem (1.50 lahs) intranet and internet.
Connectivity
4. Leased Line 65 * 8 channel Leased — To link Country server with

(National) line chanel
(available 4 lakhs)/ year intranet and internet.
5. PC for testing etc 6 numbers Approx For data testing and

cost 2 lakhs general work
6. UPS 5 KVA 3 hours For National and State Power supply

Battery backup servers
The each animal of livestock species i.e. cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo etc will have one FPC be
put code seen by software operation. This information can be used for sing a scanner . The local data
collector can see the performance from owner on monthly basis.
Important References
A model A Model for Data Collection and Reporting for Cow/Calf and Feedlot. File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat
- http://extension.usu.edu/files/factsheets/beef021.pdf
Animal Identification: The U.S. animal Identification Plan Sheep Species Working Group Report May 4, 2004.
EZ-ID Animal Identification Systems RFID (Radio Frequency Identification Devices), http://www.ezidavid.com/
default.html
Groeneveld Eildert, (2003). An adaptable platform independent information system in animal production:
Framework and generic database structure. Livestock Production Science (2003)
House of Commons, (2003). Identifying and Tracking Livestock in England. Report by the comptroller and
Auditor General HC 1144 Session, 12 November, 2003.
International Committee for Animal Recording. Testing and approval of devices used in animal identification.
International agreement on Recording Practices, section 1.1 Appendix B.
Maher, Kevin (1994) Database management: national ID and Electronic Information Systems. Swine Information
Services Pig Improvement company , Inc.LCI National Livestock Identification Symposium.
New South Wales government’s Portal, (2005). National Livestock Identification system (NLIS) http://
www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/19968.
NLIS animal identification devices and applicators. Part C NLIS.
Powell ,R.L., and Norman, H.D., ( 1998) Use of Multinational Data to Improve National Evaluations of Holstein
Bulls. A General of Dairy Science81:2257-2263.
Rao, M.K.., and Das, D.N., (2005). Field Recording Scheme For Diary Animals In India. In Proceedings of
National symposium on Domestic Animal Diversity: Status, Opportunities and challenges 10-11 February,
2005 NDRI, Karnal. Page- 13-18.
Senator Harris, ( Queenslands,) 2004, Electronic Livestock Identification System. A Senate Hansard Question
(cited from Internet).
Tonsor G.T., and Schroeder, T.C.,(2004). Australia’s Livestock Identification systems: Implications for United
States Progreammes. Department of Agricultural Economics, Kansas State University, funded by
assistance from USDA National Needs Graduate Fellowships Grant, 2002-38420-11712.
Wickman Brian,(2002). Cattle Breeding Database – Irish Cattle Breeding Federation (ICBF). www.nal.usda.gov.
ZoBell, Date; Coe Michael, and Boman, Breti (2005). A Model for Data Collection and Reporting for Cow/Calf
and Feedlot Operations. Utah State University. AG/Beef/ 2005-02.

ISAGB /3
INDIGENOUS CATTLE MILCH BREEDS THEIR POTENTIAL AND IMPROVEMENT

PROGRAMMES
B.K. JOSHI AND AVTAR SINGH
Dairy Cattle Breeding Division, National Dairy Research Institute, KARNAL – 132001
In India, there are 30 well-defined cattle breeds classified as milch, draft and dual purpose and
are usually named after area, location and habitat they occupy. These breeds constitute only one fifth
of the total cattle population in the country and remaining of the cattle belong to non-descript type.
The existing indigenous cattle breeds have been evolved over the centuries through natural selection
for adoption to harsh and poor management conditions in different ecological niches. Thus the evolved
breeds are well adapted to harsh climate, resistant to common tropical diseases and can subsist on
poor quality crop residual roughages, grasses and scanty drinking water. The breed improvement
programmes undertaken so far were restricted only to few well-known dairy or dual-purpose indigenous
cattle breeds maintained on organized herds with more emphasis on milk production. Most of these
organized farms established were intended to produce superior breeding bulls for cattle development
activities, but many of these breeding farms lacked the appropriate breeding objectives/ targets with
a well laid down breeding policy. As a result of performance recording on these organized farms,
quite a sizable breeding data particularly on milk production and reproduction performance on dairy
type and few dual type cattle breeds have been generated and utilized for estimation of various
genetic parameters. However, due to sporadic and limited data in the unplanned studies on different
small sized herds, the usefulness of these genetic parameters remained very limited. The practical
utilization of these programmes particularly on indigenous cattle breeds could hardly be extended to
farmers’ herds.
POPULATION DYNAMICS
The total cattle population is 187.4 millions (17th All India Livestock Census, 2003) which constitutes
nearly 15% of the world’s total cattle population with annual growth rate rapidly climbing down to –
0.76%(over 1992) from 0.16% (over 1977). Total number of indigenous and crossbred cattle in 2003
was 164.8 and 22.6 million respectively. The annual growth rate of indigenous and crossbred cattle
was –1.18 and 4.43 per cent respectively during 1992-2003. However, a decline of around 17.2
million was observed in total cattle population during 1992-2003.
The major annual decline in indigenous cattle population was noticed in Kerala (-6.88%), Punjab
(-5.48%), Haryana (-3.96%), Tamil Nadu (-2.32%), Madhya Pradesh (-3.19%), Karnatka (-3.34%),
Maharashtra (-1.33%), Uttar Pradesh (-1.52%) and Rajasthan (-0.93%). There was a negligible annual
increase (0.15%) in indigenous cattle during 1992-2003. The crossbred cattle, however registered
an increase at the rate of 4.43% during 1992-2003. There have been radical changes within cattle
population over the last two decades indicating a shift in the priority of farming community from bullock
production to milch animals. Between 1992 and 2003, the number of indigenous cattle declined sharply
by about 25 millions, however there has been phenomenal growth in the crossbred cattle population.

Hitherto, quinquennial livestock censuses have been conducted species-wise without identification of
the breeds. Owing to this lacuna, the geographical distribution and population structure of the cattle
breeds remains a matter of conjecture.
The indigenous cattle breeds even with relatively large population size are not only declining
fast, but are also being subjected to genetic erosion. This decline in the population of indigenous
cattle breeds and their neglect has been attributed to fast changing socio-economic levels of farmers,
ecological profile and agricultural scenario (intensive and more mechanized agriculture replacing
draft animal power), shrinking grazing areas, overemphasis on crossbreeding with exotic cattle for
increasing milk production, and also buffaloes making inroads into the traditional areas of certain
cattle breeds as an alternative dairy & draft animal. Based on these estimates as well as latest census,
it can be inferred that for the last two decades, there had been further decline in the population of
well-defined cattle breeds. This calls for an immediate action for systematic conservation, genetic
improvement and sustainable utilization of indigenous cattle breeds.
PERFORMANCE POTENTIAL AND GENETIC TRENDS
The average productivity (average yield/ animal in milk) of indigenous cattle (1.83 kg) was
much lower than the crossbred cattle (6.36 kg) and buffaloes (3.83 kg) in 1997-98. The productivity
of indigenous cattle in Gujarat (2.89 kg), Karnataka (1.98 kg), Kerala (2.28 kg), Punjab (2.84 kg),
Rajasthan (2.78 kg), Uttar Pradesh (2.09 kg), West Bengal (2.12 kg) and A & N Islands (2.30 kg) was
higher than the national average of 1.83 kg.
The average growth, reproduction and production performance of different milch and dual-
purpose cattle breeds (Table 1) at organized farms indicated wide periodic variability within and between
farms and breeds. Therefore, it provides an ample scope for future genetic improvement in indigenous
cattle breeds. However, in the past, breed improvement programmes confined to small-sized single
herds of well-defined dairy and dual cattle breeds did not yield any tangible genetic progress over
time.
In most organized herds, which have been closed for varying periods with some kind of selection
pressure on males and females without any systematic progeny testing, the annual genetic trends for
first lactation milk yield have been obtained in different magnitude and directions among various
breeds at different farms (Table 2). However, most of these estimates for various indigenous breeds
at different farms were negative or too small and non-significant.
The patterns of obtained estimates of genetic trends for most of the breeds at different farms
showed no genetic progress rather resulted in genetic deterioration in most of the closed herds of
indigenous cattle breeds. This might be ascribed to small herd size, absence of rigorous selection of
males and females, poor replacement rate and more involuntary culling of cows on the basis of other
than low milk production, unplanned breeding programme and poor monitoring. Therefore, it is
suggested that the breed specific government and private organized farms and large sized progressive
farmers/breeders’ herds should be associated to form a large associated test herd mate population
for testing of large number of breeding bulls. This networking of multi-herds can be further linked with

large number of farmers’ herds under village conditions through developing necessary infrastructure
providing breeding facilities, performance recording and evaluation of village herds. The closed herds
could also be opened through two-way flow of superior germ plasm from the breeding tract to nucleus
herds and vice-versa. Thus, with the adoption of open nucleus breeding technique will enhance
genetic gain not only on organized herds but also in the farmers’ herds.
BREEDING STRATEGY
For a vast population of cattle widely distributed in diverse agro-ecological regions of the country
and reared usually in small herd size of 1-2 animals mainly by small, marginal and land less farmers of
different socio-economic levels, it may not be possible to have a uniform national cattle breeding
policy. However, the Government of India on the basis of recommendations of National Commission
on Agriculture as well as subsequent expert panels has laid down broad guidelines of breeding policy
for bovines. Therefore, for developing breeding strategies for improving the productivity of different
types of cattle populations in different areas / regions of the country as well as with different socio-
economic levels of farmers/ breeders, various animal breeding technologies developed need to be
used on large scale by developmental organizations for proper implementation of genetic improvement
and development programmes. The following breeding strategies can be adopted for conservation
and bringing further genetic improvement of cattle genetic resources in the country.
Grading up of Local Non-Descript Cattle
The local Non-Descript cattle are reared mainly under Low-Input Production System where quality
feed and fodder resources are not available in sufficient quantity. The farmers are not resource-rich.
Infrastructure facilities are inadequate. Marketing facilities for sale of milk and milk products are poor.
The non-descript cattle can be genetically improved by grading up using elite bulls of well-known
indigenous breeds like Sahiwal, Tharparkar, Red Sindhi and Gir for milk production and Deoni, Hariana,
Ongole and Kankrej for both milk and draft. These breeds are maintained on several organized
government and non-government farms. The bulls to be used for this purpose should be produced
from superior dams which have more than 2000 kg as lactation yield for milch breed of Sahiwal,
Tharparkar and Gir cattle and more than 1500 kg for dual type cattle breeds of Hariana, Kankrej and
Ongole etc.
This will improve the milk yield by 500 to 800 kg in the first generation. By use of zebu bulls of
high transmitting ability for grading up subsequently in initial generations, milk yield can be improved
to the extent of 5 to 10 per cent per annum. In a period of 5-6 generations of continuous grading up,
the non-descript stock will be transformed into well-defined and improved purebreds.
Improvement of Indigenous Zebu Cattle Breeds by Selective Breeding
To meet the huge requirement of superior bulls of well-defined zebu cattle breeds and
multiplication of their quality germplasm for enhancing the productivity of vast nondescript cattle, it is
necessary to undertake large-scale genetic improvement programmes in different zebu cattle breeds
in their respective breeding tracts through selective breeding. Therefore the superior milch cattle

breeds like Sahiwal, Gir and Tharparkar and dual-purpose breeds like Hariana, Ongole, and Kankrej
need to be improved genetically by selective breeding. The existing herds of well-defined breeds
need to be strengthened further. The areas of the country where the indigenous milch and dual-
purpose cattle breeds need to be improved by selective breeding are: Gujarat for Gir and Kankrej;
Rajasthan for Rathi and Tharparkar; Haryana, parts of Punjab, Western U.P. and Rajasthan for Hariana,
parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra for Deoni and Andhra Pradesh for Ongole. By selective breeding,
it is expected that genetic improvement will be achieved ranging from 1 to 1.5% per annum in herds at
organized farms and 8-10% per annum in farmers’ herds. Such breed improvement programme must
form coordinating bodies for monitoring the germplasm production, performance recording, evaluation
and selection of young bulls and testing their genetic merit both at organized herds including progressive
gaushalas maintaining indigenous breeds as well as farmers’ herds under field conditions.
INDIGENOUS CATTLE BULL PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION
Identification and evaluation of breeding bulls through pedigree selection and progeny testing
programme are traditionally practiced only in well known milch and dual purpose breeds of cattle
maintained mainly at organized breeding farms in India. There were few methods of sire evaluation
that were generally followed in earlier times, viz. simple daughters average and contemporary
comparison method. However, with the introduction of computer system and availability of software
packages suitable for breeding data analysis, newer techniques like Harvey’s least-squares and
regressed least squares, best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and REML techniques are now
being utilized for more accurate estimation of sires’ breeding values. However, these studies remained
within the orbit of academic interest and could not be practically extended to large scale in the field
conditions because of inadequate infrastructure network and absence of performance recording.
Various sire evaluation methods viz. contemporary comparison, least squares, regressed least
squares, BLUP and REML have been used for estimating breeding values of sires belonging to well
known cattle breeds for mainly first lactation traits. Majority of the reports revealed that about 8-10
percent of top ranking sires could have breeding values with genetic superiority of 10-15 percent
above their overall herd averages. These top-ranked high genetic merit bulls can be used on elite
dams on organized farms and farmers’ herds for production of superior germplasm and young bulls
for future breeding. In order to overcome the problems of small sized single herd resulting into poor
genetic gains and small number of proven bulls, a project on Associated Herd Progeny Testing of
Sahiwal bulls was initiated in 1978 at NDRI, Karnal with cooperating farms viz. Government Livestock
Farms Nabha (Punjab), Durg (Chattisgarh), Lucknow (UP), Hisar (Haryana), CSAUAT, Kanpur (UP),
GBPUAT, Pantnagar (Uttranchal), Veterinary College, Nagpur (Maharastra), Military Dairy Farm, Meerut
(UP) and Shri Satguru Ram Singh Farm, Sirsa (Haryana) participating voluntarily for testing of Sahiwal
bulls in a test population of about 700 breedable females. However, majority of the small herds belonging
to different organizations discontinued in between due to various physical and local administrative
constraints. So far, 8 sets of Sahiwal bulls have been put to progeny testing and first four sets of bulls
have been evaluated. Seven top ranking Sahiwal bulls out of 33 test bulls from first four sets with
breeding values of genetic superiority over herd average ranging from 3.5 to 21.6 percent have been

identified and being used for elite mating for production of young bulls for future breeding.
Another project entitled “Genetic improvement of Indigenous Cattle Breeds” at Project Directorate
on Cattle (ICAR), Meerut, also based on net working of multi-herds is in progress for dual purpose
breeds of Hariana and Ongole cattle. The genetic improvement of indigenous cattle breeds has
further extended to milch breeds of Gir and Tharparkar. Under the project, 16 Ongole bulls in two sets
were progeny tested and ranked on the basis of first lactation yield of their daughters. Top two bulls
from each set were selected for elite mating and further breed improvement. In Hariana cattle, a total
of 47 bulls had been put to progeny testing programme and are in the process of evaluation. No
information on evaluation of breeding bulls for draft characteristics is available so far. However, recording
and quantifying of draft traits on the progenies of sires are now being initiated for genetic evaluation
of bulls for different draft traits.
CONSTRAINTS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
As per National Sample Survey Organization, 73.5 % of the cattle in India are maintained by
70% of households having landholding size of < 2 hectares and only 9.9% of the cattle are with 6% of
the households having landholding size of > 4 hectares. It clearly shows that the majority of the cattle
are maintained by small and marginal farmers having poor resource availability and only a small
fraction are maintained on organized farms. This acts as a major hindrance in the implementation of
advanced technologies for breed improvement programmes.
The major constraints hindering the genetic improvement of indigenous cattle genetic resources
in the country have been low productivity and poor breeding efficiency, small herd size, high population
density vis-à-vis resources, inadequate infrastructure facilities, lack of pricing policy and organized
market for sale of animals and their products/ byproducts, lack of coordination and organized efforts
for breed improvement, lack of breed societies and breed-wise census, ineffective herd registration
schemes, absence of field recording and inefficient legal framework. Though some efforts have been
made to describe the cattle genetic resources in our country, yet comprehensive documentation in
the form of breed descriptions along with ecology (production system) and economy is lacking. Breed
societies and herd registration schemes need to be strengthened to cover almost every descript
breed with recording on a larger population linked to breed improvement programmes.
In order to increase the herd size and check genetic deterioration in different breeds, it is
suggested that the breed specific organized farms and progressive farmers/ breeders maintaining
relatively large herds should be associated to form a sizable test herd population for evaluating a
large number of breeding bulls. Further, the closed herds of locally adapted breeds could also be
opened through two-way flow of superior germplasm from the breeding tract to nucleus herds and
vice-versa. Thus, with the adoption of open nucleus breeding system (ONBS) with or without MOET
genetic gain can be augmented not only on organized herds but also in the farmers’ herds. Modern
breeding strategies (AI, ETT and allied biotechnologies) and management practices can be integrated
with traditional farming practices to improve the performance of locally adapted cattle breeds. In
future, molecular (DNA) marker assisted selection (MAS) that is linked to the genes of interest (Milk,

draft, disease resistance etc.) has potential to assist in selection of male/female calves at an early
age and may act as an aid to progeny testing of sires.
There is a need for a true long-term economic evaluation of cattle genetic resources; particularly
comparing locally adapted and exotic/ crossbred genotypes in the same production systems based
on their utility (milk or draft or both). Such studies may guide future cattle development programmes,
and to determine the most appropriate use and development of cattle genetic resources within the
local production environments. Without such information, policy makers and development agencies
lack the basic information they need to ensure their efforts are contributing to sustainable development.
Improving the overall performance of locally adapted breeds with better package of management and
breeding practices will often produce more sustained benefits than strategies involving replacement
or crossing with exotic breeds. Innovations in subsistence cattle farming must be developed and
tested to ensure that they produce sustainable benefits.
The strategies for undertaking large scale genetic improvement programmes on widely distributed
population of cattle in the country require huge number of genetically superior breeding bulls. According
to an estimate, to cover even 30% breedable cattle population in the country for breeding through AI
as many as 5700 proven bulls of well-defined indigenous cattle breeds are required in 2005 AD.
Therefore, for accomplishing the huge task of bringing about genetic improvement of cattle genetic
resources in the country, the following action plan for proper implementing the programmes is
suggested:
1. Identification and establishment of breeding services organization for overall monitoring

and implementation of breeding programmes.
2. Identification of operational areas/ regions for the breed/genetic group/animal population

to be improved upon.
3. Infrastructure development in the operational areas including establishment of AI centers,

animal health centers, milk procurement and extension centers fully equipped with trained
man power.
4. Establishment and strengthening of breed nucleus herds/bull mother farms, young bull
rearing centers, semen collection and cryo-storage banks.
5. Establishment of data bank to carry out activities on animal identification and performance
recording for selection of large number of high genetic merit bulls.
6. Networking of breed-specific organized farms for testing of large number of breeding bulls
and linking with performance recording and progeny testing of bulls under farmer herds in
village conditions.
7. For faster multiplication of superior germplasm and large-scale dissemination, selected

organized nucleus breeding herds should adopt open nucleus breeding system with or
without MOET and other emerging reproductive and genetic techniques.
8. Formation of the milk producers’ co-operative unions/breed societies/NGOs for participation

of farmers/ breeders in breed development and improvement programme.
Table 1: Average All Lactation Performance of various indigenous cattle breeds
Breed All Lactation Performance
AFC WFC SP DP CI LMY LL PY
(day) (kg) (day) (day) (day) (kg) (day) (kg)
Gir Av. 1530 324 222.0 149.2 465.9 1366.5 361.3 –
±5.6 ±3.1 ±6.4 ±171.5 ±10.7
Range 1227– 319– – 142.9 – 431.0 – 1195.7 – 350.6 – –
1848 327 161.2 483.0 2029.5 372.0
Rathi Av. 1411 248 204.7 161.4 516.09 1573.2 336.2 8.73±
0.16
Range 1103– – 191.6 – 32.0 – 445.1 – 1062.7 – 305.9 – 6.5 –
1581 211.3 234.4 617.0 2810.0 431.0 10.6
Red Sindhi Av. 1291 341 163.4 148.7 433.2 1838.6 284.6 10.97
±6.8 ±6.0 ±14.3 ±73.7 ±11.0 ±0.5
Range 960– 340– 103.6 – 112.0 – 381.0 – 1487.3 – 254.0 – 9.9 –
1410 348 292.8 179.0 496.0 2197.3 330.0 12.6
Sahiwal Av. 1268 343 148.0 156.0 402.5 2064.6 285.0 11.10±
±3.2 ±5.4 0.26
Range 879– 287– 126.0 – 120.0 – 383.2 – 1928.0 – 270.0 – 10.1 –
1568 380 195.5 183.5 498.1 2632.0 300.0 12.1
Tharparkarr Av. 1306 324 127.5 137.6 431.0 1748.8 285.9 10.6
±2.03 ±0.7 ±1.1 ±4.28 ±0.61 ±0.1
Range 1185– 292– 107.9 – 114.8 – 410.5 – 912.6 – 240.3 – 6.45 –
1615 376 191.0 190.7 470.3 2147.0 377.2 11.4
Deoni Av. 1391 – 170.0 140.0 454.0 816.0 260.0 4.5
±7.0 ±36.0 ±2.5
Range 894– – 152.0 – 103.7 – 447.0 – 283.9 – 149.4 – 2.3 –
1540 184.0 177.0 466.0 868.2 293.0 5.8
Hariana Av. 1567 307 231.8 254.9 482.7 996.8 272.1 7.33
±0.91
Range 1067– 284– 125.0 – 130.0 – 415.0 – 692.0 – 238.0 – 4.8 –
1802 361 305.0 270.0 561.0 1753.0 330.0 8.1
Kankrej Av. 1630 – 195.1 182.4 487.0 1850.0 303.8 –
±30.2 ±14.1 ±25.3 ±51.4
Range 1253– – 164.1– 141.0 – 433.0 – 423.8 – 163.0 –
1792 305.8 235.0 585.4 2369.0 348.7 –
Malvi Av. 1477 – 207.5 140.0 506.8 915.6 259.6 –
±9.3 ±13.7 ±21.6 ±2.64
Range 1378– – 140.1 – 136.2 – – – – –
1551 271.8 150.6
Ongole Av. 1506 – 199.7 289.3 502.2 688.0 230.5 3.47
±13.3 ±21.2 ±26.6 ±8.9 ±0.13
Range 1279– – 119.6 – 188.7 – 406.8 – 475.0 – 158.1 – 3.2 –
1825 380.9 434.7 694.4 1000.0 291.3 4.2

Table 2: Annual genetic trends in first lactation milk yield of different indigenous cattle breeds
Breed Location Genetic trend % change Reference
Red Sindhi Hosur – 139.6 – 8.20 Narain and Garg, 1972
Bangalore – 32.6 – 2.40 Narain and Garg, 1972
Chiplima 102.5±56.1 5.90 Gupta, 1992
Puderkkottai – 41.9±26.2 – 3.75 Gupta, 1992
Gauri Karma 58.7±25.6 6.14 Gupta and Tripathi, 1994
Hosur – 37.6±17.2 – 2.47 Gupta, 1992
Sahiwal Karnal 16.0±30.8 – Singh, 1981
Durg – 87.8±60.4 – Singh, 1981
Hisar – 13.0±20.3 – Singh, 1981
Meerut 21.9±28.4 – Singh, 1981
Chak Ganjaria – 26.9 – 3.30 Kumar and Narain, 1979
Hisar 46.2±20.4 – Singh. 1992
Karnal 16.0±30.1 – Singh and Nagarcenkar, 2000
Karnal 77.1±10.5 3.97 Raja, 2004
Tharparkar Patna – 72.7 – 5.70 Narain and Garg, 1972
Karnal – 5.97±20.52 – Gurnani, 1977
Hariana Hisar 10.0 1.50 Acharya and Lush, 1968
Hisar 17.4±10.2 2.25 Tomar and Singh, 1981
Hisar 2.97 0.35 Dalal et al., 2005
Kankrej Anand 60.3 3.0 Narain and Garg, 1972
Bhuj 96.9±13.6 – Des Raj, 1987
Mandvi 72.3±19.2 – Des Raj, 1987
Thana 587.9±20.9 – Des Raj, 1987
Anand – 47.4±60.9 – 2.43 Satija, 1989
Bhuj – 56.9±26.2 – 3.36 Satija, 1989
Chharodi – 4.84±33.0 – 0.27 Satija, 1989
Mandvi – 58.20±89.8 – 3.81 Satija, 1989
Thana 4.33±75.3 0.24 Satija, 1989

ISAGB/4
BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR SELF-SUSTENANCE OF INDIAN CATTLE

R.S. GANDHI1 AND ARJAVA SHARMA2
Dairy Cattle Breeding Division, NDRI Karnal
1
Animal Genetics Division, IVRI Izatnagar, 2Head, Animal Genetics Division, IVRI Izatnagar.
India has 178.9 million cattle, out of which 22.07 million are crossbreds. Cows produce 40% of
total milk, out of which 24% is produced by indigenous cattle and 16% by crossbred cows. The
contribution of local cows to the total cow milk is 60%. Assuming 69 million breedable cattle (62 million
zebu and 7 million crossbreds), per animal per day milk yield was 0.92 kg for indigenous cattle and
5.42 kg for crossbred cattle during 2003. These figures revealed that the low productivity of our
animals was attributed to lower genetic potential of our animals especially local non-descript cows.
The poor production potential and higher cost of milk production in local cattle as compared to crossbred
cows has led to the decrease in their number in many states contributing to declining trend of local
cattle population over the years. Hence, the reorientation of the breeding programmes for the
improvement of indigenous cattle needs urgent attention. It is needed to follow a multi-dimensional
approach to enhance the productivity of indigenous cattle to make them sustainable by enhancing
their genetic potential through selective breeding, grading-up of non-descript animals with dairy/dual
purpose breeds, selecting the animals for overall adaptive value, production of superior males and
dissemination of their semen in vast population, improving the conception rate from AI under field
conditions, developing need-based and economically viable technologies for small and marginal
farmers, increasing the awareness of farmers/rural women about the improved package of practice
for enhancing productive and reproductive efficiency of cows by field/extension workers.
India has been a hub of mega diversity of animal genetics resources especially livestock species
having sustainable relationship with crop production under mixed farming system. The sale of milk
and other products from livestock bring liquid cash to the rural masses to meet the daily routine
expenses for up keeping the household and the purchase of seeds/fertilizers/weedicides/pesticides,
as the income from the crops is seasonal. The draft power for agricultural operations and transport is
mainly supplied by bovines. The dung is used as organic manure for maintaining the soil fertility on
long term basis and for providing cooking fuel. The livestock rearing has been the source of livelihood
for landless labourers/small/marginal farmers. India has 30 breeds of cattle, out of which 4 are milch
breeds, 8 are dual purpose and remaining are draft type. The Indian cattle breeds are known for their
hardiness, their ability to digest coarse fibres, endurance for heat tolerance, resistant to tropical
diseases and adaptability to the tropical harsh climatic conditions. India has 178.9 million cattle as per
the 17th Indian Livestock Census 2003, out of which 22.07 million are crossbreds. There are about 69
million breedable cows out of which 7 million are crossbred cows.
Milk Production
India is highest producer of milk in the world. The milk production in India was 86.5 million tones
during 2003 leading to the availability of 238 gms of milk per capita per day against the global figure

of 259 gms. It is projected that milk production in India during 2004 was 91 million tones. It is estimated
that by the year 2020 the milk production of India would be 168 million tones. The contribution of our
country to global milk production would increase from present 14.7 to 22.2% during that year. Out of
total 86.5 million tones of milk produced during the year 2003, cows produced 34.60 million tones
(40%). The contribution of indigenous cattle was 20.76 million tones (60% of cow milk), while the
contribution of crossbreds was 13.84 million tones (40% of cow milk). Assuming 69 million breedable
cattle (62 million zebu and 7 million crossbreds), per animal per day milk yield was 0.92 kg for indigenous
cattle and 5.42 kg for crossbred cattle. The per animal per day milk yield was 1.38 kg considering
together the milk produced by indigenous and crossbred cattle.
Draught Animal Power
In India, best draft breeds of Asian Continent namely Nagore, Khillari, Amritmahal, Hallikar and
Krishna Valley are available besides dual purpose breeds like Tharparkar, Hariana and Ongole.
Mechanization of the farm operations has attributed to decrease in the draft animal power from 72 to
12% between 1961 and 1995 (Bhasin, 1997). The working male population among cattle and buffaloes
decreased by 14 millions during 1977 – 87 and the trend continues even till date. The fully grown
zebu bullock can provide 0.5 HP and one bullock pair can cultivate about 0.33 ha land in a six-hour
working/day. About 8.9 million pairs or 17.8 million bullocks are required to cultivate 176.7 million ha
of cultivable land available in India over a period of 60 days (30 days each for rabi and kharif season).
Considering a replacement rate of 33% per year, about 6 million males are required for replacement,
which could be raised from 18 million breedable females. It may be noted that draught animal power
saves six million tones of petroleum per year, valued at Rs. 12000 crores. The draught animal power
used in agriculture in 1995 – 96 was estimated as 16.8 million KW, which accounted for 12.3% of total
farm power consumption during that year.
Animal Production Scenario in India
Milk production is predominantly the domain of landless labourers and small/marginal farmers in
our country, who generally keep 1-2 milch animals under mixed farming system. These small holders
have about 78% of the milch animals. Majority of the animals are reared on feed stuffs not consumed
by human population (wheat, paddy straw, maize, sorghum and millet stovers and other crop by-
products and waste material). The dairy sector provides some 70 million farm families the triple benefit
of nutritive food, supplementary income and productive employment for family labour, mainly women.
The crossbreeding of zebu cattle with exotic breeds during last four decades for higher milk
production in the country has led to higher yield of crossbreds as compared to local cows (table 1).
This has resulted in inclination of the farmers towards crossbred animals as compared to local animals
including well-defined breeds in many states.
There has been a declining trend in the population of local cattle in India over the years 1992
onwards (table 2). As per the provisional 17th Indian Livestock Census 2003, there were 156.85
million indigenous cattle as compared to 178.78 million during 1997 and 189.37 during 1992. On the
contrary, the number of crossbred cattle has increased during the corresponding periods (22.07,

20.10 and 15.21 million, respectively). The overall annual growth rate in local cattle for the period
1987 – 2003 was –1.04%, while that for crossbreds was +5.65% over the same period. However, the
number of adult females have increased over the years with an average annual growth rate of +3.13%.
In some of the states like Kerala, Panjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu crossbred animals constitute the major population of cattle. In Kerala state, the number
of crossbreds has increased from 13.55 lacs in 1977 to 22.87 lacs in 1996 (68.78 increase), while the
number of local cattle has decreased from 16.51 lacs to 11.09 lacs (32.83% decline) during the same
period (Sasikumar and James, 2002). The similar trend over the years has been observed in most of
the states of the country. A study in HP has revealed that crossbreds have increased by 58.41% and
indigenous cattle have decreased by 5.71% during the periods 1977-78 to 1997-98 (Pathania and
Vashist, 2004).
The decline in the number of local cattle is a resultant of poor genetic potential and higher cost
of milk production as compared to crossbred cows. According to an estimate, the cost of milk production
was almost double in indigenous cattle as compared to crossbred cows (Rs.8 versus Rs.4/litre) in the
Maharashtra state (Hemalatha et al., 2003). However, in the states of Karnataka and Kerala the cost
of milk production from non-descript cattle was very high ranging from Rs.15.23 – 18.16 and Rs.15.46
– 21.96, respectively (Singh et al., 2004). Similarly, the cost of milk production from indigenous non-
descript cattle was Rs.10.01 in HP (Sharma et al., 2004) and Rs.10.67 in Eastern Region (Mishra et
al., 2000). A study revealed that milk production from indigenous cows was highly unprofitable (Rs.8.40/
litre) and unviable proposition in Uttarachal for all categories of farmers (Bardhan et al., 2004).
Breeding Programmes for Genetic Improvement
The poor production potential and higher cost of milk production in local cattle (about 80% of
total cattle population) has led to the lower priority of farmers for rearing these low producing animals.
Even the landless/small/marginal farmers prefer to have good milch animals. This is obvious from the
fact that 78% of the milch animals including crossbreds are reared by these categories of farmers.
Considering the decling trend in the number of local cattle including well-defined breeds over the
years in the country, the reorientation of the breeding programmes for the improvement of indigenous
cattle needs immediate attention. Our breeding policy intervention for sustained milk production should
be location/situation specific and should not be generalized for different parts/regions of the country.
The determinants of recommending the breeding policy should be description of production system,
definition of breeding objectives (trait or combination of traits) and knowledge of breed resources
(genetic variation in production and adaptive traits). Unfortunately, the production systems vary
considerably from area to area and even from farmer to farmer. Further, the data on performance,
adaptive and unique traits like resistance to a particular disease/parasite and tolerance to
environmental stresses are absent or inadequate for most of the breeds. Under this prevailing scenario,
a short term interim breeding policy has been proposed (Mangurkar, 1998) :
l Conservation and improvement of well defined indigenous dairy and dual purpose breeds
of cattle in their respective breeding tracts.

l Pure breeding in draft breeds with emphasis on both draft and milk production.
l Grading up of non-descript animals with locally adapted dairy/dual purpose breeds, if the
farmers opt for.
l Crossbreeding of non-descript cattle in urban and semi-urban areas, and as per farmers
choice and resource availability in other areas; the selection of exotic breed (HF or Jersey)
depending upon the availability of resources and market demand for milk.
l Inter-se mating amongst crossbreds for maintaining exotic level of blood between 50 – 75
%.
It is advocated that serious efforts should be made to identify breeding males of various indigenous
breeds of high genetic merit, freezing of optimum number of semen doses from these males and their
effective use under field AI programme. The choice of the farmer for selection of quality semen for his
animals should be given priority.
Larger number of low producing non-descript cows (80% of cattle population) is one of the major
constraints to launch any effective breed improvement programme. These animals have also poor
breeding efficiency leading to longer inter-calving periods coupled with shorter lactation lengths. As
there is a declining trend in the number of indigenous cows over the years, it is desired to curtail the
number of unproductive/low producing non-descript animals to enhance productivity/animal. A
theoretical exercise has been done to estimate the milk yield per animal per day by curtailing the size
of non-descript breedable cattle for varying annual declining rates (1-5% per annum) over the years
assuming an annual growth rate of 4% in milk production (table 3). It is projected that milk production
of India would be 168 million tones during the year 2020, out of which 40.51 million tones would be
produced by indigenous cows. It is expected that there would be 53 million indigenous breedable
cattle during 2020 assuming a declining rate of 1% per annum. This would lead to two-fold increase in
milk yield/animal/day (1 kg to 2 kg) from 2005 to 2020. The enhancement would be four-folds (1 kg to
4 kg) during these periods by downsizing breedable females by 5% per annum during the corresponding
period (table 3).
The longer dry period resulting in longer inter-calving period attributed to higher service period
of indigenous cattle is a matter of great concern under field conditions and needs immediate attention.
Longer calving intervals lead to economic losses and are one of the reasons for higher cost of milk
production as farmers have to maintain dry animals for longer periods ranging from 6 – 12 months or
even more in some of the cases. A simulation study to project milk production of indigenous cows by
reducing calving interval by 10 days every year from 540 days (18 months) in 2005 to 390 days (13
months) in 2020 was done assuming an average annual growth rate of 4% in milk yield of lactating
cows (table 4). The present population of 62 million breedable indigenous cows was considered. Milk
produced by the indigenous cattle (22.45 million tones) was used to estimate milk yield per lactating
animal per day (1.47 kg) for the base year 2005. It was assumed that standard calving interval was
365 days. Higher the calving interval, lower is the number of lactating animals/year. It was projected
that by gradually reducing the inter-calving interval to 440 days during the year 2015, the projected

milk production of indigenous cows would be 41.11 million tones from expected 51.43 million cows.
Further, by reducing the calving interval to 390 days (13 months) during the year 2020, the projected
milk production from 58 million indigenous cows would be 56.34 million tones with 2.66 kg milk/lactating
animal/day.
Keeping in view the present scenario of livestock production prevailing in our country, it is
suggested that :
l Selective breeding in well-defined milch and dual-purpose breeds has to be followed.
However, surplus non-descript/draught animals have to be graded up with locally available
milch/dual purpose breeds.
l Well-defined indigenous breeds should not be subjected to crossbreeding. Rather their
herds should be further strengthened.
l There is an urgent need to conduct breed-wise census for systematic planning of an effective
breed improvement programme.
l Breed Associations and Breed Societies may be formed in the breeding tract of various
indigenous breeds.
l Creation of databases of various breeds available in the country.
l Emphasis should be given to select the animals for overall adaptive value instead of single
trait selection on milk yield.
l Clear cut culling policy for surplus unproductive animals to down size their number
systematically over the years needs to be framed.
l The surplus draft animals can be graded-up with milch/dual purpose breeds available in
that area or adjoining area.
l Extending and overhauling the AI network with ensured cold chain supply. There is a large
scope for improving conception rate from AI under field conditions.
l Strengthening various sire evaluation programmes at organized herds and under field
conditions.
l Surplus semen doses from ongoing sire evaluation programmes to be given to
developmental agencies for dissemination under field conditions.
l Information on available germplasm (semen) with various agencies should be published in
the form of sire directory.
l To cope up with the higher demands of superior semen, higher number of bulls should be
progeny tested using farmers herds along with organized herds.
l Bull mother farms or MOET Nucleus herds of elite cows of different breeds should be
established in their respective breeding tracts to produce more males of higher genetic
merit.
l Cattle breeding programmes should be formulated considering the available facilities and
support system in the area as per the requirement of the farming community.

l The non-descript and scrub bulls should be castrated under project areas covered by
different agencies.
l More funds should be diverted for livestock development programmes by the Govt.
l A National Programme “Save Livestock in Draught” should be initiated on priority basis.
The departments of animal husbandry, milk producer cooperatives, district rural
developmental agencies and SAU’s should join hands in “Save Livestock Programme” as
livestock contribute more than 50% of GDP in draught areas (Bhasin, 2002).
l Long term planning has to be initiated to change traditional animal production gradually to
commercial one in the areas having requisite resources to support the dairy enterprise.
l Much attention should be given to the landless labourers and small holders having maximum
number of milch animals.
l There is an urgent need to educate farmers especially rural women about the cleanliness
of milk production.
To sum up, it is needed to follow a multi-dimensional approach to enhance the productivity of

indigenous cattle to make them highly sustainable by enhancing their genetic potential, selecting the
animals for overall adaptive value, decreasing the number of non-descript unproductive/low producing
animals, improving the infrastructure like AI and veterinary services under field conditions to lower
down calving interval, developing need based and economically viable technologies for farmers
especially small and marginal farmers, increasing the awareness of farmers/rural women about the
improved package of practice for enhancing milk production and reproductive efficiency by field/
extension workers and above all the educating and empowering the rural women.
References
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Bhasin, N. R. 1997. Perspective planning of self-reliance offering milk security. Golden Jubilee Year Souvenir of
XXVIII Dairy Industry Conference held at Bangalore from April 27 – 29, 1997.
Bhasin, N.R. 2002. Draught and livestock. Indian Dairyman, 54(8) : 33 – 35.
Hemalatha, B., Prashanth, V.R.N. and Reddy, Y.V.R. 2003. Economics of milk production of different breeds of
bovine in Ahmedanagar district of Maharashtra. Indian Dairyman, 55(10) : 41 – 44.
Mangurkar, B.R. 1998. Breeding policy for sustainable milk production. Proceedings of the XXIX Dairy Industry
Conference held at NDRI Karnal from November 28 – 29, 1998. pp. 18 – 21.
Mishra, R.K., Singh, L. and Saha, R.C. 2000. Cost-effectiveness of milk production in Eastern India. Proceedings
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20 – 22, 2002. pp. 1- 7.
Sharma, A., Kishtwaria, J. and Kiran, C. 2002. Dairying as an income generative activity under DWCRA in
district Kangra (HP). Indian Journal of Dairy Science, 55(4) : 237 – 240.
Singh, R.V., Dixit, P.K., Dhaka, J.P., Sajeesh, M.S. and Kumar, M.K. 2004. Production, consumption and
marketed surplus of milk in Southern India – An economic analysis. Proceedings of the XXXIII Dairy
Industry Conference held at Hotel Ashok, New Delhi from September 26 – 28, 2004. p. 115.
Table 1: Number and milk yield/animal/day of crossbred cattle in major states during 1996 – 97
States Number (millions)* Milk yield/animal/day (kg)
Indigenous cows** Crossbreds**
Andhra Pradesh 1.107 1.80 6.75
Assam 0.424 1.05 3.81
Bihar 0.295 1.63 4.91
Chhatisgarh 0.253 - -
Gujarat 0.634 3.00 8.05
Haryana 0.573 4.22 6.70
Himachal Pradesh 0.500 1.74 3.39
Jammu & Kashmir 1.296 - -
Jharkhand 0.145 - -
Karnataka 1.602 2.11 6.25
Kerala 1.826 2.55 6.23
Madhya Pradesh 0.315 1.32 5.59
Maharashtra 2.699 1.59 7.07
Nagaland 0.243 - -
Orissa 1.063 0.51 3.93
Panjab 1.531 2.79 8.70
Rajasthan 0.464 2.78 5.31
Sikkim 0.116 - -
Tamil Nadu 3.506 2.48 5.90
Uttar Pradesh 1.804 2.14 6.13
Uttaranchal 0.228 - -
West Bengal 1.119 2.07 7.24
All India 22.073 1.89 6.46
* Source : 17th Livestock Census 2003, Department of AH & D, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India
** During the year 1998-99 (Source : Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics 2002, Department of AH & D, Ministry
of Agriculture, Govt. of India

Table 2: Cattle Population trend in India.

Category Cattle population (millions) Annual Growth
Rate (%)
1987 1992 1997 2003* 1987-92 1992-97 1997-03
Indigenous 188.28 189.37 178.78 156.87 +1.06 -1.12 -2.04
Crossbred 11.59 15.21 20.10 22.07 6.25 6.43 1.63
Total 199.69 204.58 198.88 178.94 +0.49 -0.56 -1.68
Adult females 62.10 64.40 72.94 93.23 0.71 2.65 4.64
*Provisional
Table 3: Projected milk yield/animal/day (kg) of non-descript cattle by downsizing their number over
the years
Year Projected Cow milk Indigenous Indigenous cattle number (millions) Milk yield/animal/day
(kg)
milk (mt) cow milk after downsizing by after downsizing
number by
production* (mt)
(mt) 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
2005 93.56 37.42 22.45 61.38 60.76 60.14 59.52 58.90 1.002 1.012 1.022 1.033 1.044
2006 97.30 38.92 23.35 60.77 59.54 58.34 57.13 55.96 1.053 1.074 1.097 1.120 1.143
2007 101.19 40.48 24.29 60.16 58.35 56.59 54.85 53.16 1.106 1.140 1.176 1.213 1.252
2008 105.24 42.10 25.26 59.56 57.19 54.89 52.66 50.50 1.162 1.210 1.261 1.314 1.370
2009 109.45 43.78 26.27 58.96 56.04 53.24 50.55 47.97 1.221 1.284 1.352 1.424 1.500
2010 113.83 45.53 27.32 58.37 54.92 51.64 48.53 45.58 1.282 1.363 1.449 1.542 1.642
2011 118.38 47.35 28.41 57.79 53.82 50.09 46.59 43.30 1.347 1.446 1.554 1.671 1.798
2012 123.12 49.25 29.55 57.21 52.75 48.59 44.73 41.13 1.415 1.535 1.666 1.810 1.968
2013 128.04 51.22 30.73 56.64 51.69 47.13 42.94 39.08 1.486 1.629 1.786 1.961 2.154
2014 133.16 53.26 31.96 56.07 50.66 45.72 41.22 37.12 1.562 1.728 1.915 2.124 2.359
2015 138.49 55.40 33.24 55.51 49.65 44.35 39.57 35.26 1.641 1.834 2.053 2.301 2.583
2016 144.03 57.61 34.57 54.95 48.66 43.02 37.99 33.50 1.724 1.946 2.202 2.493 2.827
2017 150.07 60.03 36.02 54.40 47.68 41.73 36.47 31.83 1.814 2.070 2.365 2.706 3.100
2018 156.07 62.43 37.46 53.86 46.73 40.48 35.01 30.23 1.905 2.196 2.535 2.931 3.395
2019 162.32 64.93 38.96 53.32 45.79 39.26 33.61 28.72 2.002 2.331 2.719 3.176 3.717
2020 168.81 67.52 40.51 52.79 44.88 38.08 32.27 27.29 2.102 2.473 2.915 3.439 4.067

* At an annual growth rate of 4%.
Table 4: Projected milk production (million tones) of indigenous cattle by reducing inter-calving
period over the years
Year Milk yield/ Inter-calving Lactating Projected
lactating period (days) animals milk production
animal/day (millions) (million tones)
(kg)
2005 1.47 540 41.91 22.45
2006 1.53 530 42.70 23.84
2007 1.59 520 43.51 25.25
2008 1.65 510 44.37 26.72
2009 1.72 500 45.26 28.41
2010 1.79 490 46.18 30.17
2011 1.86 480 47.15 32.01
2012 1.94 470 48.15 34.10
2013 2.02 460 49.20 36.28
2014 2.11 450 50.29 38.73
2015 2.19 440 51.43 41.11
2016 2.28 430 52.63 44.63
2017 2.37 420 53.88 46.61
2018 2.46 410 55.20 49.56
2019 2.56 400 56.58 52.87
2020 2.66 390 58.03 56.34

ISAGB /5
EXPERIENCES OF CROSSBREEDING IN CATTLE IN INDIA

G.K. GAUR1, R.C. GARG2 AND KRIPAL SINGH3
Project Directorate on Cattle, Grass Farm Road, Meerut Cantt, Uttar Pradesh 250 001
1
Senior Scientist (Animal Genetics & Breeding), 2Principal Scientist (Agricultural Statistics), 3Project
Director
Crossbreeding of cattle in India was started as early as 1875 when the ‘Taylor’ breed of cattle
was evolved around Patna using Shorthorn bulls on native cows. Crossbreeding in the Nilgiri area of
Madras State and hilly regions of Assam and Bengal with Ayrshire, Holstein and Jersey bulls brought
by European missionaries and tea-planters was also initiated around the same time. Military Farms
were the next to take up most extensive crossbreeding in 1891 where they began using European
breeds like Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey, Ayrshire and Shorthorn. The Zebu breeds used were Sahiwal,
Hariana, Tharparkar, Sindhi and Gir. Another crossbreeding program was started at Imperial Dairy
Research Institute, Bangalore (presently SRS, NDRI) in 1910; first with Ayrshire and Haryana, later
with Ayrshire and Red Sindhi breed. Livestock Research Station, Hosur (Madras State) initiated
crossbreeding of Ayrshire with Red Sindhi in 1919. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa (Bihar)
started crossbreeding with Sahiwal cows in 1920 and Allahabad Agricultural Institute started systematic
work for evolving a new milch breed in 1924. The Royal Commission on Agriculture appointed by the
Government of India in 1926 pointed out that the owners of dairy cattle should aim at 3500 litres milk
yield per annum based on crossbreeding of local cattle with exotic dairy breeds.
Board of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry recommended grading up of non-descript cattle

with superior indigenous breeds in 1940. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1949
recommended development of non-descript population into dual-purpose breeds. In 1961, Central
Council of Gosamvardhana and Animal Husbandry Wing suggested crossing of non-descript cattle
with exotic dairy breeds like Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey for bringing faster increase in
milk production. Scientific Panel of Animal Husbandry Department set up by the Union Ministry of
Food and Agriculture in 1965 suggested selection among the indigenous superior breeds, grading-
up of non-descript cattle with established defined breeds and crossbreeding with exotic dairy breeds
in an intensive and coordinated manner. The Panel also recommended that bulk of the exotic
inheritance should be obtained from Jersey breed and the crossbreeding with Brown Swiss and Holstein
may be tried to a limited extent. Fourth Five-Year Plan further laid more stress on crossbreeding of
cattle with exotic dairy breed.
ICAR sanctioned a large crossbreeding scheme in 1955 for hilly and heavy rainfall areas for
determining the optimum proportion of exotic inheritance in crossbreds which could sustain productivity
after interbreeding under village conditions. The exotic breed used was Jersey. A number of bilateral
aided projects like Indo-Swiss Project in Kerala and Punjab using Brown Swiss bulls on local cows,
Indo-Danish Project in Karnataka using Red Dane bulls on Red Sindhi cows and Indo-German project
in Himachal Pradesh for performance recoding under field conditions were also initiated during sixties
and seventies. Based on the initial results of these bilateral projects, the work on performance

recording of crossbreds under field conditions was initiated by the National Dairy Development Board
under Operation Flood and a number of other organizations like BAIF.
To answer some of the vital questions, viz. (i) suitability of exotic and indigenous breeds in
crosses, (ii) appropriate level of exotic inheritance ( 1/2 Vs 3/4 ), (iii) effect of inter-breeding crosses,
and (iv) the importance of genotype x environment interaction, a crossbreeding program entitled
“Behaviour pattern of Zebu crossbreds” was initiated during the 4th Plan by the ICAR which came into
operation from 1.4.1968 at IVRI, Izatnagar and at Hisar centre of PAU, Ludhiana (presently CCS HAU,
Hisar). At these units Hariana was to be crossed with Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey frozen semen
of high merit bulls under a planned mating program. Later this project was renamed as All India
Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Cattle and started functioning from 1.4.1969. The
coordinating unit of the project was established at IVRI, Izatnagar. In 1970, three more units namely
APAU, Lam; MPAU, Rahuri and JNKVV, Jabalpur with Ongole as the foundation breed at Lam, and Gir
at the two remaining centres were added to the project. In 1972 the UNDP/ICAR/PL-480 international
crossbreeding project at Haringhata with Hariana breed was also merged in the AICRP on cattle. The
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) had also taken up similar research projects involving these
exotic breeds and Sahiwal, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar as native breeds for synthesis of high yielding
crossbred strains.
The results from these and other similar projects indicated that Holstein crosses irrespective of
any indigenous breed and the agro-ecologies involved produced the highest quantity of milk followed
by Brown Swiss and Jersey crosses given the necessary feed, health and management inputs. There
was little to gain by introducing exotic inheritance beyond 50 % either from one or two exotic breeds.
The decline in milk production through interbreeding of crossbreds did not appear to be large. The
results also indicated that in areas with good feed resources specially irrigated cultivated fodder,
crossbreeding of indigenous non-descript and low producing cattle with Holstein and stabilization of
exotic inheritance at 50 % through interbreeding and further improvement through selection may be
adopted.
Based on the available results from the crossbreeding experiments, the current breeding policy
recommended by the National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) and adopted by Central and State
Governments again laid emphasis on selective breeding in the breeding tracts of well-defined breeds
of cattle, upgrading of non-descript cattle by crossing with defined superior breeds and crossbreeding
with exotic breeds in hilly and urban areas and around industrial townships to ensure adequate milk
supply where facilities for rearing and maintenance of high yielding cattle exist.
Amble and Jain (1966), Katpatal (1979), Bhat (1988), Arora et al. (1993) and Taneja et al.
(2002) have extensively reviewed crossbreeding work in cattle in India.
CONSEQUENCES OF CROSSBREEDING
The superior performance of crossbreds over the mean of parental breeds has been generally
explained due to non-additive gene effects. The results of various crossbreeding studies showed that
for age at first calving, the optimum level of temperate inheritance was between 1/2 and 5/8. Beyond

this level, the overall adaptability of crossbreds to tropical conditions gradually declined, resulting in
increase in age at first calving. For lactation yield, it tended to decline with lower (<50%) and higher
(> 75%) levels of Holstein inheritance. Crossbreeding resulted in a significant decrease in service
period and calving interval, and these were the shortest in crossbreds with 1/2 to 5/8 Holstein inheritance.
Taneja et al. (1979) also observed that there was no linear increase in production level above 50%
with the increase in the level of inheritance of the exotic parent and it cannot be assumed that grading
up to a total replacement of genes will lead to higher levels of production, at least in cattle. Brown
Swiss x Red Sindhi halfbreds produced 53 % more milk than Red Sindhi cows (Stonaker 1953).
Agarwala (1966) reported two times more milk production in Jersey x Red Sindhi halfbreds than the
native component. Bhasin and Desai (1967) observed 188% improvement in milk production in
Friesian x Hariana halfbreds. Heterotic effect of 34% had been reported by Katpatal (1970) in Holstein
x Sahiwal crossbreds at Military Dairy Farm, Jabalpur that was gradually declined as the fraction of
Holstein inheritance deviated from 50%.
Taneja (1973) based on large volume of data reported 4.97% heterosis for 1st lactation milk
yield in Sahiwal x Friesian crosses at different Military Dairy Farms. He also observed beneficial
heterosis of –4.63% for age at 1st calving, -11.4% for service period, -22.4% for number of dry days
and –8.53% for calving interval. Heterosis for birth weight from 1.8 to 7.1% (Katpatal 1970) and
8.56% (Taneja 1973) had been reported in Holstein x Sahiwal crossbreds. Brown Swiss x Sahiwal
crosses at NDRI excelled in milk production by 56% in F1 that was dropped by 24.5% in F2.
The data generated at Kerala under field conditions reflected 146 % rise of milk production in
Jersey x local halfbreds. Holstein Friesian x Sahiwal halfbreds had lower age at 1st calving by 14
months and produced 3.5 times more milk than Sahiwal cows (Parmar and Jain 1986). The increased
variation in F2 over F1 is expected theoretically when the differences among parental breeds are
large. The results obtained from various crossbreeding experiment have revealed that performance
of crossbreds was undoubtedly better as compared to native breeds.
DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS CROSSBRED STRAINS
The crossbreeding experiments have resulted in the evolution of a few new strains of cattle, viz.
Taylor, Jersind, Brownsind, Jerthar, Karan Fries, Karan Swiss, Sunandini and Frieswal capable of
producing more milk than their native breeds. Some breeds like Taylor, Jersind, Brownsind and Jerthar
developed from crossbred foundation though had higher milk production as compared to the indigenous
cows but could not be sustained for long periods because of limited population size and lack of
systematic selection program. The details of the crossbred strains developed/being developed so far
along with their current status including production and reproduction potential have been reviewed.
DEVELOPMENT OF TAYLOR
This breed was the result of efforts of Mr. Taylor, the then Divisional Commissioner of Patna
(Sinha 1951). He imported Shorthorn bulls from UK and crossed them with local cows in and around
Patna. The inter se mating of the breed was continued until no efforts were made to promote the
breed and over a period of time lack of systematic breeding program resulted in loss of this breed.

Animals of this breed are hardly available.
DEVELOPMENT OF JERSIND
The breeding policy of this breed dates back to 1924 at Allahabad Agricultural Institute. Hariana,
Sahiwal, Gir and Kankrej cows were crossed to Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss, Guernsey and Jersey
bulls (Agarwala 1966). The crossbreeding in 1934 was, however, restricted to Jersey and Red Sindhi
and the crossbreds were backcrossed to Red Sindhi. This policy was followed in the expectation that
genes for high milk production would be introduced into the crossbreds by initial crossing and
deterioration of the heat and disease-resisting qualities of Indian cattle would be prevented by
backcrossing to Red Sindhi. This backcrossing was continued for 18 years till 1952.
The crossbreeding policy was modified in 1953 and the Jersey bulls were used on Red Sindhi
cows and on cows with 7/8 or more Red Sindhi inheritance to evolve a crossbred, to be called ‘Jersind’
having between 3/8 to 5/8 Jersey inheritance. In 1955, since Brown Swiss was found to be most heat
tolerant, it was used instead of Jersey for crossbreeding on pure Red Sindhi cows and on cows with 7/
8 or more Red Sindhi inheritance to evolve a crossbred, to be called ‘Brownsind’ having between 3/
8 to 5/8 Brown Swiss inheritance.
Crossbred cows of either Jersey or Brown Swiss inheritance produced more milk and had superior
breeding efficiency than Red Sindhi cows. Survival rate and mortality of crossbreds and of Zebu were
more or less identical. First lactation 305 days milk production was about 53 % more in Brown Swiss
x Red Sindhi halfbreds (6076 lb) as compared to Red Sindhi cows. Age at 1st calving greatly decreased
by the introduction of Jersey genes. The halfbred Jersey-Red Sindhi cows calved earlier (29 months)
and also produced more milk in the first 305 days of their first lactation (1968 kg) than the Red Sindhi
cows. They also exceeded Red Sindhi cows in the total life production by 2.09 times. The average
lactation yield of Jersind cows declined to 1437 kg in later generations. The breed has shown
deterioration over the years mainly because of small numbers and is only confined to the farm.
DEVELOPMENT OF JERTHAR
The project for the development of ‘Jerthar’ breed of cattle was initiated in 1958 at the NDRI,
Bangalore (Nagarcenkar 1966). Jersey bulls of Australian and American strains were mated to
Tharparkar cows. Four bulls of each strain were used. Inter-breeding was adopted among first
generation progeny and halfbred males of Australian strain Jersey were mated to halfbred females of
American strain Jersey and vice-versa to maintain only 50% exotic germplasm among the crossbreds.
F1 bulls were selected from the high-yielding Tharparkar dams. Bulls were further selected on the
basis of performance of their daughters. Semen of bulls was also frozen for use after the evaluation
of daughters’ performance. The same policy was repeated for the F2 and F3 generations. The
performance data revealed that the first generation Jerthar daughters were superior to their Tharparkar
dams in all economic characters. But this breed could not sustain for long periods because of limited
breed size and lack of systematic selection program.
DEVELOPMENT OF KARAN SWISS

A crossbreeding program was started at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal in 1963 with
the prime objective to evolve a strain/breed of crossbred cattle of optimum level of exotic inheritance
suited to our tropical climatic conditions. The Sahiwal and few Red Sindhi cows were used as an
Indigenous (Zebu) breeding stock and Brown Swiss was selected because of its relatively high fat
content and milk production and brown colour. The project commenced by importing frozen semen of
nine proven bulls with average breeding value based on daughters performance in USA of 5400 kg
per lactation (ranging from 5045 to 6543 kg).
The comparative performance with respect to age at first calving and lactation milk production of
various Brown Swiss crossbreds from 1966 to 1980 indicated that F1 crossbreds were the best followed
by 3/4 and the F2 were the poorest. The F1 crossbreds had the lowest age at first calving of 30.8
months, highest first lactation production (305 days/less) of 2933 kg and first calving interval of 421
days. The average performance over all the lactations was 3351 kg for 305 days/less milk yield, 322
days for lactation length and 407 days for calving interval. The next best crossbred group was 3/4
Brown Swiss x 1/4 Sahiwal with average age at first calving of 31.3 months, first lactation (305 days/
less) milk production of 2687 kg and first calving interval of 408 days. The all lactation (305 days/
less) production was 3055 kg with average lactation length of 334 days and calving interval of 411
days. The other genetic groups had performance lower than F1 and 3/4 but all crossbred groups
were better than the indigenous breed groups.
There was no significant evidence of non-additive genetic effects (heterosis) with respect to
growth, milk production, age at maturity and reproduction efficiency. Therefore, in April 1980, the
breeding committee of the Institute decided to merge all genetic groups and to practise selective
breeding for further genetic improvement of the crossbreds. The level of exotic inheritance was
desired at 1/2 to 5/8. The cows were selected on the basis of their expected breeding value (EBV)
and the young males reserved for breeding were selected on the basis of their pedigree performance.
In 1980, when all the Brown Swiss crossbreds were merged to form ‘Karan Swiss’, the herd included
86 per cent halfbreds, 6.4 per cent cows above 50% exotic inheritance, 4.8 per cent cows below 50%
exotic inheritance and 2.8 per cent cows with unknown inheritance. Presently, most of the Karan
Swiss cows have 50% level of exotic inheritance.
The present population of Karan Swiss animals is less than 50. The number has not been
increased in last few years. Karan Swiss animals have been interbred for more than 8 generations
after merging different grades. The age at first calving in Karan Swiss cows averaged 926 days, which
is shorter to Sahiwal cows. The average 1st lactation 305 days milk yield was 3195 kg in 330 days.
The milk production has shown phenotypic trend of 14 kg per year from 1982 to 1992. The 1st calving
interval averaged 415 days. Singh and Gurnani (2003) reported that the phenotypic trend in Karan
Swiss for body weight at different ages was significant and positive and for age at 1st calving it was
significant, negative and in desirable direction. The annual phenotypic change in 1st lactation yield
was positive but small in magnitude (0.31 % of herd average) in Karan Swiss animals (Singh et al.
2003).

DEVELOPMENT OF KARAN FRIES
Another crossbreeding project at National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal using Tharparkar as
a Zebu breed and three exotic breeds, namely Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey was started
in 1971. The main objective of this project was to determine the appropriate choice of exotic breed
and optimum level of exotic germplasm for evolving a breed suitable to Indian climatic conditions. The
halfbreds were further mated to Holstein-Friesian to obtain crossbreds with 75% exotic inheritance.
Three-breed crosses did not show significant improvement over two-breed crosses. The comparative
performance of crossbreds also did not show any significant advantage of having 75% exotic level.
The breeding committee of the Institute in 1980, thus, decided to merge all crossbreds with 50%
or above Holstein Friesian inheritance and to bring further improvement by selective breeding. The
new strain was named as ‘Karan Fries’. The Karan Fries at the time of merging different genetic
groups had approximately half the herd of Friesian crossbred cows having exotic inheritance level of
50%, about a quarter herd having exotic inheritance of 75% Holstein-Friesian and the rest having
75% exotic germplasm from two exotic breeds. The level of exotic inheritance was subsequently
reduced to 62.5% by using halfbred bulls of high breeding value from other organizations.
The current population of Karan Fries is below 500. The number is almost similar over the last 2-
3 years. Karan Fries animals have been interbred for more than 8 generations after merging the
different grades. The age at first calving in Karan Fries cows averaged 896 days, which is shorter to
Tharparkar cows. The average 1st lactation milk yield was 3619 kg in 316 days. The 1st calving
interval averaged 398 days. Singh and Gurnani (2003) reported that the phenotypic trend in Karan
Fries for body weight at different ages was significant and positive and for age at 1st calving it was
significant, negative and in desirable direction. The average fat % ranged between 4.10 and 4.17 and
SNF ranged between 8.58 and 8.75 %. Further genetic improvement in Karan Fries animals is being
obtained through bull selection program. VIII set of 10 bulls was inducted in June 2003. The bulls
inducted in the program had dam’s best 305 days yield from 4546 to 6662 kg. Cows with average
lactation milk yield of 4500 kg and more are being selected as elite for production of male calves. The
V set of 7 bulls has recently been evaluated for 1st lactation 305 days milk yield. Their breeding value
ranged from 2350 to 3135 kg (NDRI Annual Report 2003-04). The two ranked bulls with 14.07 and
3.43 % genetic superiority have been selected for use in nominated mating.
DEVELOPMENT OF SUNANDINI
The origin of the Sunandini breed at Kerala can be traced to the importation of 22 Brown Swiss
bulls and 45 cows during the period from 1964 to 1967. The bulls were mated to a nucleus stock of
140 non-descript cows. Subsequently, semen from 11 more bulls was imported. Information collected
from various sources indicated that about 40 Jersey bulls were also used in crossbreeding program.
Most of these bulls were of Australian New Zealand origin. The KLDB imported two consignments of
exotic bull semen (Jersey, American Brown Swiss and Holstein) for the production of F1 bulls. The
major component of Zebu in the Sunandini breed is the local non-descript cattle of Kerala, even
though one or two attempts have been made to Sahiwal, Gir and Kankrej into the population. Cows of

these breeds were employed for the production of F1 bulls. Originally conceived as a multipurpose
breed for milk, draft and meat, this breed is now becoming solely a milch breed (Chacko 1994).
The breed characteristics fixed for the cows are 350-400 kg mature body weight, 28-32 months
age at 1st calving, 2300-2700 kg 1st lactation milk yield, 3200 kg overall lactation yield and 4 % milk
fat. The present breeding policy for Sunandini aimed at creating a new synthetic breed of a crossbred
population with exotic inheritance of around 50% from Jersey, Brown Swiss and Holstein. Young bulls
are being produced by mating superior Sunandini cows maintained in nucleus farms with proven
bulls; mating superior Sunandini cows maintained by farmers in the milk recorded area with proven
Sunandini bulls; and mating nondescript Zebu cows with superior Jersey/Holstein or American Brown
Swiss bulls. All the young bulls are progeny tested in the milk-recorded area and only the top ones
are employed for production of next generation bulls. Average 40 bulls are tested annually and 10 %
are selected as bull fathers.
The average birth and adult weight in Sunandini females was 28.3 and 375 kg. The males were
heavier than females by 2 kg at birth and 53% at 4 years of age. Age at 1st calving, service period
and calving interval was 32.2 months, 148.2 days and 424.5 days, respectively. Overall lactation milk
yield was 2435 kg in 280 days with 3.89% fat. The milk production improved from 1st (1914 kg) to 4th
(3024 kg) lactation continuously and declined thereafter. Age at 1st calving, service period and calving
interval of the Sunandini were in agreement with the figures reported for other Zebu x Taurus crossbreds
of tropical regions (Acharya 1970, Bhat et al. 1978). Age at 1st calving and calving interval of this
breed were significantly shorter and total milk production was significantly higher than their Zebu
parental stock (age at first calving 42.13 months, milk production 400-800 kg).
Sundandini animals have been interbred for more than 10 generations. The F1 animals however
are also being regularly produced through mating of nondescript Zebu cows with superior Jersey/
Holstein or American Brown Swiss bulls. Population of crossbred cattle in Kerala State has increased
by 34.36 % in 1996 (22.87 lakh) over 1987. The State has registered steady growth in terms of milk
production in spite of many constraints being faced by dairy farmers. The annual milk production of
the State has increased from 0.16 million tonnes in 1966 to 19.30 million tonnes in 1993 and to 24.24
million tonnes in 1999. This quantum leap in milk production was achieved through increase in number
of quality animals and their production level.
DEVELOPMENT OF FRIESWAL
Frieswal Project is one of the prestigious research projects being executed by Indian Council of
Agricultural Research at Project Directorate on Cattle (PDC) in collaboration with Military Farms
Directorate at their 44 Military Farms. This project envisages to evolve a National milch breed “Frieswal”,
a Holstein- Sahiwal cross, yielding 4000 kg of milk with 4% butter fat in a mature lactation of 300 days.
Military Farms at the inception of the Project had Friesian x Sahiwal crossbreds with very low to a very
high Friesian inheritance. The crossbred females with 5/8 HF inheritance named Frieswals were bred
with the semen of their own genetic group. Crossbred females having more than 50 % exotic inheritance
named higher crosses were bred with Frieswal bulls’ frozen semen. Lower crosses (less than 50 % HF

inheritance) were bred with imported frozen semen of proven HF bulls with sire index of above 9000
kg. The mating of higher and lower crosses as described above produced the Frieswal progeny in
subsequent generations.
Sons of 3/8 elite cows bred with the imported proven HF semen and 5/8 elite cows bred with
ranked Frieswal semen were screened to put them under test mating. Male progenies born out of elite
cows are reared at the respective Military Farm up to six months of age. After preliminary selection on
the basis of their birth weight, growth rate and conformation traits, they are shifted to the Bull Rearing
Unit, Meerut for further rearing. The qualified male calves are then selected rigorously for the libido,
semen quality, freezability and storage characteristics before semen freezing.
The herd strength of Frieswal females at the end of year 2003 was 15080 including 884 elite
cows. More than 500 male calves have so far been received at BR Unit for collection and freezing of
semen. A total of 46300 doses of pure HF semen have been procured since inception of the project
to bred lower crosses and produce young male calves out of which 45232 doses have already been
issued at different Military Farms. More than 12 lacs doses of Frieswal semen have so far been
produced at SF Laboratory of PDC out of which more than 6 lacs doses have already been issued at
different Military Farms since inception of the project.
Age and weight at first calving averaged 1005 days and 364 kg, respectively. Average service
period, dry period and calving interval were 161, 112 and 426 days, respectively. All these reproduction
characteristics have shown a declining trend over the period (1997 to 2001) indicating the improvement
in desirable direction. Average milk production in 300 days (MY300) and in entire lactation was 3069
and 3375 kg, respectively. MY300 averaged 2836 kg in 1st lactation. It improved from 1st to 4th
lactation and declined thereafter. About 1.40 % cows produced more than 4500 kg and 5.60 % cows
produced more than 4000 milk in first lactation. Peak yield and lactation length averaged 14.27 kg
and 315 days, respectively. A total of sixty-one bulls have been evaluated for their genetic merit
based on 1st lactation 300 days milk yield of their daughters. Top ten bulls had their breeding values
between 2835 and 2965 kg. Their superiority over the herd average (2703 kg) ranged from 132 to
261 kg i.e. 4.89 to 9.68 %.
OTHER CROSSBREDING PROGRAMS
CROSSBREEDING IN DIFFERENT STATES
A broad policy for cattle breeding exists through crossbreeding with exotic dairy breeds in the
country. The non-descript and low producing cattle are to be improved in milk sheds of large consuming
markets where inputs with respect to feed and health covers are available. Holstein, Brown Swiss and
Jersey are to provide bulk of exotic inheritance and the crossbreds to be stabilized around 50%.
Jersey is being used for the genetic improvement of local cattle in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar,
Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and West Bengal. Holstein Friesian in Delhi and Punjab and Holstein
Friesian and Jersey both in Gujarat, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh are being used in crossbreeding
program currently. Crossbreeding programs in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Hariana

have been taken up extensively.
Efforts for improving dairy cattle in Kerala were made on an intensive scale with the introduction
of Key Village Scheme in 1952 and subsequently with the taking up of Intensive Cattle Development
Programs. The major impetus to crossbreeding, however, was given through the Indo-Swiss Project in
1963. Kerala does not have any descript breed of cattle. A large population of Brown Swiss and
Jersey crossbreds is available now for further improvement through selection. Attempts for recording
the performance of farmers’ cows are also being made. The State Animal Husbandry Department,
Maharashtra carried out the cattle development programs through Key Village Centres, Intensive
Cattle Development Programs, Operation Flood Schemes, Cooperative Federations and Bhartiya
Agro Industries Foundation, Uruli-Kanchan (since 1978). The major program was to cross the
indigenous descript/non-descript cows with Friesian and Jersey to create halfbreds and subsequently
interbred them. The performance of Holstein and Jersey crossbreds under village conditions of
Maharashtra reflected 30.4 and 30.3 months age at 1st calving and 2286 and 1696 kg 1st lactation
305 days milk yield.
Punjab has done better than most of the other States in dairy development. The total milk
production of the State is 7.30 million tonnes, which is 8.01 % of total milk production of the country
(Narang 2004). There is no descript breed of cattle in Punjab and most of the local cattle are of
Hariana type. The State Government had decided to take up crossbreeding with Jersey in sub-
mountainous areas and with Holstein in the central districts. Crossbreeding with Brown Swiss was
done in Patiala, Sangrur, Bhatinda and Faridkot districts under Indo-Swiss Project. Brown Swiss was
however discontinued in 1977 due to lower performance of its crossbreds and Holstein was started in
use. The exotic inheritance was kept between 50 and 60 %. The overall average daily milk yield was
3.29 litres in local cattle and 5.35 litres in crossbred cows. The average lactation milk production per
animal was 2017 and 915 litres for crossbred and local cows, respectively. The crossbred animals
also yielded between 2500 and 3500 litres per lactation depending upon feeding and management.
The breeding policy of Karnataka State is crossbreeding of non-descript cattle with Jersey, Red
Dane and Holstein Friesian and improving other breeds through selection in their respective breeding
tracts. The hilly areas are being involved utilizing crossbred bulls. Largest concentration of crossbred
animals is around Bangalore varying in exotic inheritance from 50 to 75 %. The Indo-Danish project
on Cattle Development was started in 1967 with purebred Red Dane at Hessarghatta (Bangalore).
Red Dane x Sindhi had age at 1st calving between 846 and 900 days, lactation milk yield 2000 kg and
calving interval from 360 to 390 days. Breeding policy of Haryana State includes crossbreeding of
non-descript cows with Jersey and Holstein Friesian and grading up with Hariana, Tharparkar and
Sahiwal breeds. The farmers of the State are greatly benefitted through the sale of crossbred cows.
The average lactation milk production has been noticed 674 litres in local cows and 2210 litres in
crossbred cows.
Most of the crossbred population available in the country is the result of Intensive Cattle
Development Programs. These programs were initiated in 3rd Plan and were strengthened

subsequently. The introduction of frozen semen and artificial insemination program in 1970 further
improved effectiveness of crossbreeding. The total crossbred population in the country is 20.09
million i.e. about 10 % of total cattle population (Indian Livestock Census 1997). Tamil Nadu had the
highest crossbred population (3.50 million) followed by Maharashtra (2.46 million), Uttar Pradesh
(2.10 million), Kerala (1.96 million) and Punjab (1.83 million). Other States had 8.24 million crossbred
cattle. The total milk production of the country is 92.23 million tonnes (provisional) including 30.45
million tonnes from cattle. Crossbred cattle contributed 39% (12 million tonnes) to the total cattle milk
production and 16 % to total milk production of the country. Contribution of crossbred cattle to the
total cattle milk production was the highest in Delhi (100%) and Daman and Diu (100 %) followed by
Pondichery (94%), Punjab (91%), Chandigarh (90%), Kerala (88 %) and Arunachal Pradesh (71 %).
Other States contributing significantly from 40 to 60 % were Maharashtra, Goa, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. This shows that
crossbreeding has significantly contributed to enhanced milk production in the States and thus the
country.
EVALUATION OF CROSSBRED BULLS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS
An ad-hoc research scheme of ICAR on ‘Progeny testing of crossbred bulls under village
conditions’ was first started in the year 1985-86 at BAIF Development Research Foundation, Uruli-
Kanchan (Maharashtra) and two Agricultural Universities at Ludhiana (Punjab) and Mannuthy (Kerala)
for standardization of the performance recording system at farmer herds and to develop progeny
testing procedure under field conditions. The technical program envisaged testing of 10 crossbred
(50 to 75 per cent exotic inheritance) bulls in each batch with performance records on minimum of 30
daughters per test bull. After the establishment of Project Directorate on Cattle in 1987, this ad-hoc
Field Progeny Testing Program after little modifications in the technical programme is now being
coordinated as a regular part of its mandate, aiming at evaluation of crossbred bulls on a large scale
using farmers’ cows in the field since January 1994. This program is one of the most ambitious
venture of the PDC, which envisages testing of Holstein-Friesian crossbred bulls at field level.
The program envisages testing of 30 crossbred bulls in each batch having 50-75% HF exotic
inheritance and dam’s mature lactation equivalent milk yield 4500 kg and above. The period of bull
usage of each batch is 15 months. The target is to record at least 40 daughters per bull spread over
3 different units namely PAU, KAU and BAIF. This involves insemination of at least 300 cows per bull
at each unit. The insemination is carried out at the farmer’s door. Salient findings in the project are as
follows :
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana: Four batches of 81 bulls (18+10+23+30) have so far
been used for insemination and the fifth batch of 22 bulls is in progress. A total of 500 daughters
(184+147+169) from first 3 batches have completed their 1st lactation. The average 305 days first
lactation milk yield was 2698, 2834 and 2938 kg, respectively in first, second and third set progenies.
The age at first calving averaged 1192, 1150 and 1086 days, respectively in the progenies of the first,
second and third set. Fifth set of 22 bulls is in progress and 3849 inseminations have been carried

out in the field.
Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy: Five batches of 68 bulls (12+11+11+15+19) have so

far been used in test mating and the sixth batch of 20 bulls is in progress. A total of 896 daughters
(460+247+168+21) from first 4 batches have completed their 1st lactation. The average milk yield of
1st batch progenies was 2037 litres (from 1744 to 2767 litres). The average milk yield of daughters of
2nd , 3rd , and 4th batch was 2093, 2073 and 2271 litres respectively. The age at 1st calving averaged
1130, 1025, 1381, and 1031 days respectively in the progenies of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th sets. The
overall fat % in second and third batch progenies at second month of lactation was 3.51 and 4.27 in
morning and evening milk, respectively. The progenies attained age at 1st calving at 35 months as
compared to 41 months in the other crossbred cattle of Kerala. Sixth set of 20 bulls is in progress and
1933 inseminations have been carried out.
BAIF, Uruli-Kanchan (Pune): Three batches of 59 bulls (20+19+20) have so far been used for
insemination and the fourth batch of 20 bulls is in progress. A total of 1495 daughters (1237+158)
from first two batches have completed their 1st lactation. The average 305 days first lactation milk
yield was 2930 and 2912 kg in progenies of first and second set. The age at first calving averaged
976 and 984 days in the daughters of first two sets. The averaged fat % in 1st and 2nd set daughters
was 3.86 and 3.70. The current batch of 20 bulls is in progress and 1240 inseminations have been
performed.
REFERENCES
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Animal Sciences 40:110-119.
Agarwala OP. 1966. Crossbreeding project at Allahabad Agricultural Institute. In ‘Seminar on Animal Breeding’,
Haringhata/Calcutta, 7-9 December 1966, ICAR, New Delhi. pp 101-114.
Amble VN and Jain JP. 1966. Review of crossbreeding work done in cattle in India. In ‘Seminar on Animal
Breeding’, Haringhata/Calcutta, 7-9 December 1966, ICAR, New Delhi. pp 16-63.
Arora CL, Singhal RA, Singh RN and Singh Avtar. 1993. Evolutionary crossbreeding experiments with dairy
cattle in India. Indian Dairyman 45(9): 406-415.
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Journal 44: 407.
Bhat PN. 1988. Animal health and production in tropics. Part II of the Proceedings of the 75th Indian Science
Congress, Pune.
Bhat PN, Taneja VK and Garg RC. 1978. Effects of crossbreeding on reproduction and production traits. Indian
Journal of Animal Sciences 48(2): 71-78.
Chacko CT. 1994. Development of the Sunandini cattle breed in India. World Animal Review 80-81 (3-4): 71-79.
Katpatal BG. 1970. The fraction of Holstein breeding in Holstein dairy Zebu crosses resulting in maximum milk
production and growth in India. Ph. D. Thesis, Illinois State College, Illinois, USA.
Katpatal BG. 1979. Cattle breeding research and application in India – Present and future. In ‘Dairy Cattle
Breeding in the Humid Tropics’, paper presented at Hisar, 12-17 February 1979, HAU, Hisar. pp 31-91.
Nagarcenkar R. 1966. Progress of Jersey-Tharparkar crossbreeding project at the National Dairy Research

Institute, Bangalore. In ‘Seminar on Animal Breeding’, Haringhata/Calcutta, 7-9 December 1966, ICAR,
New Delhi. pp 96-100.
Narang IK. 2004. Important schemes of the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying aimed at milk production
enhancement and development of dairy industry. In Souvenir of XXXIII Dairy Industry Conference held at
New Delhi on 26-28 September 2004. pp 15-23.
NCA. 1976. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture, Part VII: Animal Husbandry. Govt. of India,
Ministry of Agriculture & Irrigation, New Delhi.
NDRI. 2004. Annual Report 2003-2004 of the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana).
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Adviser 9(4): 41-44.
Singh A and Gurnani M. 2003. Evaluation of trends in growth and reproductive traits in Karan Fries and Karan
Swiss cattle. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 56(6): 384-386.
Singh MK, Gurnani M and Singh DV. 2003. Trends in 1st lactation traits in Karan Swiss cattle. Indian Journal
of Dairy Science 56(5): 336-337.
Sinha BN. 1951. Taylor cows of Patna. Indian Veterinary Journal 27: 272-276.
Stonaker HH. 1953. Estimates of genetic changes in an Indian herd of Red Sindhi dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy
Science 36: 688-697.
Taneja VK. 1973. Genetic analysis of Holstein Zebu crosses. Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra.
Taneja VK, Bhat PN and Garg RC. 1979. Genetic divergence in various Sahiwal x Holstein crossbred grades.
Theortical and Applied Genetics 54(2):69-74.
Taneja VK, Nagarcenkar R and Bhat PN. 2002. Cattle and Buffalo breeding. In ‘Handbook of Animal
Husbandry’, Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, ICAR, New Delhi.

ISAGB/6
BUFFALO WEALTH AND GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES IN INDIA

R.K. SETHI AND S.N. KALA
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hisar 125001
The number of the world buffalo population is estimated to be approximately 172.7 millions
spread in some 42 countries around the world (FAO, 2004), of which 167.6 million of them are found
in Asia (97 %), while approximately 5 millions (2.9%) are found in rest of the continents. India has over
97.7 millions and they number to approximately 56.6 percent of the total world buffalo population.
During the last 10 years world buffalo population increased by approximately 11 millions showing
annual increase of abut 1.01% which is mainly due to the increase in Asian countries and account for
1.02% which more than the overall increase. The percent increase in India was 1.26% as compared
to the 1.02 % in Asia and 0.89% in rest of the world which is much lower than the increase in India and
in Asian countries (Table 1).
Table 1. Trend of Buffalo population in India and the world
millions
94 2004 % increase per annum
from 94 to 04
India 86.72 (55.30) 97.70 (56.60) 1.26
Asia 152.16 (97.02) 167.62 (97.05) 1.02
Rest of the world 4.67 (2.97) 5.09 (2.95) 0.89
World 156.83 172.719 1.013
Source: www.fao.org (2005), Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage over world population
Buffaloes in India are spread over almost all parts of the country with varying density of population
in different states (Table 2). Data show highest buffalo population in Uttar Pradesh followed by Rajasthan
during the period 1987 and 1997. However, % growth in buffalo population was recorded highest in
Rajasthan followed by West Bengal, Gujarat Punjab and Maharashtra during 1997. AS per the
available information from the data on livestock census during the year 2002, highest growth rate has
been observed in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. This growth has been attributed
due to the increasing trend of buffalo meat production in these states.
Table 2: Total number of buffaloes and annual growth rate in different states of India– 1987 & 1992
State/U Ts. Population (,000) % Growth rate
1987 1992 1997 87-92 92-97
Pondicherry 10 7 4 (-)6.00 (-)8.57
Mizoram 5 7 5 6.96 (-)5.71

Assam 623 959 728 8.99 (-)4.81

Delhi 285 249 203 (-)2.66 (-)3.69
Manipur 140 115 95 (-)3.86 (-)3.48
Madhya Pradesh 6365 7970 6648 4.60 (-)3.31
Tripura 16 20 18 4.56 (-)2.00
Kerala 327 296 111 (-)1.97 (-)12.50
Meghalaya 28 34 17 3.96 (-)10.00
Arunchal Pradesh 12 5 4.51 (-)5.59 (-)1.96
Orissa 1506 1539 1388 0.43 (-)1.96
Goa 40 44 40 1.92 (-)1.81
A & N Islands 14 15 14 1.39 (-)1.32
Uttar Pradesh 18240 20066 18996 1.95 (-)1.06
Tanil Nadu 3129 2814 2741 (-)2.10 (-)0.52
Chatisgarh 1941
Uttranchal 1094
Daman & Diu - 1 1 (-)6.89 0.00
Sikkim 2 2 2 0.00 0.00
Chandigarh 20 23 23 2.83 0.00
Karnataka 4035 4251 4367 1.05 0.54
Andhra Pradesh 8758 9154 9658 0.89 1.10
Nagaland 15 34 36 7.78 1.17
Himachal Pradesh 794 703 748 (-)2.41 1.28
Jammu & Kashmir 465 732 787 5.32 1.50
Bihar 4872 5353 5879 1.90 1.96
Haryana 3827 4373 4823 2.70 2.06
Maharashtra 4753 5448 6073 2.77 2.29
Punjab 5575 5238 6171 (-)1.24 3.56
Gujarat 4502 5268 6285 3.19 3.86
West Bengal 1163 1010 1233 (-)2.78 4.41
Rajasthan 6343 7743 9770 4.07 5.23
D & N Haveli 3 3 4 0.00 6.66
All India 75966 83499 89918 1.98 1.54
Figure in parenthesis indicate % of total number.
Source: Deptt. Animal Husbandry & Dairy, Govt of India.
BREEDS AND GENETIC DIVERSITY
Buffaloes have been classified in two main categories namely riverine and swamp buffaloes

depending upon variation in their habitat and genome structure. River buffaloes are generally large
in size mostly with curled horns and are mainly found in India, Pakistan and some of the west Asian
countries, prefer to enter clear water and have 50 (2n) number of chromosomes and are primarily
used for milk production and also used for meat production and draught purpose. Swamp buffaloes
are stocky animals with marshy land habitats and have 48 (2n) number of chromosomes. They are
primarily used for draught power in paddy fields and haulage and are also used for meat and milk
production. Swamp buffaloes in India, are found in the northeastern states.
India posses the best milch breeds of the world e.g. Murrah, Nili Ravi, Surti, and Jaffarabadi,
which had their origin in North – Western states of India and have high potential for milk and fat
production besides being used for work and surplus stock used for meat production. There are
several other breeds in India which have regional importance and add to economic value of the
farming community e.g. Bhadawari and Tarai in Uttar Pradesh, Nagpuri and Pandharpuri in
Maharashtra, Parlakhemundi, Manda, Jerangi, Kalahandi, Sambalpur in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh,
Toda and South Kanara in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Mehsana breed has been developed from grading
up of Surti buffaloes with Murrah in Mehsana Distt. of Gujarat. Similarly continued grading up of local
non descript buffaloes with Murrah breed in Krishna and Godavari Distt. of Andhra Pradesh resulted
into a strain popularly known as Godavari .
The number of purebred animals of above specified breeds is expected to be about 20 to 25 %
of the total buffalo population in the country. Rest of the buffaloes are non – descript in type and have
extremely variable composition being either non descript or crosses among various breeds and cannot
be categorized in any other well-established breed. There is general concern that the genetic variation
within the few domestic animal species is disappearing through breed substitution and inter breed
crossing. Any reduction in the diversity of genetic resource narrows the scope to respond to selective
breeding. The large population of buffaloes spread all over the country has an extremely variable
composition. The number of purebred animals is further reducing day by day due to immigration and
inter breed crossing.
IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SELECTIVE BREEDING
Limited selection has been applied at institutional herds in different parts of the country primarily
on Murrah buffaloes, though large populations of other important milch breeds of buffaloes also exist
in India. It has not been possible to undertake large-scale efficient selective breeding program with
intensive selection, mass field recording and use of superior bulls in various breeds. As a result the
number of purebred animals of different breeds is declining and performance characteristics of farmer’s
animals is stagnant. The results of selective breeding and progeny testing directed towards improving
milk yield at various institutional herds are discussed.
Military Dairy farms followed the policy of culling and selection since beginning. Initially the level
of culling for replacement of stock was 1350 lt for first lactation, which was revised to 1600 kg in 1966
and to 1800 kg in 1968. The standard for rearing of males was 2700 kg (Dahiya, 1978). As a result of
intensive culling the lactation averages of buffaloes improved from 1443 kg to 2080 kg within two
decades. Selection of males at these standards on the basis of dam’s yield should have generated

genetic gain of about 100 lt per generation but the result did not show the expected improvement (
Dev,1978 ). Sire evaluation of bulls indicated highest breeding value of +247 above the population
mean, 13% bulls had breeding value more than +100 and only 4 bulls were with breeding value more
than 10% above the population mean ( Basavaiah, 1978).
All India coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on buffalo breeding was launched in 1970 at
four centers namely PAU, Ludhiana and NDRI, Karnal each for large sized buffaloes, comprising
mainly Murrah breed. Sukhadia University, Vallabhnagar (Rajasthan) and University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad (Karnataka) for small / medium sized buffaloes comprising mainly Surti and
Mehsana breed. The Objectives of the project were to improve the production potential of buffaloes
through assessment of genetic merit of sires and to increase the production by breeding, feeding
and management. Results of progeny testing at NDRI Karnal, from 1970 to 1993 show that number of
bulls in each set ranged from 4 to 8 and the number of daughters from each bull ranged from 2 to 23.
The superiority of the top ranking bull selected from each set over the contemporary daughters
varied from 7 to 99 % from the 6 sets (Nagarcenkar and Sethi, 1988, ). At PAU Ludhiana superiority of
top ranking bulls over their contemporaries, ranged from 12.1 to 42.4% in 5 sets (Tiwana et al, 1985).
Chadha et al, 2004 estimated breeding value of 36 bulls used from 1976 to 1996 by 3 methods
namely best linear unbiased predictior, least square mean and contemporary comparison method
and found that ranking of top 20% bulls was almost similar by all the three methods. The breeding
value of bulls by contemporary comparison method ranged from 1431 kg to 2205 kg. These estimates
were also close to the breeding value estimated by Vij and Tiwana, 1988 from the same herd.
Buffalo improvement programs through bull selection on the basis of progeny performance and
distribution in the field were taken up at several state and central government farms eg. Alamadi farm
Chennai, Livestock farm Banawasi, Government cattle breeding farm Anjora, Government livestock
farm Hisar all for Murrah breed and Government livestock farm Dhamrod for Surti breed. At most of
these farms several batches of bulls were evaluated following natural breeding system and operated
on small herds ( Sethi and Chopra, 1990 )
At MPUAT Vallabhnagar, results of progeny testing on institutional herds of Surti buffaloes show
that progeny per bull varied from 8 to 17 in first 4 sets of bulls and superiority of the selected bulls
over contemporary daughters ranged from 22.62 to 2.71%. To strengthen the institutional progeny
testing program, 2259 farmers animals of surti breed spread over 5 villages have been covered in the
project. 58.0% registered farmers had buffalo unit between 1-3 while only 14.4% had buffalo unit
more than 5. The impact of the program is that proportion of non-descript animals reduced from
18.27 to 15.27% while Surti type buffaloes increased from 43.84 to 48.25% in the project area.
Number of daughters per bull in the field range from 7-24 and 32-44 from set II and III set respectively.
(Annual Report 2003 – 04, Network Project)
Mehsana District Cooperative Milk Producers Union in Mehsana district initiated improvement
program during 1987 in association with NDDB. Under this program, so far 95 bulls in 8 sets have
completed test mating. The overall average of 305 day first lactation yield of daughters born under
the program was 1933 lt. based on 3279 observations (Namjoshi and Trivedi, 2002 ).

National project on cattle and buffalo breeding is one of the major programme being undertaken
for the overall improvement of buffaloes in all the states. Efforts are being made to identify superior
germplasm and its dissemination for use on farmer’s buffaloes. Minimum standards for each breed
have been laid down for selection of superior bulls and quality norms for germplasm production.
Associated Progeny Testing
The associated progeny testing through Network Project on Buffalo Improvement was initiated
in 1993 with the objective to increase the intensity of selection of bulls from large population and
increased number of progeny per bull for testing in Murrah buffaloes. 12-15 bulls are tested on about
800 breedable buffaloes at 7 institutional herds participating in this project namely PAU Ludhiana,
HAU Hisar and NDUAT Faizabad from SAUs, CIRB Hisar, NDRI Karnal and IVRI Izetnagar from ICAR
institutions and CCBF Alamadi from ministry of animal husbandry. From each bull 60-70 pregnancies
are obtained over 18 months test cycle so as to make available 15-20 recorded daughters spread
over all the centers. Test mating from 7 sets of bulls have been completed. Eighth set of 16 bulls
started from January 2004 and shall continue up to June 2005. All bulls selected for breeding are
subjected to disease surveillance schedule for Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Para tuberculosis, Bovine
viral diarrhea. The disease testing is conducted prior to the entry of the bull for semen collection and
subsequently at six months interval. The bulls that react positive to the test are immediately isolated
and retested for confirmation. (Annual Report, 2003-04 – Network Project)
Progeny test evaluation of 3 sets of bulls under the Network Project show considerable increase
in the number of daughters per bull which ranged from 13 to 26 in first set, 10 to 16 daughters in the
second and 7 to 13 daughters in the third set on the basis of which bulls were progeny tested. Percent
superiority of the 20% top ranking bulls in the 3 sets ranged from 22.8 to 5.5%, 9.37 to 3.53% and
13.11 to 9.50% respectively ( Sire Directory – 2004, Network Project ).
MILK PRODUCTION
From selective breeding through progeny testing in Murrah buffaloes, consistent increase in
305 day or less lactation milk yield has been reported from PAU Ludhiana, IVRI Izetnagar and HAU,
Hisar over the last 5 years. Variation in lactation milk yield observed at various centers over the years
has primarily been attributed due to management and environmental variations over the years. Weighted
average estimated during the year 1999-2000 was 1981 kg from 375 observations, which increased
to 2033 kg during 2003 – 04 from 458 observations.
Performance evaluation and improvement of other important breeds of buffaloes under Network
Project on Buffalo Improvement involves Nili Ravi breed at CIRB sub campus Nabha Panjab, Jaffarabadi
breed at JAU Junagarh Gujarat, Bhadawari breed at IGFRI Jhansi Uttar Pradesh, Surti breed at MPUAT
Vallabhnagar Rajasthan and Pandharpuri breed at MPKV Kolhapur Maharastra. At each of these
centers an elite herd of 50 to 60 buffaloes for young bull production, bull rearing and semen freezing
laboratory has been established. From each bull about 4 thousand doses of semen are frozen. For
test mating 8 – 10 bulls in each set are used for 18 months duration on farmers buffaloes covering a
breedable population of about 3000 buffaloes in the field with the target to breed at least 150 animals

from each bull and to obtain at least 20 recorded daughters from each bull for progeny test evaluation.
25 % top ranking bulls are to be selected for nominated mating on the elite buffaloes at the farm as
well as on identified buffaloes in the field. Production and reproduction characteristics of some of the
important breeds are presented in Table 3 (Annual Repot 2003 – 04, Network Project).
Table 3. Production and reproduction characteristics of different breeds of buffaloes during the year
2003 - 04.
S. N. Breed Av. Age at Av. Service Av. Dry Av. 305 day Av. Calving
Ist calving Period period or less milk Interval
(months) (days) (days) yield (kg) (days)
1. Murrah* 44.9 134.7 167 2033 456
(221) (432) (208) (458) (342)
2 Jaffarabadi 47.0±1.7 155±18.1 179.6+10.1 1794±142 165.8±18.0
(15) (33) (33) (39) (33)
3 Nili Ravi 41.9±0.61 132±8.2 145±5.5 1941 441±8.3
(58) (90) (90) (105) (90)
4 Surti 49.8±1.6 146±14.3 177.4±12.0 1646±41 454±14
(29) (35) (35) (34) (35)
5 Bhadawari 48.6±0.6 138±17 220±23 1029 445±17
(16) (16) (24) (16)
6 Pandharpuri 45.3±1.1 141±7 116.8±5.6 1384.5 445±12
(20) (9) (87) (87)
7 Godavari 36.04 92±5.4 97.46±68 2062.8 431±23
(38) (55) (24) (46)
8 Swamp** 55.4±0.4 187±4.6 193.4±4.7 500 511±4.5
(336) (336) (336)
* Weighted average from the participating centers under Network project; **Field animals
Average lactation milk production of farmers buffaloes in the field has been estimated based on
the survey reports for Jaffarabadi buffaloes ranging from 2520 to 2802 kg (Singh et al, 2003 ), for
Mehsana breed 1823 kg, (Pundir and Singh, 2003), for Surti buffaloes ranging from 701 to 1600 kg
(Kumar et al, 2003) from 1201 to 1350 kg (Bharat et al, 2003) and for Nili Ravi buffaloes 1926±48 kg
(Singh et al, 2003) indicating the presence of wide variability in different breeds of buffaloes and
scope for improvement through selection.
MEAT PRODUCTION
Buffalo meat production accounts for about 30% of the total 4.9 million tones meat production in
the country and their contribution is next to milk as major source of livestock economy and comes to
about 16% of the total output of the livestock sector. During the last 25 years meat production has
increased from 764,000 tonnes in 1970-71 to 4.9 million tones indicating average growth rate during

the last two decades at 4.6% as against 21% during the last 5 years (Qureshi and Ranjhan, 2004).
This shows the recent increasing trend and interest of buffalo producers in meat production. Buffalo
meat is generally produced from spent buffaloes and emaciated young male calves. Dressing
percentage in such animals is low and varies between 40 to 45% with average carcass weight as low
as 138 kg. However, dressing percentage in these animals can be substantially increased by proper
feeding prior to slaughter and in such animals growth rate as high as 1000 gm per day has been
reported under feed lot system (Ranjhan, 2003).
Dry matter intake of such animals is generally more than 3% of body weight and dressing
percentage as high as 55 to 60% can be achieved. A strong need has been felt to establish a
production base around each modern abattoir to produce quality disease free animals as per the
sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) requirements of OIE standards (Qureshi and Ranjhan, 2004).
In experimental trials daily body weight gain up to 541 gm per day has been achieved under
conventional concentrate feeding system. Weight gain during summer months is higher than in hot
humid months. (Bharadwaj and Sethi, 1994).
DRAUGHT POWER
Buffaloes in most part of the country are primarily used for milk, spent buffaloes and young and
emaciated males are sent to slaughterhouses for meat production while adult males are generally
used for work. Buffalo males of Murrah breed have efficient work capacity especially for load pulling
and ploughing in rice cultivation. Though, buffalo bulls are slower in movement than cattle but they
can pull heavier load and cover about 3.2 km per hour as compared to 4.8 to 6.4 km per hour by draft
bullocks (Taneja, 1999). Draught power of buffaloes, varies with breed, body size and body weight.
Large buffalo bulls are able to pull heavy load but are not maneuverable like small and compact
animals and hence move slowly (Upadhyay,1999). Buffaloes can generally work for 6 – 8 hrs.
continuously at light work, 4 – 6 hrs at sub maximal work and 3 – 4 hrs at heavy work. Besides being
strong enough for draught power, buffaloes can work in deep muddy soil in comparison to any other
animal.
Buffalo bullocks can draw heavier loads than cow bullocks but are slower (3.2 km per hour) than
the later (4.8 km per hour) of draught cattle breeds. Field studies on rural Murrah buffaloes used
exclusively for transport showed that they are capable of pulling loads 6 times greater than their body
weight in pneumatic tyred bullock carts. The usual load carrying capacity of buffalo is 1.5 to 2 tones
continuously for 2 to 3 hrs and for 6 to 8 hrs in a day during winter and 5 to 6 hrs in summer (Upadhaya,
1988), However she buffaloes, can work for moderate work for a period of 1 to 2 hrs continuously
without affecting their milk yield ( Bhoite and Deokar, 2004).
GENETIC PROGRESS
This system of progeny testing in small herds resulted in low genetic gain in first lactation milk
yield of 4.5 kg per annum, which was about 0.27 % of the herd average of 1850 kg (Vij and Tiwana,
1985). Genetic gain estimated in individual herds has been reported to be very low in different herds

which varied from 0.50 % at NDRI Karnal (Sahana and Sadana, 1998), 0.98 % at PAU Ludhiana
(Chadha, 1998) and 0.82 % per annum in 305 day first lactation yield at CIRB Hisar ( Sethi, 1998 )
estimated over the time scale using different methods.
At military Dairy Farms expected genetic gain was only 6 kg per annum, which is only 0.37 % of
the herd averages while estimated 12.16 kg response to selection was observed, assuming intensity
of selection as 0.34 corresponding to the 80% selection of individuals from 7 military dairy farms
(Singh et al, 2003). Taylor et al, 1994 also estimated 6.07 and 5.78 percent response to selection in
total first lactation milk yield and 305 day first lactation milk yield through mass selection in Surti
buffalo.
Chakarvarty and Rathi (1989) analysed data on 1340 buffaloes from 3 military dairy farms and
found that selection of buffaloes on the basis of 12 month weight was more desirable as this produced
higher weight at 18 months by 3.04 kg, higher milk yield by 29.2 kg and decreased age at first calving
by 6 days. It was further emphasised that correlated response was less as compared to the direct
genetic response in early expressed traits. There have been several factors responsible for low rate
of genetic response, which are discussed below.
Limitations of progeny testing undertaken at institutional herds
Small population size: Most of the institutional herds, where progeny testing programs were
undertaken had small herds of 150 to 300 animals. This is why small batches of 4 to 8 bulls were
evaluated in each set and ranked on small progeny size ranging from 3 to 4 daughters per bull. Gaur
et al, 2003 also revealed that genetic progress per generation increased with the increase in population
size, increase in proportion of population mated to young bulls.
Low intensity of selection: Two major factors for achieving fast improvement are the accuracy of
selection and the intensity of selection. Which on small herds size, even with efficient artificial
insemination programs, are hard to achieve. Since we cannot test several sons of selected sires
(SS), which is the major source of genetic progress (43%). A maximum genetic gain of 193.9 liters per
generation was expected when the test was done on 8 daughters per bull and 2 out of 15 tested bulls
were selected and the test is based on 10 daughters per bull in the artificial insemination program the
intensity of selection from female path remains low because at least 80% of the female stock is
retained for future breeding.
Large generation interval: In most of the buffalo progeny testing programme the sires have been
used for so long as to result in overlapping of generations. This increase the environmental variance
in progeny test evaluation and reduces the genetic gain per unit time as a result of increased generation
interval. This leaves the challenging task of reducing the generation interval by reducing the test
mating duration for candidate bulls to only 1 year, optimum feeding and management of young bull
calves for future sets so that they become fit for breeding by the age of 2 to 2 ½ years, optimum
feeding and management of heifers to bring down the age at first calving to about 3 years and
computerization of herd records to obtain prompt evaluation of progeny performance and evaluation
of cows for elite mating. (Nagarcenkar and Sethi, 1988).

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH CROSSBREEDING
Riverine: Crossbreeding among riverine breeds has been taken up in several countries to
combine the desirable genes in parental breeds in order to improve the milk production potential. In
an experiment undertaken at NDRI Karnal on crossbreeding of Murrah and Surti breeds it was found
that in crossbreds there was some improvement in milk production and reproductive performance.
Milk yield per day of calving interval in crossbreds was 3.4 kg while in Murrah buffaloes reared in the
same environment it was 3.2 kg. ( Basu and Sarma, 1982 ).
In Gujarat farmers undertook extensive breeding of Surti buffaloes with Murrah. Mehsana breed
is said to have been evolved from above crossing. Mehsana District Cooperative Milk Producers
Union in Mehsana district initiated improvement program during 1987 in association with NDDB. Under
this program so far 95 bulls in 8 sets have completed test mating. The overall average of 305 day first
lactation yield of daughters born under the program was 1933 lt. Based on 3279 observations (Namjoshi
and Trivedi, 2002 ).
In Andhra Pradesh extensive breeding of local non-descript buffaloes with Murrah by farmers in
the Krishna deltaic region has resulted into the origin of a new strain of buffaloes popularly known as
Godavari. Performance recording and improvement of this breed has been initiated at ANGRAU
Venkataramanagudem, Hyderabad under the Network Project on Buffalo improvement of ICAR. At
this center an elite herd of 50 buffaloes has been established for young bull production. Facilities for
bull rearing and semen freezing have been established. Each set comprises of 8 – 10 bulls and from
each bull 4 thousand doses of semen are frozen. For test mating approximately 3000 farmers buffaloes
have been identified for breeding through AI over test cycle of 18 months. Survey conducted on
farmer’s animals in this tract show milk production and other performance traits of Godavari buffaloes
at par with Murrah while at the institute herd 305 day all lactation average has been estimated as
2062 kg (Sire Directory, 2002) which is equivalent to the milk production potential of Murrah buffaloes.
ONBS FOR ENHANCING GENETIC GAIN
Though the technique of MOET in buffaloes is still under standardization but this has been
made use of as a breeding tool in ONBS for faster multiplication of superior germplasm and obtaining
higher genetic gain. A single herd open mixed MOET program was planned by NDDB (Trivedi, 1992)
at its Buffalo Breeding centre located at Nekarikallu (AP), The project envisaged to select 32 top
buffaloes from 250 buffaloes, 4 donors assigned to each bull with total 8 bulls in each set, 16 embryos
per donor to be recovered in 5 to 6 flushing every year and 8 pregnancies per donor with expected 4
male and 4 females calves born. It was planned to evaluate bulls on two Dam’s records, 4 full sibs
records and 12 half sibs records from 8 families and select one young bull per family for the next
cycle.
Similarly a model ONBS scheme has been planned involving the centers of Network project on
Buffalo Improvement and HLDB with the objective of early selection of bulls on the basis of half sibs
and strengthening the ongoing associated progeny testing programme for enhancing genetic gain

through bull selection.
MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION FOR EARLY SELECTION
Allelic variation ranging from 9 to 36 % was observed by RAPD primers in high and low yielding
buffaloes. Sequence, showing the highest polymorphism in buffaloes associated with high and low
lactation milk yield was identified. Similarly, genotypic differentiation for buffaloes with varying AFC
and Service period has also been demonstrated (Sethi and Sikka, 2004). Murrah buffaloes with Tf-
DD phenotypes produced maximum (2930 kg) milk in a lactation and transferin and albumin variants
were recommended to be used as gene markers for the selection of high yielding animals at an early
age (Rohilla, 2003). Top down model of marker assisted selection with 30 to 40 progeny per bull has
been recommended for increasing the genetic gain by 1 – 2% (Thangaraju, 2002).

ISAGB/7
ROLE OF INDIAN BUFFALOES IN THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES

WORLD-WIDE
S.C. CHOPRA* AND B.S. PUNIA**
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Sirsa Road, Hisar – 125 001 (Haryana)
*Former Director CIRB Hisar, **Director CIRB Hisar
Introduction: Indian riverine buffaloes are the most important contributor for improving the rural
economy through producing about 55 percent of country’s milk for human consumption, besides their
use for draught and meat. Century’s old genetic adaptation of riverine buffalo in Indian ecosystem
and social acceptance has lead to its dominance as a dairy animal. Gradually the Indian buffaloes
have distinguished in to eight well defined breeds suited to different socio-economic and agro-climatic
conditions. However, amongst the various breeds, large sized viz. Murrah and Murrah types (Nili, Ravi
and Kundi etc.) continue to dominate the global scene like Holstein-Friesian in cattle. Even Nili-Ravi
and Kundi were considered varieties of Murrah except for their geographical isolation by the Punjab
rivers, before independence. There were some morphological differences among these types as well.
Subsequently, as reported by Syed (1991). Nili-Ravi was presented as a breed at the first All India
Cattle show held in the year 1939. Later on in the year 1941, Nili and Ravi were described as
separate breeds. Kundi breed of Pakistan was derived from Murrah being earlier termed as Sindhi
Murrah.
Historical evidences show that Murrah breed of buffalo lead to the evolution of modern milch
breeds of buffaloes in the Indian sub-continent particularly in North-Western plains of India. The
impact on genetic improvement of buffaloes at the global level, therefore, is primarily attributable to
export of Murrah germplasm from this region of India and Pakistan.
Breeds Exported: Indian buffaloes have been migrating in a phased manner during the last two
centuries to many countries. These animals are either adopted as purebred germplasm and/or as
crossbreds with the native breeds in the new environments. Although the complete records of export
of Indian buffaloes to different countries are not available, yet some documented information may be
traced in the government files for academic interest. In the earlier years, export of Indian buffaloes to
some tropical countries may have been associated with the migration of Indian human population, but
later the export was continuing due to their acceptance as high milk yielders which could thrive well on
poor quality feeds and in difficult environments.
Buffalo distribution pattern in the major continents is given in Table 1.Two third of total buffalo
population in the world is of riverine type and they are maintained and bred for milk production.
Amongst the riverine buffaloes, Murrah and its types have established their superiority as economical
dairy animals. Export of Indian buffaloes has been taking place through legal and unauthorized
pathways. Newer germplasm was designated as crossbred Murrah germplasm like Bulgarian Murrah
or even the presence of Murrah germplasm in the nomenclature was not reported.
Government of India through bilateral cooperation agreements exported Murrah buffalo

germplasm to countries viz. South-Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Philipines, Combodia etc. India also allowed
exports of live animals to Bulgaria, Italy and some other South European nations. Brazil, Trinidad,
Tobago and Sri Lanka also imported Indian buffaloes for improving their native stock.
Influence of export of Indian buffaloes may not be very large as compared to Friesian Cattle, but
due to its positive genetic impact, demand of Indian germplasm continues unabated at global level.
Performance Status in Importing Countries
Crossbreeding among riverine breeds has been taken up to combine desirable traits in native
stock in a number of regions within the country and in other countries of the world. In Gujarat, Mehsana
breed is known to have evolved from the crossbreeding of Surti buffaloes with Murrah by the farmers.
Looking to the sustainability of this breed, NDDB initiated improvement programme in this breed in
1987 through Network of Cooperative Societies, Likewise, Godavari breed has been developed by
crossing non-descript local buffaloes in Krishna-delta with Murrah. This ‘so-called’ breed has also
been included in the network programme on buffalo Improvement.
Murrah, Nili-Ravi and their crossbreds with local buffaloes in countries with tropical and subtropical
climate have been tested and some of the published reports are presented in Table 2.
Alexiev et al (1991) analyzed milk production and butter fat records of 3066 buffaloes comprising
of 113 Murrah purebreds and 2953 crossbreds of Murrah with local breed representing 15247 lactations.
They observed that increased inheritance of Murrah in local Mediterranian buffaloes lead to higher
breeding value. Among the buffaloes under test Murrah breed had highest positive index value (52.3
per cent). In F1 crosses, positive index value was 36.6 per cent which improved with subsequent
upgrading (Table 3).
The trend is the same in the elite group of buffaloes with index value more than 105. Positive
index value in F1 of 14.1 percent rose to 19.0 percent in third generation and well matched with 20.4
percent of Murrah breed. They concluded that bull dams with index-value of butter fat should be used
and for AI and the index value of over 111 per cent was of great advantage.
Italian buffalo breeders have undertaken buffalo improvement through introduction of Murrah
germplasm particularly in provinces of Salerno (Compania) and Latino (Lazio). Development of
mozzarella cheese helped in enhancing milk yield through crossbreeding in buffaloes. According to
Franco Gonsalvo (1997), the mean milk production/lactation of 1472 kg in 319 days reached 2008 kg
in 294 days of lactation length (Table 4). This high increase in production was the result of only
selection programme started in the year 1993 (and characterized by 15 percent annual culling of
worst buffaloes) with the use of high pedigreed bulls. This herd was maintained on similar feed over
the years under test (Table 5) in order to minimize variation due to this important factor. Milk fat
percent and protein percent did not show any significant change, however, milk yield continued to
increase dramatically over years. One buffalo at Olga was the best female animal at Ebolis trade fair
held in the year 1996.
Buffalo population in Brazil is about 1.2 percent of the cattle herd (including buffaloes). It exhibited

12.75 percent growth per year, the highest rate presented by any domestic mammal in the world
(Cabrera, 1991). The herd has proliferated without any form of official control and thus lead the
American continent with estimated number of 1600,000 animals. These animals belong to Murrah,
Jaffarabadi, Mediterranian and Carabao types. Milk production of 1453 kg +25.5 in 300 days was
reported by Cockrill (1974).
Argentina introduced Murrah and Jaffarabadi from Brazil, Paraguay, Italy and Bulgaria with main
interest of producing extra-ordinary buffalo beef. Maro Zova (1998) reported that Murrah females
reached their slaughter weight of 500 to 550 kg at 27 to 30 months of age.
In Venezuala, 25000 buffaloes are due to importation from Trinidad, Bulgaria and probably from
other neighboring countries. The average milk production is about 1700 kg per lactation, the best
female having reached 3000 kg in per lactation.
Trinidad, a small island (4828 Sq km) of West Indies was one of the first places to introduce
buffalo in the American continents, especially for agricultural work and manure. The breeds imported
were Murrah, Jaffarabadi, Nagpuri, Surti, Bhadawari, Ravi and Nili. According to Carbrera (1991), Dr.
S.P. Benrett started selection for breeding for meat production. Animal type with straight back line
with a rounded croup and wider loins was developed and given the name of “Buffalolypso”. This name
originates from calypso music.
Similarly buffaloes have found their new inhabitations in Peru, Paraguay, Ecuador, Columbia
Cuba and Surinam, but there is still a large scope to increase their number and production in relatively
poor and marshy areas.
In China about 2 to 3 fold increase in lactation milk yield of crossbreds over local buffaloes was
noted. Murrah and Nili-Ravi continued to be the most superior in this country (Xiao, 1988). Similarly, in
Bulgaria 30 per cent gain in milk yield of crosses over local breed was observed. In China as well, the
crossbreeding of local animals with Nili-Ravi has resulted in significant improvement in milk production
in comparison to the local buffaloes. The average milk yield per lactation in Murrah crossbred (F1 and
F2)has been observed to be 1240.5 kg and 1423.3 kg, respectively, which is higher than the local
buffalo of 1092.80 kg (Yang et al 2003). Similarly F1 and F2 crosses with Nili-Ravi have shown an
improvement by 88.6% and 115.2%, respectively, in milk yield over the natives. At present the
crossbreeding programme by combining 3 breeds has been initiated and tob crossing combination is
the main selection criteria for bringing genetic improvement in Chinese buffaloes.
In the Philippines, a massive programme was launched in 1993 to improve native swamp buffalo
locally known as Carabao to develop into efficient producer of meat, milk, draft and other value added
products by adopting two pronged strategies. This programme is aimed at conserving the best
germplasm of the native buffalo and also to generate crossbreds by crossing either with Indian Murrah
or Pakistani Nili-Ravi. Two developmental enterprises known as 25 cow dairy buffalo module and 25
heifers dairy module have been made operational in 1999 by Philippines Carabao Centre. The
results have shown that Murrah and Nili-Ravi G 1 grades were heavier by about 40% at birth than the
natives. Phil-Murrah F1crossbred produced 1300 litres of milk in a lactation of 300 days in comparison

to 500 litres of milk.
The F1 were larger in size with better draught ability, higher growth and higher milk yield. In the
Philipines crossbred locally human mestiso performed better draughtability, higher growth rate and
higher milk yield. The crossbred hybrids were fertile and were socially accepted by the farmers as
they proved to be more economical than the native animals. These findings indicate that swamp
buffalo can be used for milk production by crossing them with dairy breeds (Dhanda 2004).
Above scenario of buffaloes productivity in countries other than India and Pakistan reveal that
riverine buffalo have shown remarkable adaptability under wide range of environments. It also serves
as a note of caution for the Indian scientists and buffalo breeders to put in greater/overall efforts to
increase milk production and economic efficiency capabilities so as to continue as world leader in this
area of livestock production. This specie offers large scope for improving the availability of high fat
milk for millions of deprived human population. Augmenting the export of Indian buffalo germplasm of
relatively better genetic constitution to all countries of tropical and subtropical world (with matching/
equivalent exchange programmes/MOUs from there) may provide enormous opportunities of
employment and income in the rural sector through dairy, draught, meat and leather (skin and hides)
industries.
Table 1: Number of Buffaloes by continent in millions
Continent 1961 1971 1981 1991 2000
Asia N 88.04 108.39 122.73 136.27 160.40
GI 2.5 1.3 1.2
Africa N 1.05 2.06 2.37 2.55 -
GI 9.0 1.5 0.8
S. America N 0.063 0.129 0.54 1.234 1.10
GI 10.4 31.7 12.9
Europe N 2.13
*Growth index as annual % change
Table 2: Lactation milk production in kg of Murrah and Nili-Ravi buffaloes and their crosses
with local buffaloes*
Country Local Murrah (M) Nili Ravi ½M ½L ½ NR ½ L Triple

(NR) Crosses
China 441+212 1573+524 1873+690 1153+397 1500+100 1981

(236) (237) (261) (271) (297) (288)

Nepal 487+165 1004+165 - 806+130

(223) (272)
Bulgaria 1198+13 1823+76 - 1492+19

(297) (306) (288)
Egypt 1298
(245)
Figures in parameters are the respective lactation length in days.

*Chantlakhana, C. (1991)
Table 3: Distribution of the Buffaloes based on butter fat index in different generation
Index class Murrah F4 R1 F2 R3

interval % X % X % X % X % X
Up to 90 15.8 87.2 9.4 87.1 8.0 87.7 7.7 87.1 11.2 88.4
91-95 12.4 93.4 24.5 93.3 19.2 93.1 20.2 93.1 14.7 92.9
96-100 19.5 98.0 29.5 98.3 34.2 98.0 29.4 97.8 31.0 98.6
101-105 31.9 102.4 22.7 102.6 24.5 102.8 25.8 102.8 24.1 102.9
106-110 12.4 107.9 10.4 107.8 12.7 107.9 12.7 107.4 11.2 107.8
Over 111 8.0 112.6 3.5 113.2 4.4 114.0 4.2 114.4 7.8 114.9
Table 4: Rolling herd average in Italy
Year Lactation Milk Fat percent Protein Lactation

(Kg) percent
1990 37 1472 - - 319
1991 45 1609 - - 280
1992 109 1894 - - 300
1993 116 1811 7.60 4.40 296
1994 84 1815 7.48 4.46 311
1995 121 1871 7.66 4.57 311

1996 115 2008 7.40 4.39 294
Table 5: Feed Ingredients given to buffaloes during the period of breeding ex percent
(1990 to 1996) and their composition in Italian herd.
Ingredients Quantity (kg) offered to

Milking Buffaloes Dried Buffaloes
Corn silage, 33% DM 20.0 9.0
Hay 5.0 0.0
Wheat straw 2.0 5.0
Corn/Barley 2.0 0.0
Cotton seed 2.0 1.0
Soybean meal 44% CP 2.0 1.5
Mineral vitamin mix. 0.2 0.2
Chemical Analysis
CP percent 13.5 10.2
NDF 48.0 61.0
Ne1, Meal/Kg DM 1.50, 0.87 1.35, 0.72
Dry matter silage Kg./d 18.7 10.0
Table 6: Comparison of milk production/performance in different buffalo Crossbreds in

China
Breed Lactations Lactation Milk yield Average milk Highest

length (kg/day) yield daily milk
(days) (kg/day) yield (kg)
L 70 280±20.2 1092.8±207.4 3.79 6.6
M 237 324.7±73.9 2132.9±78.3 6.57 17.40
N 164 316.8±83.6 2262±663.9 7.14 18.40
MLF1 157 313.7±96.7 1240.5±479.8 3.95 7.57
MLF2 118 313.9±90.1 1423.3±534.5 4.53 8.30
NLF1 45 326.7±96.4 2041.2±540.9 6.25 16.65

NLF2 55 321.4±118.1 2325.1±994.4 7.22 19.35

N.MLF2 168 317.6±78.4 2294.6±772.1 7.22 18.80
N.MLG 170 329.1±89.8 1994.9±635.0 6.06 18.50
References
Alexiev, A., Vankov, K. and Peeva, T. (1991). Estimation of the Breeding value of Buffalo cows. IIIrd World
Buffalo Congress Proceeding; May13-17 page 46-49.
Cabrera, A.M.F. (1991) Buffalo Production System in Latin America. Buffalo Production around the World;
Problems and Prospects. IIIrd World Buffalo Congress, 13-18 May, Varna Bulgaria.
Chantlakhana, C. (1998).Buffalo population around the world,problems and prospects. III World Buffalo Congress
13-18 May, Varna Bulgaria.
Cockrill,W.R. (1974). The husbandry and health of domestic buffalo. FAO, Rome.
th
Dhanda, O P (2004). Developments in water buffalo in Asia and Oceania. Proc: 7 World Buffalo Congress
held in Manila, Philipines, 20-23 Oct, pp 17-28.
Franco Gonsalvo (1997). Buffalo cows in Maremma. Bubalus bubalis 4, viale, G. Veridi, 12, 84151 Salerno
(Italy).
MaroZova (1998). Buffalo breeding in Argentina Bubalus bubalis.1 page 1 to 7 viale, g. Veridi, 12, 84151
Salerno (Italy).
Syed, K. S. (1991). Buffaloes of Pakistan, Publised by Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad,
Pakistan.
Xiao (1988). Crossbreeding in Buffaloes. II World Buffalo Congress. Proc. Vol. II, Part 1. New Delhi.
th
Yang Bingzhuang, Li Zhongquan, Liang xianwel and Zo, Caixcia (2003). Proc. Of 4 Asian Buffalo Congress,
New Delhi.

ISAGB /8
BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION OF BHADAWARI BUFFALOES IN

UTTAR PRADESH
K.C. SHARMA, RAKESH GOEL, M.R. SINGH, SHARAD KUMAR AND H.N. SINGH
Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, U.P.
Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Viswavidyalya
Evam Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura
INTRODUCTION
Bhadawari breed of buffaloes is a native breed of Bhadawar estate, which was in existence
before independence of India. The estate covered an area of Agra and Etawah districts of Uttar
Pradesh and part of Bhind and Morena districts of Madhya Pradesh. Bhadawari buffaloes are found
in the ravines of Yamuna and Chambal rivers. These buffaloes are most suitable to farmers because
of their medium size, high conversion efficiency of course feed into butter-fat, high reproductive
efficiency and draught power. In addition to these qualities Bhadawari buffaloes are resistant to many
tropical bovine diseases and produce milk with very high butter-fat content (Up to 13 percent).
NEED FOR CONSERVATION
There are reports that during the last few decades there have been a decreasing trend in the
population of Bhadawari buffaloes (Singh et al., 1993; Pundir et al., 1997 and Kushwaha et al., 2004).
Bhadawari buffaloes in Uttar Pradesh were reported 1.139 lakhs in 1977, while in 1991 they were
observed to be 0.982 lakhs only. This indicates a decline at an alarming rate i.e. 13.78 percent. In
present investigation, a survey of those five blocks of Agra and Etawah districts, where these buffaloes
are found, was conducted in 2000-2002 under NATP project entitled “Characterization and conservation
of Bhadawari buffalo” as shown in the Table-1. It was observed that there was the steep decline in the
population of purebred Bhadawari animals and a total of 1373 animals only were actually available. It
was also noted that six villages of Etawah district and four villages of Agra district where Bhadawari
buffaloes were reported previously, did not have even a single Bhadawari buffalo. The Bhadawari
population in most of the villages of the breeding tract ranged from 1-3 animals per household.
As per Kushwaha et al., 2004 the present population of Bhadawari buffaloes in Etawah, Bhind,
Morena, Jalaun and Agra districts of breeding tract is expected to be 13500 heads only. Bhadawari
buffaloes are now getting diluted and facing degeneration. This valuable breed is under constant risk
of complete extinction within next five years or so, if serious efforts are not being made immediately for
conservation of this breed. To know the recent population status of Bhadawari buffaloes in their
breeding tract comprising Agra, Etawah, Jhansi, Jalaun, Lalitpur districts of Uttar Pradesh and Bhind,
Morena districts of Madhya Pradesh, a fresh census survey should be done.
CONSERVATION PROGRAMME
The major factor affecting the purity of Bhadawari breed is the scarcity of purebred Bhadawari
bulls in the breeding tract. Murrah semen was generally available for breeding of Bhadawari buffaloes

at the A.I. centers of Uttar Pradesh Animal Husbandry Department, which resulted dilution of this
breed in terms of purity. Farmers, which were not interested for breeding of their Bhadawari buffaloes
with Murrah semen, have to use natural service with inferior Bhadawari bulls maintained by ‘NUT’
community. So, for the conservation of Bhadawari breed of buffalo, there is immediate need:
1. To make available Bhadawari bulls of superior genetic constitution in the breeding tract in
sufficient number.
2. To upgrade Bhadawari buffaloes for bringing about genetic improvement in their productivity.
For effective implementation of conservation programme, the following methodology can be

followed:
Identification of elite Bhadawari buffaloes
The livestock census as conducted previously in the U.P. state will not serve the purpose of
conservation of this breed. The census data of Bhadawari buffaloes in their breeding tract are essentially
required along with their milk production level and fat content in their milk for their identification,
characterization, evaluation, documentation and conservation. It would also help to provide information
on unique characteristics and to enlist the elite animals of this breed.
Procurement of bull calves
The individual farmer maintains Bhadawari buffaloes in small number with other species of animals.
No data recording system is followed in farmer’s herds. The data recording has a key role to play in
documenting the erosion of these valuable genetic resources and in highlighting the position due to
which Bhadawari breed of buffalo is likely to disappear in near future unless specific action is taken.
Government agencies and NGO’s can create the awareness among the Bhadawari buffalo breeders,
not to dispose male Bhadawari calves for beef purpose at the end of lactation. Some incentives in the
form of feed/ medicines and cash subsidy costing up to the 1/3rd of rearing cost may be given to
motivate the farmers to maintain Bhadawari buffaloes at least up to three lactations.
Male calves should be selected from milk-recorded herds of progressive animal breeders of the
breeding tract. If, milk recording is not done from beginning of lactation, then bull calves may also be
procured from the field area by recording their dam’s milk yield at least for two days i.e. once in the
second month and once in the third month, both in the morning and then in the evening. This
consideration shall be given for breed characteristics of the dam also. The dam, whose calf is to be
purchased and male calf to be selected should be ear tagged. One day before the dam is to be
recorded, the buffalo should be completely milked in the preceding evening in the presence of a team
appointed for the selection of bull calves. Next day, both in the morning and evening the dam is to be
milked in the presence of team and its milk yield as well as fat percentage of milk will be recorded. On
the basis of two days milk yield along with fat content of milk, the production capacity of dam will be
evaluated and following criteria may be used for selection of male calves.
All those calves of elite dams whose dam’s estimated milk yield is more than 1000 kg with 8.0

percent or more fat content in first lactation of 300 days or more than 1200kg milk in other lactations
may be considered for procurement. The bull calves may be purchased at 8-10 months of age at the
attractive rate by giving incentives to farmers for higher milk production and higher fat percentage as
recommended in Table-2, to be decided by the purchase committee, keeping in view, the physical
condition of calves.
Rearing of bull calves
The selected male young calves may be reared at Bhadawari Buffalo Breeding Farm, Etawah
and at Livestock Farm, Bharari (Jhansi), under optimum feeding and management conditions. The
data on feed intake, growth rate and other health aspects must be recorded at the farms. The number
of bull calves to be procured, should be double the requirement of breeding bulls, keeping in view the
losses due to mortality, poor growth rate and poor semen quality, etc. The bull calves, if fed well and
managed properly, will start donating semen at the age of 2 to 2.5 years.
In the beginning, we may select 15-20 bull calves every year till the required number is reached,
so that sufficient number of bulls may be provided in the breeding tract. Out of these selected bulls,
the best five bulls may be retained for cryopreservation of their semen for future use. The responsibility
of maintenance of Bhadawari bulls in the field may be given to the respective gram-panchayat/
Bhadawari Breed Association of the area and it must be assured that in beginning one bull must be
available for covering 100 buffaloes of nearby villages in the breeding tract. Presently, 26 Bhadawari
bulls reared under NATP project, are available in Animal Genetics and Breeding Department, College
of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Mathura, which may be used for this purpose by U.P.
Animal Husbandry Department, Lucknow.
Up-gradation of Bhadawari buffaloes through genetic improvement
Conservation of Bhadawari buffaloes is not possible without genetic improvement of this breed
in their productivity. Bhadawari buffaloes should be a viable unit of production, so that farmers may
get high profit from them. Selection among Bhadawari animals (both males and females) is, therefore,
the only breeding method available for bringing about genetic improvement in their economic traits.
Large-scale selection among the females may not be possible because of their limited number. There
is considerable scope for doing intense selection among the males. Breeding of Bhadawari buffaloes
with Murrah semen must completely be banned by the Animal Husbandry Department, U. P. In view of
the poor acceptability of A.I. in buffaloes due to poor conception rate, it may not be possible to bring
larger population under A.I. programme in near future. Special efforts will have to be made to popularize
A.I. among farmers. There is urgent need for rigorous training of inseminators also and supply of
good quality semen at A.I. centers.
The one line breeding policy for genetic improvement of Bhadawari buffaloes is progeny testing
and extensive use of semen of top ranking progeny tested bulls. The efficient system of progeny
testing could result in about 2.0 to 2.5 percent genetic gain per year, if progeny tested meritorious
bulls are used for breeding. The economic traits, which require genetic improvement are – growth
rate, age at puberty, age at first calving, first lactation 300days milk yield, peak yield, fat percentage

Table 1: Number of Bhadawari animals found in the breeding tract
District Block No. of villages No. of Bhadawari animals
Etawah Chakar nagar 68 717

Barh pura 29 266
Agra Bah 61 153
Jaitpur Kalan 63 173
Pinhat 43 64
Total 264 1373
Table 2: Incentive prices (Rs.) of Bhadawari bull calves giving weightage to higher milk
yield and high milk fat content
Dam’s Dam’s milk fat content (percent)

lactation milk
yield (kg) 8 9 10 11 12 13
1000 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250
1100 3250 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500
1200 3500 3750 4000 4250 4500 4750
1300 3750 4000 4250 4500 4750 5000
1400 4000 4250 4500 4750 5000 5250
> 1400 4250 4500 4750 5000 5250 5500
in milk, lactation period and inter calving period. Due to small size of the Bhadawari herds at Livestock
Farms in U.P., the progeny-testing programme, therefore, have to be extended to the field conditions,
where sufficient number of daughters (10-12) can be recorded.
System of milk recording
Field level milk recording is extremely important for improvement of this breed. Unless the milk
production ability is known, it would be very difficult to select parents with high transmitting ability for
future generations (Mehra and Jain, 2003). Once the female has calved, it should be put under milk
recording within a month of its calving. Milk should be recorded once in a month both in the morning
and in the evening and weighed with a spring balance for 10 months. Missing records will be calculated
as the average of the preceding and following month’s record. At the time of recording various other
parameters like: quantity/ quality of concentrate, green fodder, dry fodder, milk fed to calves may also
be recorded. Milk samples may be collected for fat and SNF test in second, third and eighth month
after calving.

System of milk recording through casual milk recorders may be adopted under the planned
project. Each milk recorder may be given three to four animals to be milk recorded per day both in
morning and evening. Milk recorder should be selected locally from the villages where milk recording
is to be done. Farmers may be encouraged to do their own milk recording for their benefit for which
they should be paid also.
To make the conservation programme of Bhadawari buffaloes more effective, the price of
Bhadawari buffaloes milk should be enhanced either by government/ semi-government/ NGO’s. Milk
collection centers should be established for the sale of their milk by giving weightage to fat percentage.
REFERENCES
Kushwaha, B.P.; Kumar, A.; Singh, S.; Kundu, S. S.; Maity, S. B. and Sharma, P. (2004). Current status of
Bhadawari buffaloes in the country. Proceedings of “National Symposium on Livestock Biodiversity vis-à-
vis Resource Exploitation: An Introspection” at NBAGR, Karnal on Feb 11-12, 2004, pp. 110
Mehra, M. L. and Jain, A. K. (2003). Strategies for Improving Riverine Buffaloes. Proceedings of “National
Seminar on Strategies for Genetic and Reproductive Improvement of Bovine” at Madras Veterinary College,
Channai on Nov 13-14, 2003, pp. 60-66.
Pundir, R. K.; Singh, R. B.; Vij, P. K.; Vijh, R. K. and Nivsarkar, A. E. (1997). Characterization of Bhadawari
Buffaloes” NBAGR Research Bulletin No.-7, Karnal. pp. 04
Singh, R. B.; Pundir, R. K.; Vij, P. K., Nivsarkar, A.E. and Sahai, R. (1993a). Need for conservation of Bhadawari
buffalo. Proceedings of “National Seminar on Animal Genetic Resources and their Conservation” at NBAGR,
Karnal on April 22-23, 1993.
Singh, R. (2003). Present status of Bhadawari buffaloes in India. Proceedings of “4th Asian Buffalo Congress on
Buffalo for Food Security and Rural Employement” at New Delhi on Feb 25-28, 2003, pp. 110

ISAGB /9
EVALUATIONS OF DIFFERENT GOAT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN INDIA AND

BREEDING STRATEGY FOR IMPROVEMENT
S.K. SINGH, M.K. SINGH AND B. RAI
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Farah- 281122, Mathura (UP).
The ultimate objective of goat production is to maximize profit with available resources. Efficiency
of any production system should always be considered under prevailing socio-economics, cultural
conditions utilization of local resources and profit. Goats are opportunistic foragers and can be
maintained on variety of diets under diverse conditions. In India goats are reared by resources poor
people on zero input however; some relatively resourceful farmers (10-20%) also maintained more
productive goats of their flocks under semi - intensive/stall- feeding production system. Farmer’s
house goats in Kutcha sheds and temporary shelters made up of thorny shrubs and bushes mainly
protect them from wild animals. Bucks are proportionally less in number, normally stayed with flock
throughout the year. Goat keepers who followed extensive production system prefer kidding once in
a year for an adjustment of seasonal availability of feed resources. Indigenous goat breeds have an
immense production potential however, their optimum potential has not expressed due to subsistence
production system (Rai and Singh, 2005; ISGP-Report, 1992). An attempt has been made to critically
examine the various management systems though; most of the studies were carried out at institutional
flock under intensive or semi-intensive system. The best production System varies in different agro-
ecological zone depending upon availability of local resourced, agro-ecological conditions, culture
and socio-economics of goat keepers but mostly determined not by productive efficiency but profit.
Three type of management system with overlapping characters are normally practiced in India.
Extensive Production System
This system is characterized by low-input and low output system. This system is integrated with
arable crop, tree, shrubs, herbs etc. There is minimum investment on housing, feed and health care.
This system of goat production further sub divided as:
Nomadic: Irregular movement of goat and their keepers in search of feed with no fixed base.
Transhumant: Regular seasonal movement with returns to a fixed base in a year. In strict sense
vertical movement of goats from high altitude to low altitude in search of fodder during winter
Sedentary: Animal movement is restricted to a short radius from a permanent base.
It is difficult to carryout improvement programmes in Nomadic and Transhumant system though

it covers sizable goat population in different eco-zones, due to movement of flock and their owner’s.
Except rainy season phytomass available in major grazing tract/pasture land in country are of low
nutritive value. Moreover, better quality grazing material is being provided to large ruminants. Its
sustainability is decreasing due to shrinkage of common land, urbanization and poor management of
grazing land. Information is lacking on the accessibility via-a vis requirement of fodder under field

conditions. This system is not applicable in high crop intensity area as well as high human density
area. However forage shrubs and trees, as an alternative strategy has not been given adequate
research and development attention in spite of tremendous potential for small ruminants.
Intensive Production System
It is associated with high investment on housing, veterinary care, housing, feed resources labour
and other infrastructure etc. It is characterized by high input and high output and usually practiced for
high potential animals. It involve cultivated fodder with zero grazing, usually low forage and high plane
of concentrate diet. This system is very less practiced in India, mostly at institutional flocks and by few
commercial goat farmers. Its sustainability is doubtful unless system is cost effective.
Semi Extensive Production System
Goats were allowed to graze for 5-8 hours in pasture land and further requirements were meet
out through supplementation of concentrate. Local resources, crops by products and lopping from
plants are utilized in better way. It is less expensive as compared to intensive production system.
Many benefits derived from enhancing crop-livestock integrations. This system is preferred more due
to optimum utilization of bio-mass, human and financial resources. Supplementations of traditional
feeding with concentrate mixture promote growth and milk production as dry matter and energy intake
is positively associated with production.
Table 1. Prevalent Goat Production Systems In different Agro-climatic Zones of India
Agro-climatic State(s) Production System (s)
Zones
Sub Arid/Semi Arid Rajasthan, Gujarat and part Extensive viz. Grazing, Nomadic Transhumance, Sedentary:
of UP and Maharashtra. Pastoral and agro pastoral system. Low Rain, Large range
land available with vegetative cover. Medium to large flock (20-
200)
Northern Plain/ UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP, Extensive: Sedentary With Small flocks (5-20), Waste land, canal
plateau Chattisgarh, Maharashtra etc. Moderate rain, Small scale Semi - intensive
Trans Himalayas Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal, Transhumance, Nomadic, Sedentary, Pastoral:
Zone Uttranchal Sikkim, Meghalya Large flock (100-500). Large range land available with vegetative
cover Moderate to high rain
Eastern Semi- Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Agro-pastoral, Sedentary, Nomadic. Small to medium flock (5-
Humid/Humid West Bengal and Orissa 50), Small range land with vegetative cover Moderate to high rain
Southern Arid and Andra Pradesh, Karnatka, Agro-pastoral, Sedentary
Semi-Humid Southern Maharashtra, Medium to large flock (20-200), Small to large waste land with
Tamilnadu, Kerala thin vegetative cover, Moderate to high rain
Performance evaluation of different production systems in Semi-Arid Zone

The states under semi arid agro-climatic zone are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Panjab, Haryana, Punjab

and Uttar Pradesh. This zone contains maximum goat breeds (11) and goat population (33%). Large
waste lands are available with thin vegetation cover and have high competition with large ruminants.
Goats of this region are medium or large size in size with maximum milk production and body weight.
This zone is characterized by low/irregular rain fall with recurring drought.
Production performance of Jakhrana goats was evaluated under semi-intensive and extensive
system of management in it’s home tract (Alwar, Rajasthan). Significantly higher performance (P<0.05)
with respect to body weight of kids, milk yield and prolificacy were observed under semi-intensive
system of management (Table 1). Since Jakhrana goat is high potential breed and should have
adequately fed to obtain optimum production. Scarcity of bucks (1:>70) is a matter of great concern
as lack of bucks may raise the inbreeding level, resulted decreased genetic variability and poor
production.. (Rai and Singh, 2005)
Table 2: Performance of Jakhrana goat under extensive (ESM) and semi-extensive production
system (SEM) under field conditions
Traits ESM SEM

Body weight (kg)
Birth 2.48±0.18 2.61*±0.26
3- month 11.26±0.89 12.49*±1.34
6 -month 16.01±1.93 17.26±2.20
12- month 23.54± 3.04 27.91**±3.19
Milk production performance
90 days lactation yield (kg) 107.39±2.11 152.87**±2.69
Peak yield (kg) 2.12 ±1.16 2.61**±1.18
Lactation length (days) 118.0±2.3 143.0**±3.2
Reproductive performance
Age at first conception (days) 492.75** ± 8.23 426.24 ±11.23
Age at first kidding (days) 632.35** ± 7.83 561.16 ± 9.83
Service periods (days) 198.53* ± 8.89 161.34 ±9.97
Kidding interval (days) 332.86** ± 9.34 287.78 ± 9.89
Twinning rate 1.32 ±0.16 1.54*±0.16
**Significant at P<0.01, * Significant at P< 0.05,
ISGP for goat development was initiated in 1981 at Ramsar, Ajmer (Rajasthan) with the main
objective to enhance the genetic potential of Sirohi goat by selective breeding as well as crossbreeding
with Alpine and Sannen. Research experience revealed that it would not be economically justified to
initiate a large-scale crossbreeding programmed for genetic improvement of Sirohi goats in Rajasthan
due to inadequate feeding and health care coupled with climatic stress resulted in low production and
high mortality in goats. Milk yield at 180 days was 273±3.5 kg ranged from 177.0 kg (Sirohi district) to

321.0 kg (Alwar district). Variable performance was attributed to substantial variation between location
and availability of fodder resources. A semi intensive feedlot system with access to browse proved to
be most optimal in terms of feed efficiency and carcass quality. Daily growth up to 3 months of age
was 107 and 93 g/day for male and female kids respectively. From 3-6 month it was 69 g/day and 71
respectively. These data show a relatively good growth of kids under village’s conditions. Average
body weights observed of 276 male at 3 month, 6 and 12 month was 14, 20 and 32 kg and weight at
corresponding age of Sirohi kids reared under semi-intensive management was 15.4, 21.5 and 33 kg,
magnitude of difference was non-significant. The age at first kidding was less in goats reared under
field condition than those reared under semi-intensive management at organized farm. Goat kidded
in summer yield more than those kidded in winter and it was attributed to depletion of fodder resources
in summer when most of lactation persists. It was found that , when given access to sufficient good
feed and fodder, up to 12 months of age the animals possess growth potential of at least 100 g/day
(ISGP, (ISGP-Report, 1992). Whereas Mehta et al (2000) reported semi-intensive as most efficient
production system in Sirohi goats as kids attained 45 kg weight at 12 month of age.
Ahuja and Rathore (1987) studied the goat farming in Ajmer and Sirohi districts of Rajasthan
and characterized the production system. Maximum goats were Sirohi breed reared in extensive
system with 7-10 hr range grazing. Male’s were sold at weaning. Fodder availability is seasonal related
to rainfall, regional differences in soil condition and land use. Farmers generally prefer single kidding,
as an adjustment to seasonal availability of feed resources. Breeding preferred during the summer
season. Most goats conceived at an age of 18 months, while at least one third conceived before an
age of 12 months. Pre weaned lactating does and kids of Marwari goats (table-3 ) performed better
under semi intensive system followed by intensive and extensive system in respect of live weight
gains and milk production (Singh, 2003). Similarly, higher production in Kutchi goat was recorded
under sem-intensive system of management (Singh, 1988)
Table 3: Performance of Marwari goat under different systems of feeding management
Feeding Birth Weaning Total live Average Weight at Milk yield

system weight weight weight daily kidding 150-d
(kg) (kg) gains(kg) gains (g) (kg) (kg)
Male
Extensive 2.9±0.19 12.4±0.54 9.5±0.52 105.6±5.7
Semi-intensive 3.0±0.21 16.3±1.27 13.3±1.14 147.8±12.6
Intensive 2.9±0.18 13.0±0.96 10.1±0.88 112.2±9.7
Female
Extensive 2.3±0.15 10.5±1.35 8.2±0.68 91.1±8.1 33.2±0.81 73.5±5.89
Semi -intensive 2.4±0.15 11.9±0.64 9.5±0.92 105.5±6.3 35.9±1.47 100.5±7.19
Intensive 2.3±0.14 10.5±0.82 8.2±0.86 91.1±8.2 33.5±1.11 88.6±2.90
Shinde et al (2003) studied economic viability of goat rearing in Rajasthan and reported that
labour, feed and treatment constituted 56, 38 and 6% of variable cost at organized farm. Whereas
under extensive system farmers engaged their own family member for grazing, thereby substantially

reduced the expenditure on labor and provided employment to their family members. Feed cost is the
second most important constituent of expenditure on goat rearing and farmers save the expenses on
feeding by grazing the flocks on community grazing land and pay only a meager sum for lopping of
tree leaves during lean period.
Singh et al (2005) studied Goat production system in Saurashtra region of Gujarat and reported
Goats are largely reared Rabaries and Bharwad tribes, who are semi-nomadic locally called
“Maldharies”. Goat and sheep are main source of their livelihood. Goats were absolutely reared
under transhumant and sedentary type of extensive production system. Goats during night were kept
in open corral enclosed with thorny hedges out side the villages. Doe’s were selected mostly on the
basis of their lactation yield followed by height, whereas future buck were selected on the basis of
their dam’s milk yield, height and subsequently on libido. Less milk was provided to male kids and
mostly male (>97%) were disposed off at the age of 2-3 months, whereas females were weaned at the
age of 5-6 months and most of them (80%) were retained. Maximum goat (>60%) were bred in May-
June which is the choice of breeding on account of better availability of feed material in rainy and
autumn season. Night folding in cultivatable field was practiced in crop land in exchange of post
harvested fodder of cotton and other plants.
Saini et al (1988) reported highest growth rate recorded in intensive production system in Barbari
and Jamunapari kids (Table-4). Moreover growth rate was relatively low during summer under extensive
system. However, the magnitude of difference or impact of feeding system was less in Jamunapari
goats as compared to Barbari. The cost of kid rearing was 70 and 36% lesser under extensive and
semi extensive system than the intensive feeding system. However, Bohrey and Jain (2004) observed
highest body weight and weight gain in Barbari kids under semi-intensive followed by Intensive
production system. Deoghare (2003) reported maximum profit from goat keeping under semi-intensive
production (Rs 307/Goat/Year) followed by Extensive (Rs 302) and Intensive (Rs 293) in Barbari
goats. Goats maintained under silvipasture over natural grassland achieved 39% higher body weight
at 12 month of age. The milk yield increased by 64 and 28% in three and two tier silvipasture over
natural rangeland (Rai, 2003).
Table 4: Growth rate (g/day) under 3 systems of feeding management in Barbari and
Jamunapari goats
Barbari Jamunapari
Intensive Semi- Extensive Intensive Semi- Extensive
extensive extensive
3-6 month
42.0±10.34 25.7 ±2.5 23.3 ±2.5 46.4±4.6 45.4 ±0.3 45.5±8.9
6-9 months
73.3±12.87 62.4 ±10.2 51.7 ±7.8 69.3 ±6.9 66.2±3.2 39.3±8.1
9-12 months
36.6±6.67 35.3±6.8 27.5±6.1 49.1±3.6 38.4±5.1 35.3±4.1
However, significantly higher weight gain during winter was observed under browsing/grazing

group compared to stall feeding and attributed to inherent instinct of browsing in goats and high
protein shrubs made available during grazing, whereas, reverse trend was observed during summer
season. Therefore, under scantly of grasses and browsing material, farmers are recommended for
supplementary diet. (Singh and Sahu (1997).
Performance evaluation of different production systems Trans Himalayan Zone
State situated on trans Himalayas (J&K Himachal, Uttranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh )
have different eco system with different livestock production system. Chegu, Changthangi and Gaddi
are main goat breed reared for fibre (Pashmina) and meat. Farmer’s practiced pastorals, transhumance
and nomadic type of extensive production system with large flocks of goat (50-500) and sheep owning
to availability of forests and range lands under common property resources (CPR). Farmers customarily
depend on uncultivated forest such as tree leaves, grasses and herbs. Agro forestry and other
resources of fodders are also easily available for goat production under extensive production system.
Therefore, extensive feeding system at hills is relatively cheap and viable. However, acute shortage
of fodder is an emerging problem in this region. Such situation could be improved by plantation of
seasonal fodder trees etc.
Performance evaluation of different production systems in Eastern Region
The goats of this region are Black Bengal or it’s types (Assam Hill) and Ganjam, mostly reared
under sedentary type of range grazing due to abundant availability of pasture, shrubs, herbs and
fodder tree on account of highest rain fall. Post harvested crop residues and fodder from forest plant
are adequately available. Flock sizes were small. Goat shelter/houses were made up of local materials
with inadequate floor space and ventilation. Longer rainy months were adversely affected the growth
and production. Common forest leaves available were Mahula (Madhuka langifolia), Halanda (Allmania
nodiflora), Achhu, (Morinda tomentosa) Barakoli (Ziziphus mourtiana) Lajakoli (Mimosa pudica),
Kantailoli, Neem, peepal, jack fruit, Baniyan etc. Zero input in terms of concentrate diet, health coverage
and inadequate housing resulted in low performance (Rao et al, 2005; Singh and Rai, 2004;.Yadav et
al 1998).
Performance evaluation of different production systems Southern Zone
Goat keeping is preferred tool to landless and marginal farmers in South India due to high cover
of low lying hills covered with bushes and shrubs over Deccan Plateau with abundant land and sparse
rainfall. Barbari goats maintained under semi intensive system (Tamilnadu) recorded significantly
(P<0.01) higher body weight (17.66±1.78 kg), dressing percentage (48.62±0.43%) and body weight
gain (66.22±0.73 g/d) followed by intensive system and extensive system.
Limited studies were carried out on efficiency of management systems in different eco-zones.
However, on the basis of studies undertaken in Institutional flocks it is concluded that the goats
maintained under semi intensive production system performed significantly better than those under
intensive and extensive production systems. Local resources, crops by products and lopping from
plants are utilized in best way under this system. The intensive system, however, proved to be better

than extensive system in all respect. Reports from field survey, institutional flocks and AICRP on goat
units indicated that medium size goats attained an average body weight of about 20 kg at 12 month of
age. Whereas under semi intensive system medium size goat breeds attained average body weight
above 30 kg at 12 months. Therefore, there is a great need to sensitize the goat farmers for adopting
Semi-extensive production system in different agro-ecological zones for higher and sustainable
productivity of goats.
STRATEGIES FOR HIGHER GOAT PRODUCTION

1. In India more than 80% goats are reared on range management and it provide more than
60% of total feed available. Research should be directed to improve range conditions and
efficient grazing management.
2. Some rights/privilege with management of Pasture land/Common land may be given to
group of goat keepers. More research need to be conducted in different agro- eco zones
to identify the plants, shrubs and trees with good soil carrying capacity as well as good for
fodder. Good management of common range land and wasteland etc must be ensured
on high priority.
3. Goats reared under extensive system allowed to have an easy access for essential
vaccination, veterinary care make available at their flocks, mineral supplementation. The
superior germ plasm in the farmer’s flock may be identified and distributed for further
improvement.
4. Performance of goats is affected relatively more during summer season under extensive
system therefore, goat keepers motivated to supplement goat diet during summer or lean
fodder periods. Rotational or deferred grazing not only enhances stable goat production
but also reduces the grazing pressure and makes better utilization forage resources.
5. Two tire diversified silvipasture system be promoted ie fodder for small ruminants and
increasing carrying capacity of grazing land.
6. Traditional system of goat rearing may not be viable due to shrinking grazing land therefore;
goat keepers should be gradually switched over to semi-intensive system of management.
The engagement of family members under semi-intensive system (grazing and management
of the flocks) reduced the investment and also provided gainful employment to the rural
poor. Cheaper feed and feeding system involving crop residues and industrial by products
needs to be evolved for all agro-climate zones.
7. Plants, shrubs that can grow well not only provide feed to livestock but also play important
role in rehabilitation of such land. Such lands are degraded due to ignorance and not
need to be developed to their potential level.
8. Goat keepers of Arid Zone should be motivated to adopt semi-intensive system of
management especially under lean fodder period for higher production and profit.
9. Tree fodder plants play an essential role in goat husbandry, by filling the fodder, gap

between the end of the one monsoon and the start of the next. Other fodder resources
such as crop residues are generally reserved for large ruminants of higher value. Area
lacking in fodder trees needs to keep under heavy plantation.
10. Up gradation of non-descript goats by improver breeds (Beetal, Jakhrana, Jamunapari
and Barbari etc.) may be practiced under field condition.
References
Deoghare P R. 2003. Economics of goat production and marketing potential. State level workshop on recent
advances in goat rearing, Dec 29-30, 2003. MPKV, Rahuri- Maharashtra.
Hanumatha Rao, 1990. Report of task force on goats and sheep in ecologically fragile zones. Government of
India. New Delhi.
ISGP Report. 1992. Studies on Goat production and fodder resources management in Rajasthan. Indo-Swiss
Goat Development and fodder production Project. Ramsar (Rajasthan).
Koul G L, Biswas J C and Bhat P N. 1990. The Chegu (Pashmina) goats of Himalayas. Small Ruminant
Research. 3: 307-316.
Mehta B S Singh D and Khan B U.1997. Genetic studies on growth in Sirohi. Indian Journal of Animal
Science. 67: 723-725.
Misra R K, Singh B and Jain V K. 1998. Breed characterization of Changthangi pashmina goats. Small Ruminants
Research 27: 97-102.
Paramsivam A, Arunachalam S, Sivakumar T and Ramesh V.2002. Growth performance and carcass traits of
Barbari goats under different systems of management. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences.72: 1016-18.
Rai B and Singh M K. 2005. Performance of Jakhrana goats in its home tract. Indian Journal of Animal
Science. ( Accepted).
Rai P. 2003. Rearing of Small Ruminants on Silvipastoral System. State level workshop on recent advances in
goat rearing, Dec 29-30, 2003. MPKV, Rahuri- Maharashtra.
Saini A.L, Khan B U and Khub Singh. 1988. Growth performance of goats under three systems of feeding
management. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 58: 604-09.
Shinde A K, Bhatta R, Sankhyan S K, Singh N P and Verma D L. 2003. Economics of goat rearing in an
organized farm. Indian Journal of Small Ruminant. 9:32-34.
Singh MK, Rai B, Singh S K, Singh K and Simariya M.2005. Tribes associated with
Zalawadi goats and their management practices Livestock International(Accept.)
Singh M K and Rai B. 2004. Goat production status in eastern region of India. Livestock International.12: 9-10.
Singh N P. 2003. Performance of Marwari goats under different systems of feeding management. Indian
Journal of Small Ruminant. 9:96-99.
Singh, N.P. (1988). Production performance of Kutchi goats under different systems of feeding management.
Indian Journal of Small Ruminants 4:57-62.
Yadav B.P.S., Gupta, H.K. and Gupta, J.J. 1998. Growth pattern in goats on native pasture of north Eastern
India. Range Management and Agroforestory 19: 133-138.

ISAGB /10
STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF GOATS IN INDIA

M.K. SINGH, S.K. SINGH AND B. RAI
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, PO- Farah, 281122, Mathura.
India has rich diversity of goat breeds with varying capacities to produce meat, milk, fiber and
skin etc. These breeds have been developed mainly through natural selection, isolation and adopted
to diverse agro- climatic conditions. Goat diversity provides a dependable source of income to 40%
people living at marginal and below the poverty line. Indiscriminate breeding, non-effective breeding
policies, improper management, degraded eco-system has resulted in low genetic variability and
productivity. Situation further aggravated by acute pressure of commercialization and encroachment
of pastureland to other uses have put some unique goat-germ plasm under threat. In order to effective
goat germplasm conservation thrust should be given to sustainable utilization of goat genetic
resources in their habitat and effective field oriented improvement programmes in different agro-
climatic zones to make goat keeping more remunerative to conserve important breeds. Organizational
interventions (policies, rules, awareness, training etc) are urgently required for sustainable production.
Introduction
Visualizing the importance of biodiversity our great ancestor’s have guided us to judiciously
utilize biodiversity through sustainable management of bio-resources and ecosystem. Therefore,
conservation of biomass has been the culture, tradition and integral part of our society since Vedic
periods. Not only all livestock species but also almost all major animal/plants have been integral part
of our rituals, tradition and culture. Ever since the creation of first organism there have been evolutionary
changes through increased diversity that helped in evolution of various species, breeds and individuals
with distinct features. Biodiversity is the raw material for nature as well for human being to evolve new
species/breed suitable for present and future. Though, natural loss of unsuitable species is part of
evolution but loss of any form of genetic material by unnatural ways is irreparable loss of gene pool
created by nature through selection in thousands of year. It is therefore, imperative to protect the
genetic material so that nature is not deprived off the creation it has done earlier. The domestication
of livestock begins around 12000 years ago and about 62000 breeds of livestock have been
domesticated. Approximately 90% livestock population belongs to only 15 species. According to FAO,
indigenous livestock worldwide are disappearing at an alarming rate and at least one breed of livestock
die out every week. Lack of planned efforts to conserve the livestock breeds as well as replacement
of many breeds by more profitable few breeds to meet out present needs have been resulting in
endangerment/extinction of livestock biodiversity. In the present phase of globalization, where markets
are opening to whole world trade and transport rules are being relaxed, it is easy to commercially
exploit genetic material by scientifically advanced countries where people are more aware of the rules
and their implications. Such nations have been taking advantage of imported valuable germ plasm by
cunningly patenting them for the breed/species which otherwise being maintained for thousand years
in native countries.

India has 125 million goats (17% of the world). The annual growth rate of the population shown
fluctuating trend varied from 0.72 (1966-72) to 5.20% (1977-1982) with an average growth rate of
3.49% during 1951- 1997. It is the choice of animal due to small size, high fertility rate, ability to utilize
a wide range of feed and fodder resources, low initial investment and good remunerations (Singh,
2003). Goat provides multiple products like meat (chevon), milk, skin, fiber, manure and transport.
The father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi had given privileged position to goat by calling it “poor
man’s Cow”. There are twenty recognized goat breeds in India of varying potential for meat, milk and
fibre (Table1). Few more breeds (Assam Hill, Parbastari, Bakharwal, Andmani, Bhakarwa etc.) need
to be studied for genetic variability. Descript breeds constituted 20-25% of the total goat population
and remaining goats are non-descript with mixed features. Breeds such as Beetal, Jamunapari, Sirohi
and Jakhrana have capacity to yield 4-5 kg milk/d, 400-600 litre milk in single lactation of 150-200
days and body weight of 30-40 kg at 12 months of age indicated tremendous potential of Indian
breeds. Changthangi and Cheghu are internationally known for producing finest and costliest pashmina
production. The goats since ancient times have been reared under zero-input and free range grazing
management system with almost no selection. Till today no significant change has occurred in goat
rearing under field conditions that resulted in deterioration of their genetic variability and potential.
The sustainable improvement of native goats is essential for the maintaining caprine biodiversity as
well as enhancing their productivity. Conservation of even low producing goat breeds is necessary to
respond unforeseen changes in market requirements; for that sincere attempts are required to increase
their productivity. However, during last few decades due to commercialization of agriculture systems,
deteriorating eco-system and over emphasis to immediate financial returns resulted in making our
80% livestock non-descript and low yielder.
Factors adversely affecting caprine biodiversity
Lack of adequate breeding policy for different zones/regions
Different goat breeds have evolved and adopted in different agro-climatic regions to meet out
local demands throughout the country. They are adapted to high altitude, saline water, arid and
humid climatic conditions, ecologically stable, economically viable and energy efficient in their native
production system. However, their production potential is low as compared to temperate goat breeds
because (a) they were subjected to selection in the past for adaptability to the climatic stress and
tropical diseases, rather than improving the production potentials (b) inadequate feed, fodder, housing,
health measures and harsh climatic conditions. The native breeds due to indiscriminate and inter-
breeding are getting diluted and facing degeneration (Rai and Singh, 2004). The breeding programme
and policy recommended by various State Animal Husbandry departments are not framed judiciously
and ineffectively implemented, monitored and supported. Almost no breed specific genetic improvement
programmes were seriously attempted by any state organization.
Poor Breed Base and Population Structure
Our country does not have data base repositories of their genetic material. Most often the
population statistics presented by various agencies are debated for authenticity. The populations of

most of the livestock species are increasing at significant rates (Livestock Census) therefore; breed
specific population should have increased proportionally. On contrary, population size of some breeds
viz. Jamunapari, Beetal, Changthangi and Surti etc. have decreased up to level of endangerment.
This might have happened due to lack of inadequate database and ineffective breeding policy.
Non-judicious Crossbreeding with Exotic Breeds
Crossbreeding with exotic goat breeds was applied to enhance the genetic potential of local
goats and to evolve breeds suitable to native agro climatic conditions. The crossbreeding was
recommended to cross the non-descript goats with exotic breeds when adequate feed, fodder, health
care and market etc. were made available. However, it was mostly attempted with quality goats of
descript breeds (Beetal, Jamunapari, Barbari, Malabari, & Sirohi etc.). Whole efforts were diverted for
crossbreeding by ignoring the breed specific selection programmes. Crossbreeding under field
condition was found economically none justified due to high mortality and non-significant improvement
in productivity of crossbred population in later stage (ISGP Report, 1992). Exotic germ plasm is being
used for crossing the local goats in Maharastra and Kerla without programme.
Habitat Loss
Due to rapid urbanization, shrinkage of grazing land, loss of forest, shrubs, trees, etc the agro-
ecosystem suitable for particular breed(s) have severely degraded. Since most of the goat breeds
are browser and loss of (pasture land, shrubs, forest) their habitat resulted in less remuneration from
goats in pastoral grazing system, which resulted severe decline in effective population size of
endangered breeds. Under such circumstances goats are being compelled to migrate in habitat of
other breeds encountered crossbreeding/indiscriminate breeding with animals of that particular region
ie crossbreeding of Kutchi, Zalawadi with Mehsana etc.
Non-Judicious Conservation Policy
Jamunapari is very important breed not only of India but also of Asia and have been used as
improver breed in several countries. The UP state government has put ban on it’s sale outside the
state resulted in low price. Therefore, farmers are shifting for Barbari and Sirohi breeds. Similarly
Barbari is rapidly replaced by Sirohi in it’s home tract due to lack of availability of good size quality
Barbari bucks. Conservation in animal kingdom means not only securing biodiversity but also bring
upon improvement and make them remunerative. As per FAO report many breed improvement projects
have failed due to inadequate planning, poor implementation and improper documentation of findings.
Indiscriminate Sell of Elite Animals
The goat keepers are poor illiterate and resource less people. The elite male kids with tremendous
growth rate and body size attract the butchers and such kids are being sold at 3-6 month of age with
replacement by much inferior stock. Such practice led to negative selection therefore, resulted in
decline in genetic potential of a breed and profitability.

Marginalization of Goat at Households and National Level

Inadequate thrust and share have been given to goat improvement programme at national level.
More investment and attention were paid on cattle, buffalo, poultry, and sheep. Similarly rural household
keeping goats do not make investment in their goats.
Lack of Breed Improvement Programmes

Goat keepers are not aware and nor motivated for improved management practices, selective
breeding resulted in large scale indiscriminate breeding. Barbari is a highly remunerative goat and
well adapted to stall as well as extensive feeding, bearing high prolificacy, small kidding and generation
interval. Farmer’s are replacing it by Sirohi due to slightly higher milk production and body weight.
Since Barbari kids are sold at 3-6 month of age and remaining culled males are used as buck which
resulted in negative selection pressure which resulted poor growth and low milk production. Therefore,
breed awareness should be made an essential component of improvement.
Climatic Stress, Natural Calamities, Endemics and Epidemics

Though, Indian breeds are well adopted for climatic stress but such situation lead to poor
performance and under repeated natural calamities the entire eco-system got severely affected. The
recent avalanche in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, tsunami incident in southern coastal
India, volcano in Orissa, earthquakes in Gujarat, severe flood in Assam, West Bengal and recurring
draught in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh etc. have heavily destroyed the entire biomass of theses
zones. Therefore, necessary precautions and judicious policy should be undertaken to protect animals
in such susceptible zone during calamities. Under such conditions farmers were compelled to give up
their animals uncared which resulted in great loss of germplasm. Millions of animals die out because
of epidemics at alternate year. Schemes run by government and NGOs are not sufficient to meet out
the requirements of farmers. The poor economic condition of farmers too adds to failure of such
measures.
Human Population Explosion and Illiteracy

The impact of unprecedented growth in Human population (1.7 billions in 1900 to >6.0 billion in
2000) has forced the many plant and animal species for extinction due to human encroachment in
their habitat and competition for their own survival. Illiteracy is another problem affecting all aspects of
biodiversity. However, more literally educated people and nations are more responsible for
environmental degradation
Strategy for Conservation and Improvement of Goat Germ plasm

Geographical Security
The animal kingdom has developed distinct features in geographically isolated zones. Thus,
because of breeding restrictions as per prevailing climatic conditions, feed resources available and
survival, genetically distinct groups were evolved in the region. With the increased human intervention,
geographical barriers are now broken resulting in immigration of genetic material to different area
and niches resulting into planned and unplanned crossbreeding and diluting the genetic material.

Zonal Security
Some breeds have been evolved in a small area i.e. Jakhrana, Jamunapari etc. has a home tract
of about 10x10 about 25x30 sq. km zone. Such habitat must be well managed, protected and efforts
are made to increase population size as well as breeding area. Introduction of other breed should not
permit to minimize cross breeding and dilution of such endangered breed. Changthangi is restricted
to Changthangi Tehsil of Laddakh (J&K) and Jakhrana in Behrod Tehsil of Rajasthan. These breeds
need special comprehensive improvement programmes.
Farmers Participation with Adequate Incentives
Relevance of any conservation programme would depend upon participation of goat breeders
and farmers who constitute the bottom line. With vast livestock diversity and huge financial involvement
in conservation, major emphasis is to be given for in-situ conservation. Simultaneously, farmers are to
be provided with adequate support for acting as repository of germ-plasm otherwise, many breed
may reach to verge of extinction.
Priority
Since conservation is costly affair therefore, priority must be given considering effective population
size, growth rate, number of flocks, area in which population spread, extend of dilution, reproductive
rate, adaptability for disease and climatic fluctuations etc.
Establishment of Ex-situ Conservation Bank of Endangered Breeds
The breeds facing extinction should be given priority for ex-situ conservation like Jamunapari,
Jakhrana and Changthangi. It is now possible to store a wide variety of living cells (sperm, embryos)
for long period of time. The basic objectives of in vitro conservation are Cryopreservation of sperms,
Oocytes and embryos. (2) Storage of DNA. (3) Establishment of embryonic stem cell lines and
conservation of somatic cells.
Strategy for higher production
Indigenous goat breeds have an immense production potential, however there optimum potential
have not expressed yet due to subsistence production system. The genetic progress is exceedingly
low in an institutional herd due to small effective population size. The selection intensity can be
enhanced with the involvement of the farmer’s flocks in the habitat of the breeds. In India, most of the
goat flocks are maintained under sedentary production system in small flocks. These flocks can be
registered to form a goat breeder co-operative with an elite open nucleus herd. The high producing
animals of the cooperating herds should be pooled to form the nucleus herd, which will produce
proven bucks for the genetic improvement of the cooperating herds. Traditional system of goat rearing
may not be viable due to shrinking of grazing land and therefore, goat keepers should be sensitized
for semi-intensive system of management. Moreover, our nearly 80% population is non-descript animals
and reared under a extensive management system. The exotic animals are often maintained on high
plane of nutrition, with proper prophylactic schedule and in comfortable climatic conditions. However,

these animals or their crosses perform below to improved native stock. The Sirohi and Kutchi goats
were considered to be medium sized breed but when put in intensive management system their body
size increases up to large size breeds. Therefore long term and comprehensive strategy be formed to
enhance genetic potential without loosing genetic variability.
Data Recording Under Field by the progressive Farmers/Village level workers
This is very unfortunate that livestock play very important role in farmer’s livelihood but they do
not record the vital information required for their own livestock improvement. Great need is felt to
develop simple, accurate and easily retrievable data recording system for farmers and by the farmers.
Initially some societies and NGO may be promoted and supported in this endeavor. Block level extension
workers may play a key role in this area.
Improving Economic Efficiency of Indigenous Breeds
Exotic breeds are superior as compared to native breeds with respect to milk yield and size,
because they have been gone under vigorous selection for many generations and managed under
high plane of nutrition. On contrary most of the native breeds have been selected for adaptability for
climatic stress, disease resistance under sustainable production. However, native goat breeds are
superior to many exotic breeds for fertility, survivability and adaptability for harsh climate. Under local
environmental conditions production levels of exotic breeds become much lower to native goats.
Therefore, more emphasis should be given on improvement of local goat breeds through selective
breeding, by providing adequate feeding and health coverage to express their optimum genetic
potential. Goat keepers should be motivated to keep purebred animal in their respective home tracts.
This activity should be undertaken as campaign.
Breeding Restrictions or Modifications
Minimization of indiscriminate breeding by providing good potential true to breed bucks and
simultaneously castration of non-descript bucks. Crossbreeding with exotic breed should be used
with care and cautions.
Improvement of Migratory Zones
Majority of small ruminants are found in rain fed, dry ecosystems and hills where abundant
wasteland is available. Animals go on long migration and many tribal communities who are real repository
of small ruminants conserving various livestock species in such manner. Such flocks have tradition to
move on wastelands and harvested crop fields at the onset of summer and return to their native place
at the onset of monsoons. Such grazing practices reduce the grazing pressure on depleted lands and
allow these lands to sustain grazing resources. Such migration pattern is continued since long and
the grassland ecologies of this fragile ecosystem is being maintained. This tradition need to be
strengthened by plantation of high yielding fodder tree/shrubs to supplement lopping in lean season
and land should be kept free from encroachment and allocation for other uses. Such husbandry
practices would help in conservation of small ruminant breeds.

Re-Seeding of Wastelands Grasslands and Controlled Grazing
Common pastureland and wasteland etc is shrinking rapidly as substantial land is coming under
agriculture farming and urbanization. The remaining such lands has very poor vegetation cover due
to uncontrolled grazing, failure of reseeding and ignorance. Indigenous breeds that are economical
and sustainable under traditional livestock raising system are unable to thrive well due to poor vegetation
on common pastureland. The lower productivity and profit compelled the nomadic breeders to switch
over in other professions or compelled to reduce flock size. This replacement of breeds might lead to
dilution and extinction of otherwise important breeds. Therefore it would be more appropriate to
conserve breeds by promoting silvi pasture and multi-tier vegetation in such areas.
Rotational and Controlled grazing
Goat has labeled is an animals for causing deforestation. This matter has been a debatable
issue among Scientists and planners. Facts observed in several studies revealed that adequate/
rotational grazing have never led to the degradation of forest; rather reverse has caused the extinction
of breeds or species of livestock (Rao et al 1998 and Shankarnarayan et al 1985). Loss of vegetation
through grazing is compensated by seed dispersal by the animals and providing nutrients through
dung and urine in the forest area. Therefore, controlled grazing should be allowed to maintain the
forest ecology. Rotational or deferred grazing not only enhances stable goat production but also
reduces the grazing pressure and makes better utilization of forage resources. Moreover under
rotational grazing goats eat higher proportion (P<0.01) of shrubs than goats in continuous grazing. In
arid zones browsing material is being utilize in highest quantity by goats at the peak of dry season.
Goats reared on traditional pastoral’s system are force to feed containing more grasses and forbs
that due to its ephemeral and erratic nature, make goats vulnerable to under nutrition especially
under drought conditions. (Mellado et al, 2004). More than 75% small ruminant meet out their nutritive
requirements from natural grazing ground such as village pasture, fallow land, wasteland, river banks,
road side, canal side and forest and these feeding resources have degraded due to ignorance.
Therefore, such land must be reserved and restored for livestock species.
Recommendations
1. The livestock census should be on breed basis along with production status, so that exact
breed specific populations can be known and effective breeding and conservation
programmes can be framed, monitored and implemented.
2. Systematic surveys for all the breeds should be undertaken for preparing the
comprehensive inventory with proper identification and cataloguing.
3. Each state should have a sound data bank with a network facility to hook up with.
4. Networking approach should be further strengthened for the genetic characterization and
conservation of livestock genetic resources.
5. Relevant ecological and socio economic issues should be identified which affects
conservation and utilization of domesticated animals.

6. The comprehensive characterization of native breeds should be accomplished on priority

basis in a time bound manner to decide priorities and strategies for conservation.
7. Breed societies be supported financially and technically in their endeavour for conservation
and sustainable utilization of caprine resources.
8. An expert panel should be appointed at national level to determine the basic norms for a
breed registration.
9. Introduction of exotic germ plasm should be thoroughly tested in native conditions before
reaching to field. Moreover, experimentation should not be allowed with endangered breeds
and in fragile eco-zones.
10. Elite males and females of endangered/vulnerable breeds from their home tract may be
periodically identified and farm units with such animals may be established for their in situ
conservation. Quality bucks and doe’s from these farms redistributed to the farmers for
breeding purpose.
11. Settings up an institutional mechanism for inter departmental co-ordination of activities

concerning conservation of livestock genetic resources.
12. Integration of breeding policy with adequate programme for promotion of indigenous breeds
and promotes to use the indigenous breeds for grading up non- descript stock.
Table 1: Indian goat breeds of different Eco-zones

Breed Coat Colour Face Horn Specific Product Status Habitat and
Pattern pattern Character(s) Utility climate
Sirohi Brown/dark Straight/ Curved, Wattles in Meat and NP Udaipur,

brown/tan raised backward, both sex, Milk Sirohi,
patches on upward with Strong built Ajmer (Semi-
body pointed tips Arid zone,
Rajasthan)
Marwari Black, Straight Medium, Bear available Meat and NP Bikaner, Churu,
shaggy backward & in 30-40% hair Jodhpur
coats with upward with animals (Arid zone,
long hair pointed tips Rajasthan)
Jakhrana Black with Straight/ Short, thick Long body, Conical & Milk and ED Alwar
white patch raised long, rounded Meat (Semi-Arid
on muzzle teats zone,
and ear Rajasthan)
Beetal Black, brown Convex with Short & Long body, Milk and ED Gurdaspur,
with white roman nose backward bear common Meat Amritsar,
patch on in male Firojpur
body (Semi-
Arid zone,
Punjab)

Barbari White with Slightly Short and Prominent Meat and IS Etah, Aligarh,
brown spots Raised erect, orbit Milk Mathura
directed bone, (Semi-Arid
upward protruding zone,
& outward eyes Uttar Pradesh)
Jamunapari White or Convex Short & Long body, Milk and ED Etawah (Semi-
white tan with backward tuft hair on Meat Arid zone, Uttar
paces on roman back of thigh, Pradesh)
head nose lower jaw
longer
Mehsana Black/greyish Convex Twisted, Ears are white Milk and NP Mehsana,
face curved, with black Meat Kheda, Anand
backward marking, (Semi Arid
& upward short & zone, Gujarat)
Upward tail
Gohilwadi Black Slightly Twisted, Developed Milk and NP Bhavnagar
convex & curved, udder with Meat (Semi Arid
long backward conical teats zone, Gujarat)
& upward udder conical
teats
Zalawadi Black with Convex with Twisted or Long, lustrous Milk and NP
Surendranagar
long lustrous roman nose screw type, hair and Meat (Semi Arid
hairs backward & corkscrew zone, Gujarat)
upward with type
pointed tips horn
Kutchi Black with Slightly Long, White Meat and NP Kutchh (Semi
white marking raised backward marking Milk Arid zone,
on face & prominent & on ear Gujarat)
forehead upward
Surti White Slightly Medium, Udder well Milk and ED Surat, Valsad
raised & directed developed Meat (Semi Arid
prominent backward with zone, Gujarat)
forehead & upward conical teats
Sangamneri White Straight Backward Drooping ear Meat ED Ahmednagar,
& upward Nasik, Puna
(Semi Arid
Maharashtra)
Osmanabadi Black Slightly Medium & Short and Meat and NP Osmanabad,
raised & dropping shinning Milk Ahmednagar
prominent hair coat (Semi Arid,
forehead Maharashtra)
Kannai Adu Black Straight Backward Legs below Meat NP Virudunagar,
& upward knee & hocks Tirunelveli,
are white. Tuticorin,
Peculiar SubHumid
white strip Tamilnadu)
on face

Malabari White, mixed Straight face Medium Wattles in Milk and ED Humid, Kerala
cooler with slightly directed 25% goats Meat
raised no outward
and
downward
Ganjam Black and Straight face Medium Males have Meat NP Ganjam
mixed colour and straight bear district
forehead is or Semi-arid,
prominent horizontal Orissa
Black Bengal Black and Straight Short, flate Dwarf breed, Meat and NP South region
brown and slight and both sex skin (Humid zone),
depressed horigental beared West Bengal
Gaddi White Small Long, spiral Well built, Fiber, Meat NP Kangara, Kullu,
convex directed hardy with & Pack Chamba,
nose-line upward & long hairs Temprate,
backward of 20-25 cm. Himachal)
with pointed
tips
Changthangi White Straight Long, spiral Long lustrous Pashmina ED Changthang

profile directed hair and Meat (Leh) in
upward & Ladakh,
backward Temprate,
with pointed Jammu&
tips Kashmir
Chegu White Long with Spiral Long Pashmina NP Temprate,

straight directed lustrous and Meat Lahaul Spiti
profile upward, hair valley
outward & (Himachal) and
backward Pithoragarh
with pointed (Uttranchal)
tips
ED- Endangered Breed, NP- Normal population, IS- Insecure population
References
Acharaya R M. 1982. Sheep and goat breeds of India. Animal Production and Health paper-30. Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1982.
AICRP Goats, Avikanagar.1985. Annual Report. All India Coordinated Research Project on Goats for Meat.
CSWRI, Avikanagar, Rajasthan.
Gokhale S B, Gokhale R B, Phadke N L and Desale R J. 2002. Status of Village goat management practices
in Maharashtra. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 72:810-14.
ISGP Report. 1992. Studies on Goat production and fodder resources management in Rajasthan. Indo-Swiss
Goat Development and fodder production Project. Ramsar (Rajasthan)
Koul G L, Biswas J C and Bhat P N. 1990. The Chegu (Pashmina) goats of Himalayas. Small Ruminant
Research. 3: 307-316.

Mellado M, Olvera A, Duenez J and Rodriguz A. 2004. Journal of applied Animal Research 26: 93-100.
Misra R K, Singh B and Jain V K. 1998. Breed characterization of Changthangi pashmina goats. Small Ruminants
Research 27: 97-102.
Project Coordinators Report 2001-02. All India Coordinated Research Project on Goat Improvement. CIRG,
Makhdoom, Makhdoom, Mathura (UP).
Rai B and Singh M K. 2004. Rearing practices of Jakhrana goats in their native tract. Indian Journal of Small
Ruminant. 10: 33-35.
Shankarnaryana K.A., Bohra, H.C. and Ghosh, P.K. 1985. The goat an appropriate animal for arid and semi
arid regions. Economic and political weekly 20: 196-72.
Singh B B and Singh B P. 1974. Performance of Jamunapari goats. Indian Veterinary Journal 51. 326-332.
Singh M K, Rai B, Singh S K, Singh K and Simaria M B. 2005. Tribes associated with Zalawadi goats and their
management practices. Livestock International: (in press).
Singh M K and Rai B. 2004. Barbari breed of Goat. Reasons of dilution in its home tract. Indian Journal of
Animal Science. (submitted)
Singh M K. 2003. Improved management practices for goat under field conditions. State level workshop on
recent advances in goat rearing, Dec 29-30, 2003. MPKV, Rahuri- Maharashtra.
Singh S K. 2003. Conservation and Breeding strategy for increased Goat Production in Indian Goat Breeds. In
: Compendium on recent advances o in Goat Rearing of Minsitry of Agriculture. Dept. of Extension. New
Delhil 43-48.

ISAGB /11
APPROACHES FOR ENHANCING GOAT PRODUCTIVITY IN INDIA

R. ROY, A. MANDAL AND P. K. ROUT
Genetics and Breeding Division, Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, P.O. Farah – 281122,
Dist. Mathura (U.P.) India
India possesses an enormous goat population numbering 124.5 million (FAOSTAT, 2003), which
is the highest in South-East Asia. They are found through out the length and breadth of the country.
They do not look alike in body conformation and other characters. The differences among them are
large, as they were evolved under widely variable agro-ecological conditions in the country. They
show wide variation in phenotypic conformation and production parameters and in other attributes. In
the evolutionary time scale, groups of animals exhibited phenotypic and genetic coherence, which is
discernible from other groups. These groups were designated with different names for easy identification
and communication. These are called breeds. Thus breed is defined as a group of animals with
similar characteristics, which breed true to type from generation to generation. A majority of goat
population in our country do not conform to any breed characteristics and are designated as non-
descript goat.
There are 351 breeds of goats in the world, out of which 22 breeds are found in India. India is a
rich repository of goat genetic resources with 22 well recognised breeds available in the country with
wide product diversity e.g. meat, milk and fibre (hair/pashmina).
Information on many new breeds appears every now and then in published literature. But, it is
not reliable enough to include them in the catalogue of goat breeds in India in the absence of a
centrally regulating authority in the country for verification and authentication. The National Bureau of
Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Karnal under the aegis of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) is recently working on a project “Report on the State of the World’s Animal Genetic
Resources” sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations for
cataloguing the animal genetic resources of India.
Goat Breeds in major regional tracts
Our country can be considered into four regions on the basis of population size of goats viz.
North-Western and Central Arid/Semi-Arid Region, Southern Peninsular Region, Eastern Region and
Northern Temperate Region (Acharya, 1982). The highest concentration of goats is found in North
Western Region (39%), followed by Eastern Region (32%), Southern Peninsular Region (26%) and
Northern Temperate Region (2%).
North Western Region: The climatic condition in this region is arid/semi-arid. The states of Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh belong to this region. Maximum
numbers of goat breeds are found in this region, as the dry climatic condition is conducive for growth,
reproduction and survival. The breeds found in this region are Jamunapari, Barbari, Beetal, Jhakhrana,
Sirohi, Marwari, Kutchi, Mehsana, Zalawadi, Gohilwadi, and Surti. Most of these breeds are reared for

milk and meat. An additional crop of hair is also harvested once in a year from some of the breeds.
Southern Peninsular Region: The climatic condition of this region is semi-arid in the central peninsula
and hot-humid along the west-coast. The States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala belong to this region. The breeds of goats found in this region are Osmanabadi,
Sangamneri, Kannai Adu and Malabari.
Eastern Region: It comprises states of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and the north eastern hill states.
The climatic condition is warm and humid in the Lower Gangetic Basin, Coastal Plains and Plateau
region, while it is sub-temperate in the hills. The breeds of goats found in this region are Black
Bengal, Ganjam and Khasi (Assam Hill Goat).
Northern Temperate Region: It includes the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttaranchal. The goat breeds of this region are Changthangi, Chegu and Gaddi. They are found at a
high altitude in the Himalayan/ Trans-Himalayan terrain. The climatic condition of this region is extremely
cold with heavy downpour in monsoon and moderate to heavy snowfall in the winter. The goats, which
produce precious pashmina fibres are found in the cold mountain deserts in this region.
Goat breeds of different body size
The goat breeds of India can be classified in to different categories on the basis of conformational
characteristics e.g. body size, ear shape, shape of the horn and body coat etc. But, body size is of
higher economic significance to the farmer as it has positive correlation with the production of milk,
meat, fibre and skin. The goats in India can be classified in to three categories on the basis of body
size viz. Large, Medium and Small. The body size of goat breeds in general is large in north-western
region, medium in southern peninsular region and small in eastern and northern temperate region
barring a few exceptions.
Goat breeds of different production characteristics
Goat is one of species, which delivers milk, meat and fibre (Hair/Pashmina). The breeder has to
however, select a breed of his/her choice depending upon the requirement. There is no breed in
India, which is exclusively reared for milk, although the milk production potential of certain breeds e.g.
Jamunapari, Beetal, Jhakhrana and Surti is reasonably high. Meat has wider acceptability over large
population without any religious biased ness. There is hardly any consumer discretion on the quality
of meat produced in the country. Fibre (Hair/ Pashmina) is produced by certain breeds under extreme
cold harsh climatic conditions. Some of the breeds of the North-Western, Western and Eastern
Himalayan Region bear luxurious body coat with long hairs, while the breeds like Changthangi and
Chegu found in the hilly cold desert region at high altitudes in the Himalayan ranges produce a fine
fibre as under coat called pashmina, besides hairy outer coat. The goat breeds, therefore, can be
also grouped into three major classes depending upon their primary production characteristics i.e.
milk & meat (dual purpose), meat and pashmina. The breeds with long hair coat are clipped once in a
year. Skin is also an important attribute as is a major input of leather industry. The skin produced by
Black Bengal goats is acclaimed internationally for its fine grain quality. The details of utility are

presented in Table-1
BREED HABITAT
The breed habitat and population size of various breeds of goats are given in Table-1. There is
no clear demarcation on the habitat of the breeds as some of the breeds except Jamunapari, Jakhrana,
Chegu, Changthangi and Surti are spread to over the larger area covering district even political
boundaries of two-three breeds overlap, which encompass migration, market dictation and economic
compulsion, besides natural existence beyond the political boundaries. Thus, the breed boundary is
obliterated. Similarly, the population size does not reflect the true picture as there is existence of non-
descript animals in very large numbers in the habitat of most of the breeds due to genetic admixture.
It is observed that there is regular migration of the goats in the adjoining states during feed and
fodder scarcity. In the process, they mix with the local goats resulting in indiscriminate crossing and
loss of identity of the recognized breeds. There is no Breed Registration Society in India so far to
ensure breed purity in goats and to provide identity to the enlisted animals.
Table 1: The habitat and utility of different goat breeds in India

BREED HABITAT UTILITY
Barbari Agra, Mathura, Etah and Aligarh districts in U.P. Meat & Milk
Beetal Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Firozpur districts in Punjab. Meat & Milk
Gohilwadi* Bhavnagar, Amreli and Junagarh districts in Punjab. Meat
Jhakhrana Jhakhrana village in Alwar district of Rajasthan. Milk & Meat
Jamunapari Chakarnagar Block in Etawah district of U.P. Milk & Meat
Kutchi* Kutch district in Gujarat. Meat & Milk
Malabari Calicut, Cannanore and Malapuram district in Kerala. Meat
Marwari* Western Rajasthan. Meat
Mehsana* Mehsana and Banaskantha districts in Gujarat. Meat
Sirohi Sirohi and Ajmer districts in Rajasthan. Meat & Milk
Surti Surat and Vadodara districts in Gujarat. Milk & Meat
Zalawadi* Surendranagar and Rajkot districts in Gujarat. Meat
Black Bengal West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, Bihar and Assam. Meat
Gaddi* Chamba, Kangra, Kulu, Bilaspur, Kinnanaur and Lahul- Meat & Hair pack
Spiti districts in Himachal Pradesh. animal
Ganjam Ganjam district in Orissa. Meat
Kannai Adu Ramanathpuram and Tirunelveli districts in T.N. Meat
Khasi* Khasi, Jayantia and Garo hills in Meghalaya. Meat
Osmanabadi Osmanabad district in Maharashtra. Meat & Milk
Sangamneri Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra. Meat & Milk
Changthangi* Ladakh district in Jammu & Kashmir. Pashmina
Chegu* Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Pithoragarh districts in Uttaranchal. Pashmina
* Hair is an additional attribute in these breeds.

> Skin is the valuable commercial raw material.
POPULATION TREND
The goat population of the country was 124.5 million according to livestock census (FAOSTAT,
2003). The goat population continues to increase in most parts of the country for the last few
decades in spite of heavy slaughter rate (35% to 38%) and inbuilt prejudice and biased ness against
the goats. Goat population has shown an increasing trend over the years in India. The rate of growth
in goat population has been summarized since 1951 and the highest increase of 4.6% per annum was
registered during 1976-81.
Year Population Quinquinnial increase % increase/year

1951 47.14 - -
1956 55.42 8.28 3.51
1961 60.86 5.44 1.96
1966 64.59 3.73 1.22
1971 67.03 2.44 0.76
1976 74.00 6.97 2.08
1981 91.00 17.00 4.59
1986 102.87 11.87 2.61
1991 114.20 11.33 2.20
1996 119.48 5.28 0.92
2000 123.00 3.52 0.74
2003 124.50 1.50 0.41
PRODUCTION STATUS
Small ruminants make an important contribution to the sustenance of small and marginal
landholders and landless rural people by their contribution towards marketable commodities such as
meat, milk, fibre and skin. They are referred as the “Bank of hooves” providing a cash buffer to the
small farmers’ livelihood.
Meat
All the breeds of goat to a greater extent are meat breeds, however, some breeds are reared for
milk and fibre production. There is no clear-cut distinction between meat and milch breeds. Milch
breeds are also used for meat purpose. Thus the definition of a meat breed will largely confined in two
characteristics, viz., pre-slaughter body weight and dressing percentage. On the basis of body size,
the breeds can be classified into three groups, viz., large, medium and small (Acharya et al., 1982).
Classification based on these criteria shows that about 80 % of the breeds are medium in size and

they also have the potentiality for further improvement. The contribution of chevon is slightly higher
as compared to mutton production towards Asia and world’s chevon production as the chevon
production in India was 4.47 million tones in 2003, which is only 17.1 and 12.2% of Asia and world’s
production. The goat meat contributes 9.96% in terms of India’s total meat production. The chevon
production has registered an increase from 0.45 to 0.47 million tonnes during 1996 to 2003, which is
0.63% per year, thereby indicating an identical progress in production of goat meat over the years.
The goat population, slaughter rate and meat production in India over the years has been presented
below
Year Goat Goat Percent Meat (MT) % increase Meat

Population slaughtered slaughter /year (kg/animal)
1961 60.86 23.50 38.61 235,000 - 10
1966 64.59 24.2 37.47 242,000 0.60 10
1971 67.03 24.40 36.40 244,000 0.16 10
1976 74.00 26.73 36.12 267,300 1.91 10
1981 91.00 31.26 34.35 312,600 3.39 10
1986 102.87 37.03 36.00 370,300 3.69 10
1991 114.20 43.40 38.00 434,000 3.44 10
1996 119.48 45.40 38.00 454,000 0.92 10
2000 123.00 46.70 37.98 467,000 0.72 10
2003 124.50 47.30 37.99 473,000 0.43 10
Milk
Goats produce 2.61 million tones and the increase in total production of milk is largely ascribed
to the numerical increase of goat population in the country. The individual productivity has not enhanced
much. The situation in Asian and world scenario was almost similar. The contribution of India to the
total goat milk production in Asia as well as world, however, has shown an increasing trend over the
years, on account of progressive increase in the total goat milk production in the country. Still, the per
capita milk consumption rate is always low.
The milk production potential of most of the indigenous breeds is low, barring a few breeds of the
north-western region, e.g., Jamunapari, Beetal, Kutchi and Jakhrana etc (Misra, 1989). Surti breed
has also good milk production. Malabari, a breed of peninsular of India has relatively good milk
potential due to its ‘SURTI’ lineage (Pattabiraman, 1955). Sangamneri, Osmanabadi and Barbari
breed have milk production potential which needs to be exploited.
The production of goat milk in India over the years has been depicted as below:
Year Production (MT) Quinquinnial increase % increase/year

1961 535,000
1966 571,000 36,000 1.34

1971 675,000 104,000 3.64

1976 819,000 144,000 4.27
1981 1,029,000 210,000 5.13
1986 1,368,000 339,000 6.59
1991 2,348,000 980,000 14.33
1996 3,014,000 666,000 5.67
2000 2,430,000 -584,000 -4.84
2003 2,610,000 180,000 2.47
Indigenous breeds:
The average milk yield of the indigenous breeds ranged between 35.2±1.6 kg in Black Bengal
and 201.7±6.4 kg in Jamunapari. However some Jamunapari goats have milk yield of 225.0 liters in
140 days of lactation. Similarly, Barbari, Jakhrana, Osmanabadi and Sangamneri breeds had great
milk production potential. High coefficient of variation ranging between 28.5 and 57.8 percent indicates
the magnitude of variability, which can be exploited for further improving the production through
selection. The milk yield is usually low in the first lactation but increases with the increase in lactation
order up to fourth lactation. Large variability has been observed within and between the breeds with
respect to peak lactation. Generally milk yield increases in second lactation, which persists up to fifth
lactation with slight fluctuation. It may be due to expression of full genetic potentiality in 2nd lactation.
Exotic dairy breeds e.g. Alpine, Saanen, Anglo-Nubian and Toggenburg were introduced in this
country for crossbreeding, so as to augment the milk production within a reasonable time frame. The
crossbreds acquired adaptability properties from the native dam breeds and production characteristics
from the exotic sire breeds. It is evident from the level of production exhibited by the crosses of Alpine,
Sannen, Toggenburg and Anglo-Nubian evolved in this country. The crosses of high yielding dam
breeds e.g. Beetal and Jamunapari were superior to the crosses of low yielding Malabari, in spite of
similar genetic constitution. Saanen had a better combining ability with the indigenous breeds than
Alpine, even under diverse agro-climatic conditions. The milk yield of the crosses increased significantly
with the increase in exotic inheritance up to 75%. The Saanen x Beetal crosses had an average milk
yield of 399.1±34.0 kg which was 30.6 percent higher than the pure bred Saanen maintained under
similar managemental system in India. (Misra, 1985) The higher crosses of Malabari did not excel the
half breds in milk production, probably due to the environmental limitations. The progenies of F1
hybrids born out of inter-se mating had significantly lower yield in subsequent generations (F2 and F3
) due to loss of heterosis.
Fibre
The goats in north-western parts of Himalaya, parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat possess long hair
and regularly clipped. Mountain goats besides yielding hair produce under coat of fine silky fibres,
known as Pashmina. The goats found in plains are mostly milch breeds and these found in coastal
area and Deccan plateau are mutton type. These goats have rough coat of short hair having no

economic value.
Pashmina production
Chegu and Changthangi goats generally produce pashmina in India. Angora goat, an indigenous
breed to Asia Minor produce mohair. In India, Pashmina goats are found in two districts of Ladakh i.e.
Kargil and Leh, and Lahaul and Spiti and Chini valleys of Himachal Pradesh, where they graze at
altitude of 4,000 to 5,500m sea level. These goats produce finest Pashmina in the world having fibre
diameter of 12 to 14 micron. A co-ordinated research project is located at Upsi, leh-Ladakh (Jammu
and Kashmir) for studying the potentiality and increasing the productivity of Pashmina/Cashmere
goats in its home tract, Upsi, Leh-Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir. In Changthang region, they are
called Changthangi breed. Another coordinated research project on Pashmina goats, involving Chegu
breeds found in Himachal Pradesh and at the border of Tibet, was located in the Kumaon hills of Uttar
Pradesh at Mukteshwar (a centre of IVRI, Izatnagar) to obtain Pashmina at lower altitude of 2,300m
sea level having maximum temperature of 28.7degree C in summer and minimum of 3.7 degree C in
winter, with an average relative humidity of 61.81%. The average rainfall at this place is 1,042 mm. At
this project, the Pashmina production tended to decline over years (Koul, 1984) indicating that although
Pashmina goats can be reared at lower. The Angora breed and Angora crossbred goats produce the
mohair fibre in India. Crossbreeding work of Angora with indigenous breeds was initiated in the Punjab
in 1941 and subsequently in U.P., H.P. and Maharastra during 1942 to 1965 (Patil, 1978). However,
the productivity and adaptability of Angora and its crossbred under Indian environment was not
successful to a greater extent. A coordinated research project was initiated in 1973 at Mahatma Phule
Agriculture University, Rahuri, Maharastra, to evolve Indian Mohair breed.
Skin
In the world scenario, the goat skin production has recorded a small upturn of about +14.1%. In
India, the production of small ruminant’s skin remained relatively stable over the last five years showing
a small upturn in goat (+8.3%) skin production over the last half decade (Table 4). India’s, goat skin
contributes 16% of the world’s goat skin production. The production of fresh goatskin in India over the
years has been depicted as below:
Year Production (Mt) Quinquinnial increase % Increase/year

1961 56,142
1966 60,228 4,086 1.46
1971 64,800 4,572 1.52
1976 69,300 4,500 1.39
1981 78,480 9,180 2.65
1986 95,400 16,920 4.31
1991 117,000 21,600 4.53

1996 124,200 7,200 1.23

2000 128,340 4,140 0.83
2003 129,600 1,260 0.33
Recommendations of National Commission on Agriculture (1974) on goat breeding policy
1. Approach for raising meat production from goats should be selective breeding among
taller and medium size breeds and out-crossing with non-descript type with selected meat
type.
2. Crossbreeding with exotic dairy breeds of goats may be undertaken for increasing milk
production.
3. Milk capabilities of better indigenous dairy breeds like Jamunapari, Barbari and Beetal
should be improved through selective breeding. For production of stud bucks some goat
breeding farms should be set up and progeny testing work undertaken.
4. Bucks from high producing dams in flocks of progressive goat breeders may be selected
and distributed among goat farmers.
5. Progressive goat breeders may be advised to maintain milk records and other relevant
information that may be helpful in selecting prospective stud bucks.
6. Work on all-India coordinated project developing a strain of high pashmina producing goats
should be pursed vigorously.
7. Field programmes to take up production of mohair by crossing hairy breeds of goats with
Angora in cold arid areas should be initiated.
Research approach
During late fifties important of goats in rural economy was realized by the Govt. of India. Research
programmes were initiated at organized farms for improvement of goats for milk and meat altitude.
Experiments conducted at Raja Balwant Singh College Agra on Jamunapari, Beetal, Barbari and
Black Bengal for growth under intensive management system on small number of goats in each breed
and pure breed and cross breed performance was studied. Improvement programme on Jamunapari
and Barbari were also initiated at Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom (Roy et al, 1988
and Singh et al, 1991). All India Coordinated research Project on Goats was initiated during IV Five
Year Plan with the main objective to develop new genotype involving crossbreeding of native goat
breeds with high yielding exotic breeds in order to improve the efficiency of production of milk, meat
and fiber. This programme continued upto VIIth Five year Plan. With the experienced gain and the
information generated, it was considered necessary to improve the native goat breeds, which are well
adapted to the local environment and prevailing management systems in their natural habitat
consequence programme to improve Jamunapari, Barbari, Sirohi, Marwari, Sangamneri, Malabari,
Ganjam and Black Bengal were initiated in their native tract of Chakarnagar (UP), Mathura, Navsari,

Bikaner, Rahuri, Trichur, Bhubaneshwar and Kolkata under the auspices of AICRP on Goat
Improvement. The programme envisaged to improve productivity of these breeds in their native tract.
The approach of improvement has been selective breeding and establishment of germplasm centre
to cater the future need of improvement. For improvement in milk and meat production selected sires
were used at Jamunapari and Barbari units, CIRG, Makhdoom. Sires were selected on the index
combining 12 month body weight of the buck and 90 days milk yield of the dam of respective breed.
[positive genetic trend of 0.11±0.18, 0.38±0.15, 1.04±0.26, 2.46±0.13 and 2.41±0.45 for body weight
at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12 month of age were also estimated (Roy et al, 2003). Improvement in 90 days
milk yield and body weight at 9 and 12 month of age were observed (Roy et al, 2003).
Selective breeding
As the indigenous breeds display great variation in relation to adaptability, productivity, feed
utilization, disease resistance etc., therefore, conservation of uniqueness/traditional characteristic of
indigenous breeds are of great importance. Selective breeding for both meat and milk production
was practiced in Jamunapari and Barbari goats at CIRG and for Pashmina at Mukateshwar (Kumaon),
IVRI. Indian Pashmina is the finest and lightest natural fibre in the world produced by the Chegu and
Changthangi breed of goats.
Selection and conservation of goats at farmers flock

Conservation may be done in situ involving of the breed in native tract avoiding introduction of
outside breed/genetic material and maintenance of sufficiently large population, establishment of
germplasm centres in the native tract as well as to organized farm with sufficiently large enough to
avoid inbreeding. Ex-situ in vitro conservation involving sperm, oocytes, embryos and DNA may be
more feasible.
Constraints and Scope:

Despite of large goat population in India, the production potential of Indian goats is low. A number
of factors are responsible for the production of India goat breed.
Reason of low production

The major reasons for low productivity of animals are
(i) Poor genetic potential of indigenous breed.
(ii) Inadequate number of superior breeding bucks.
(iii) Inadequate grazing resources.
(iv) Disease problem
(v) Selection of superior bucks for future breeding purpose.
(vi) Larger intermixing among breed due to migration and mixing of flock on grazing.
(vii) Lack of proper culling of unproductive/diseased animal.
(viii) Lack of organized efforts for bringing genetic improvement and marketing of live animals
and animal products coupled with lack of credit facilities.

(ix) Difficulties in adoption of improvement due to socio-economic conditions and educational

level of goat farmers.
Before designing any breed improvement programme, it is necessary to define the production
system of herd in particular region and what should be the breeding objective to increase efficiency of
production in particular agro-climatic condition. Detailed evaluation of indigenous breeds in their
habitat is inheritable for any improvement programme. Information on production and reproduction
performance of native breed and estimation of genetic parameters i.e., inheritance pattern of traits of
interest in the next generation form a basis for decision making in particular location. Selection should
be carried out in the environment to which the breed is adapted and it is aimed for traditionally valued
characteristics. ONBS is considered as an effective mattered for improving the breed in the locality.
So, the screening of the population to identify the superior individual can be very useful in establishing
a control nucleus under village condition, where genetic improvement can be further generated by
selection based on measured production. ONBS requires the identification of high producing animals
with respect to trait of interest from different herd and pooling these animals to form a nucleus population
to act as a main source of stock for the contributing breeds. This scheme encourages farmers to
integrate their resources and hence participation is more which reduce the overhead cost to achieve
appropriate selection objective through mass selection.
(i) Conservation of superior germplasm for all breed to maintain the genetic diversity should
be made.
(ii) A well defined breeding policy on regional/natural level with clearly identified goats and
objection is required for improving the animal productivity. This breeding policy need not
only be time bound aimed at improving the animal productivity but should also take into
goat productivity but the programme failed due to high mortality rate, high disease
susceptibility low heat to tolerance etc. Therefore, care should be given for poorer
management, of animals with respect to feeding, housing and disease problem of animal.
(iii) Upgrading of low producing breed with indigenous improver breed can be made. Select
your females for obtaining more twins.
(iv) Proper marketing facility of your product. The marketing of small ruminant production in
India is very variable and depend on the location and prevailing production system.
A well organized data recording system and data base for a particular breed in a particular
region is essential for increasing the productivity at national level.
Identification of superior genotypes through gene marker studies is a new dimension in establishing
elite stock. The characterization of goat breed at molecular level is necessary for improving the
productivity of animals.
Augmentation of reproductive efficiency through embryo biotechnology/transfer proper heat

detection, synchronization of estrus of animals leads to improve the goat productivity.
Future Breeding Policy

A development strategy needs to anticipate and identify those forces that drive goat production

system for high productivity. The following points regarding the programme and policy decision are
needs to be looked into for optimum goat production in India.
1. India is the repository of 22 goat breeds but the major problem is that majority of them are
intermixed and their performance was less than optimal under prevalent condition of feeding
and management. Their low profile performance under prevalent condition is due to not availability
of good quality bucks for breeding. Again there is serious erosion of breeding population because
of slaughtering of young males. In our country 50 to 73 percent goats are slaughtered were
below 6 months of age and 26 to 50 percent were 12 months old (Naidu et al., 1991).
2. Genetic improvement programme for different economically important traits of farm animals should
be aimed for selective breeding and cross breeding. The choice depends on production system,
objectives and the resource available to monitor it. Similarly equal attention is necessary for
disseminating improved genetic material for improving field condition. In our country, famous
goat breeds like Jamunapari, Barbari etc. are facing threat of extinction. A complex situation
has been arisen due to poverty, population dynamics, agricultural growth, inadequate feed
resources, most importantly degradation of environment. Research has to play major role to
overcome such complex problem. It is necessary to take two-way approach to solve the problem
i.e. conservation and identification of natural resource, development of breeding stock and
demonstration how goat can play a key role in the development of sustainable agriculture in
different agro-eco system.
3. Genetic evaluation and conservation aspect of different indigenous breeds in their natural habitat
should be strictly followed for maintaining pure line and developing suitable local strains according
to farmer’s need and regional suitability. As a lot of genetic diversity exists in goat breeds, it is
essential to address non-genetic factors for increasing productivity also. Nutrition is one of the
important non-genetic factors and is really critical indicator of productivity.
4. Research on molecular approach should be carried out for optimizing selection decision.
5. The major constraint for the optimum productivity of the animals is disease problem, which leads
to mortality and production loss due to sub-clinical infection and parasitic problems. It is
necessary to protect natural national resource from major disease like PPR. So disease
monitoring, veterinary investigation in one hand and preventive measures and producing disease
resistant stock in other hand are major points, which need focus at the institution and research
organization level.
6. Dissemination of modern scientific practices to farmer through extension and training are
necessary for providing a sound goat production system all over the country.
7. Credit, marketing and processing policies are necessary for providing safe products to consumer
and taking necessary modification for future.
8. Careful analysis and assessment of production performance of animal are required so that goat
development strategies can be reoriented in better manner towards use of local resources,
contribute more effectively to food security, and improve the living standard of poor farmers to
ensure sustainable development.

ISAGB/12
CROSS BREEDING IN SHEEP: EXPERIENCE IN INDIA

A.L. ARORA AND A.K. MISHRA
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan 304501
Crossbreeding in sheep for improving wool production started in 19th century by the East India
Company, which imported exotic breeds of sheep for crossbreeding with the indigenous sheep breeds.
Crossbreeding experiments using exotic fine wool breeds, particularly Cape Merino was started and
about 4 000-5 000 crossbred sheep were raised around Poona which produced more wool of superior
quality (NCA, 1976). In the first decade of 20th century, crossbreeding of indigenous sheep with Romeny
Marsh was undertaken both in plains and hilly areas. Some crossbreeding trials were also undertaken
in Punjab, Bengal, Mysore and Madras using Southdown and Cape Merino. With the establishment of
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), research programmes were taken up on sheep
development on regional basis, which included selective breeding within native stock and crossbreeding
them with exotic fine wool breeds, and covered almost all the important sheep rearing states. Major
emphasis was however placed on sheep development after the country attained independence and
initiated its five-year plans. During the Fourth Plan, Indo-Australian (now Central) Sheep Breeding
Farm was set up at Hissar with Corriedale breed for production and distribution of Corriedale stud
rams to different states for cross breeding to improve wool and mutton production. Corriedale did not
perform well especially with respect to reproduction and survival and was later replaced by Rambouillet.
The All-India Co-ordinated Research Project (AICRP) on sheep Breeding was launched in 1971
by ICAR to evolve ideal breeds suitable for different agro-climatic zones of India. Breed improvement
programmes undertaken by CSWRI, Avikanagar and AICRP (SB) resulted in development of number
of strains for fine/ carpet wool and mutton production. All the centres of AICRP on Sheep Breeding
were converted into Network Project on Sheep Improvement (NWPSI) Centres in 1990.
STRATEGIES FOR SHEEP IMPROVEMENT THROUGH CROSSBREEDING:
The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Govt. of India, set up a “Task Force” to take
stock of the present status of sheep, goat and rabbit production in the country and make
recommendations. The crossbreeding stretegies as recommended by “Task Force (1996)” for sheep
improvement is given here under:
Cross breeding with exotic breeds, which have useful traits, are essential for making fast
improvement in the local animals and gain from heterosis. For this purpose cross breeding will have
to be examined in three distinct environments:
i. Mountainous and hill regions
ii. Hot arid and semi-arid regions
iii. Humid tropical regions.

Cross breeding in Mountains & Hills
In Northern temperate zone hardier breeds which are more accustomed to living on low nutritional
levels are best bred to the Merino types such as Australian Merino, Soviet Merino, Rambouillet,
French Merino and to a lesser extent, those containing 50% or more Merino such as Polwarth and
Corriedale. Other breeds adjust less satisfactorily.
Indigenous sheep of these regions are coarse carpet wool breeds. Crossing these indigenous
breeds with the Rambouillet or Merino immediately give a spectacular change to a better quality, more
desired 30 micron fleece. Further upgrading of the crosses yield typical Merino type fleeces of 20 to
25 microns of apparel wool. Fleece yields are increased substantially. In northern temperate zone
crossbreeds are larger, can be clipped more and satisfactorily produce finer wool than indigenous
sheep. Crossbreeding with Merinos/Rambouillets with annual shearing in higher crosses will be the
most desirable strategy in north temperate region. In hills of South India, crossbred with 50:50 exotic
do well in areas nearer to equator.
Cross breeding in hot arid and semi arid regions
The local sheep in these areas are very hardy and carpet wool or dual-purpose (carpet wool
and meat) type. Wool, though of inferior quality, is an important source of income to the, farmers. All
temperate breeds, including Merino, do not adapt well to heat and nutritional stress during summer.
Hence maintaining pure flocks of these temperate breeds is not practical. However, 50% Rambouillet
or Australian Merino cross-breds have shown sufficient tolerance and substantial improvement in
wool weight and quality over the pure indigenous breeds.
The utilization of Rambouillet as an improver breed both for body weight and wool production
and quality should be encouraged in carpet wool production from indigenous breeds. Bharat Merino
sheep could safely be utilized as an import substitute of exotic fine wool sheep. Bharat Merino can
also be used as improver breed for improving wool yield and quality of coarse wool breeds viz. Malpura,
Sonadi etc.
Cross breeding in Humid Tropics
The indigenous sheep of this zone are either hairy sheep or mixed hair/wool fleeces which are
usually not shorn but are allowed to fall off. There is little or no market for such wool. Sheep are not as
important in the economy of this zone as they are in other zones. The best strategy for improving the
sheep in these areas for increasing mutton production would be to use either half-bred rams of
Ranbouillet/Merino or by using superior rams of heavier breeds such as Nali, Muzzaffarnagri and
Ma1pura.
Systematic cross breeding
Cross breeding to improve growth rate will also result in heavier ewes. The stocking density
should be such so as to sustain them. However, the locals can be kept as they are and crossed to
exotic as terminal sires to produce fat lambs. Pure breeding and top crossing can be alternated to

produce pure breed and fat lambs. Although this type of systematic cross breeding will overcome the
trouble of maintaining cross-bred flocks, creating infrastructure and organizing the whole system
would be a difficult task since flocks are small and the industry is not noted for control. It is for this
reasons that cross breeding should aim to incorporate the exotic blood into new composite breeds
and not to maintain a cross breeding system.
CROSS BREEDING FOR IMPROVING WOOL PRODUCTION
Sporadic attempts for improving productivity of sheep through crossbreeding were made even
during the pre independence period. Most of the earlier efforts were aimed at improving sheep for
fine wool production through introducing exotic fine wool inheritance or up-gradation using the
indigenous improver wool or dual-purpose breeds on limited scale. Though reasonable success was
achieved in developing new breed/strains but on account of non-coutinuity of efforts and due to
population sizes involved, the achievements could not be sustained to leave perceptible results.
Crossbreeding among native breeds
Among native wools, Chokla has the overall best performance for the functional characteristics
of carpets followed by Magra, Jaisalmeri, Malpura, Nali and Sonadi in the given order (Anonymous
1990). Limited research efforts have been made to achieve improvement in the wool yield and its
quality among indigenous sheep breeds through upgrading the low producing local sheep with
indigenous superior carpet wool breeds like Ckokla, Magra etc. The crossbreds of south Indian mutton
breeds viz. Bellary at Hosur (Tamil Nadu) with north Indian improver Magra breed showed advantage
in wool production and quality. Some improvement in local breeds of Madhya Prdesh and Uttar Pradesh
were also observed when crossed with Chokla and Magra rams. Increase in greasy fleece weight and
fibre length and decrease in fibre diameter and medullation percentage was reported (Chaudhry and
Chaudhary, 1991). Bohra et al (1993b) identified a new breed of sheep i.e. Kheri evolved under the
field conditions in the migratory flocks by using Marwari/Jaisalmeri rams on local sheep.
Cross breeding involving exotic breeds
For fine Wool Production
Attempts of crossbreeding native sheep with exotic fine wool breeds for increasing wool production
and quality have been made even during the pre-independence period. Many crossbreeding
experiments for improving fine wool have been reported by Das and Rajgopalan (1956), Amble et al
(1967), Amble and Malhotra (1968), Raina et al (1973), Acharya (1974), Chouadhry and Chaudhary
(1991) and Singh and Singh (1998). In early 1900s superior indigenous sheep breeds were crossed
with cape Merino, South Down, Romny Marsh etc., in Maharastra, Utter Pradesh, Mysore, Punjab,
Tamil Nadu and new strains viz., Hissardale, Nilgiri, Kashmir Merino were developed. However, these
programmes also suffered from lack of continuity. The results of the earlier crossbreeding experiments,
though, were not very conclusive because of small number of rams used and non-availability of
contemporary performance records, the experiments, in general, indicated the superiority of crossbreds
over the indigenous breeds involved with respect to body weights, wool weights and quality traits.

Further, survivability of the half-breds was similar to that of native animals but the higher crosses
exhibited higher mortality. These results also indicated that the Rambouillet/Merino crosses thrived
better than those from the British breeds.
With the establishment of the CSWRI and launching of AICRP on Sheep Breeding, concerted
efforts in this direction were made. The crossbreds evolved along with their genetic composition are
presented in table 1 and their performance in table 2. Avivastra a new fine wool strain evolved through
crossing of Chokla, Nali and Jaisalmeri sheep with Rambouillet/Merino, are capable of producing
about 2.5 kg of greasy wool annually having fibre diameter of 21-22 micron, medullation percentage
15 and staple length 4.5 cm. They are thus potential fine wool producing animals meeting the apparel
quality characteristics. Avivastra has been upgraded and merged with Bharat Merino, a fine wool
strain having 75% inheritance of Rambouillet/Merino, as they did not differ significantly in growth and
wool quality traits. Bharat Merino strain of sheep evolved by CSWRI and maintained in Kodai hills is
capable of producing about 3.0 kg greasy wool annually with fibre diameter of 20.0 microns, staple
length 7.5 cm and medullation percentage less than one. The Rambouillet and Merino crosses with
Nilgiri at the Sheep Breeding Reasearch Station, Sandynallah also exhibited potential to be evolved
into a fine wool breed at 50 to 62 percent level of exotic inheritance.
There was substantial improvement in fibre diameter (14.0 to 35%) and medullation percentage
(3.0 to 37.0) as well as gain in body weights when the superior carpet wool breeds like Chokla and
Nali were crossed with exotic fine wool breeds. There was, however little increase in wool yield, when
crossed with fine wool breeds. The poor quality carpet wool breeds when crossed with exotic mutton/
dual purpose breeds resulted in improvement in weaning weights, greasy fleece weights as well as
quality traits except staple length. The very coarse to hairy wool breeds, except in some cases produce
medium quality carpet wools with about 25 to 35 m diameter and 30 to 40 percent medullation even in
first cross (Chouadhry and Chaudhary, 1991; Singh and Singh, 1998).
The results indicate that almost all the crossbreds have shown improvement in wool quality but
the staple length ranging between 3.5 to 5 cm at six monthly clip remains the limiting factor for which
rigorous selection and/or appropriate shearing practices need to be developed to make the wool
suitable for appropriate processing. Further, the results also suggest that increasing the exotic
inheritance beyond 75% percent gives little advantage. This however required the higher level of
management and feeding input than the half-breds and native sheep.
Carpet wool production

The crossbreeding of extremely coarse and hairy breeds like Malpura with Rambouillet at CSWRI,
Avikanagar has shown that halfbreds from such crosses yield more wool of excellent carpet quality
than native Malpura. The Avikalin strain evolved out of this crossbred base is able to produce about
2 kg greasy fleece annually of 25-micron fibre diameter, 25 percent medullation and about 4.5 cm
staple length. The wool produced by Avikalin is superior to the carpet wool produced by indigenous
breeds (Chouadhry and Chaudhary, 1991). Improvement in wool yield and quality has also been
observed in Avimaans and Awassi x Malpura crossbreds. Avikalin x Avimaans crosses are being
upgraded with Avikalin as dual-purpose sheep (carpet wool and mutton production).

The performances of newly evolved strains through crossbreeding for carpet wool are given in
Table 2. The crossbreeding experiments have given encouraging results and have shown substantial
improvement in wool quality approaching the targets of ideal carpet wool. The crossbreeding of hairy
breeds in Southern region of India with such mutton type breeds as Suffolk and Dorset have also
shown appearance of fleece cover on the crossbreds. Similar trends are also exhibited by the synthetics
evolved under AICRP unit of APAU, Palamner (AP) using Nellore and Mandya local breeds (Chouadhry
and Chaudhary, 1991).
CROSS BREEDING FOR IMPROVING MUTTON PRODUCTION
Several experiments for increasing body weight in sheep through crossbreeding population
have been attempted. Performance with respect to growth, feed efficiency and carcass traits in
crossbred sheep is presented in table 3 and 4. Some experiments on grading up were undertaken
using breeds like Malpura and Bikaneri as improver breed in AP, Tamil Nadu and Bihar. The crossbreds
of these native sheep exhibited faster growth rate in Bihar but at other places the results were not
perceptible (Chaudhry and Chaudhary, 1991). In 1997, Orissa Govt. purchased Malpura rams for
distribution among farmer’s sheep flocks. As per feedback received, the breeding rams supplied
were performing well and the progenies born out are superior on body weight than their native counter
parts (Das et al, 2001).
Crossbreeding with exotic breeds
AICRP on sheep breeding for mutton was started in 1971. Under this, experiments were conducted
at 5 centres viz. Avikanagar,Palamner, Makhdoom, Rahuri and Madras. Dorset and Suffolk rams have
been used to improve mutton sheep viz. Malpura, Sonadi, Mandya, Nellore, Muzaffarnagri, Deccani
and Madras Red. The objective of the project was to attain 30 kg body weight at 6-month age of
lambs. Through crossbreeding followed by inter-se mating and selection, Mutton Synthetic also known
as Avimaans was evolved at Avikanagar, Mandya and Nellore Synthetics have been evolved at Palamner.
Avimaans lambs could attain a body weight of 25 kg at 130 days of age with feed conversion efficiency
of about 18 percent. Malpura lambs could also achieve this body weight with similar feed conversion
efficiency through selection. Results showed that Avimaans lambs had potential for mutton production
under intensive feeding system (Chaudhry and Arora, 1989, Chaudhry and Chaudhary, 1991). However,
Mutton Synthetic lambs have a tendency to deposit fat during terminal part of feedlot. Further the
reproductive efficiency of this new strain was significantly lower as compared to that of Malpura sheep
(Bohra et al 1993a). Since reproduction is of utmost importance especially in breeding sheep for
mutton production and repoductive efficiency of Avimaans strain was poor, it was decided to stop
further propagation of this strain. Similarly, crossbreds of different exotic breeds like Rambouillet,
Dorset, Suffolk and Corriedale were generated in number of states. Croosbreds evolved alongwith
their genetic composition is presented in Table 1. Nellore Synthetic rams were supplied to farmers
through Field Demonstration Units established in 1985-86. There was improvement in body weight of
quarter-bred lambs at all ages as compared to indigenous lambs in farmers flocks. Performance of
Nellore Synthetic rams was comparable to that of Nellore rams in terms of fertility and sex libido.

Results of crossing Muzaffarnagri ewes with Dorset and Suffolk rams during 1979 to 1984 had shown
little improvement as compared to improvement through selection. It was therefore, decided to improve
Muzaffarnagri sheep for mutton production through selection. Male lambs maintained on feedlot after
weaning at 60 days of age could achieve 25 kg body weight at about 120 days of age with average
daily gain of 162 g and feed efficiency of about 20 percent. In one of the experiments, male lambs in
feedlot (from 91 to 180 days) could achieve an average live weight of 36.9 kg. (Charyulu and Arora
1998).
The results of cross breeding on the whole, revealed that percent improvement in body weight
upto 6 months of age is conspicuous in different crossbreds over contemporary natives but only
marginal improvement is observed at 12 months of age. This is indicative of the fact that crossbreds/
new synthetics required high plane of nutrition and if they are managed on the same feeding regimen
as for natives, the differences which were conspicuous upto 6 months age, narrow down gradually
and become marginal at the age of one year. Due to non-availability of required plane of nutrition,
mutton type strains developed by crossing Suffolk and Dorset with the indigenious breeds could not
outdo the natives under village managemental conditions despite the improvement in body size as
well as in wool quality and quantity.
To improve the growth rate as well as milk yield, the Awassi rams were crossed with Malpura
ewes at CSWRI, Avikanagar and with Deccani at NARI, Phaltan. The significant improvement in
crossbreds was observed over natives with respect to growth and milk yield (Nimbkar, 1995; Report,
1998; Narula et al, 1999).
CROSSBREEDING OF SHEEP FOR PELT PRODUCTION
Improvement for pelt production was initiated with the importation of Russian Karakul sheep in
1975 in the country at CSWRI, Avikanagar and a strain Indian Karakul was evolved. Crossbreeding of
Karakul with Malpura, Marwari and Sonadi breeds of sheep indicated that at half bred level 30 to 35%
of the pelts fall under the jacket type. Further at the 3/4 level the proportion of jacket type pelts
increased to more than 50-60%. The size and weight of the pelt also compares suitably with the pure
Karakul pelts. The performance of Karakul was satisfactory with respect to production, reproduction,
survivability and adaptation (Jain et al., 1998). But due to socio-political reasons the programme was
phased out.
CROSSBREEDING FOR INCREASING PROLIFICACY
Considering the importance of multiple births in sheep breeding in special reference to mutton
production, Garole a prolific breed of sheep has been introduced at CSWRI, Aviknagar in 1997. The
results indicated that twining percent in Garole X Malpura half-breeds ewes were 52.24 % and lamb
born, as triplets were 7.46 %. The average number lambs born per ewe lambed was 1.64 in G XM and
1.08 in Malpura sheep (Kumar et al, 2004). It was observed that the body weight at different ages of
G x M half-bred were on little lower side compared to contemporary Malpura lambs. The survivability
of G X M sheep is almost at par with native Malpura sheep (Mishra and Arora, 2003; Sharma et al,
2004). Similar study was also carried out at Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute Phaltan

(Maharashtra) using Deccani and Bellary breed (Nimbkar, 1995, Nimbkar et al 2000).
In general, crossbreeding work conducted in the country indicated the superiority of half-breds
in body weight, GFY and fleece quality over the indigenous breeds involved except for Polworth
crosses with Rampur Bushair in UP. The survival of half-breds was similar to that of indigenous breeds,
but crosses containing higher exotic blood did show problems of survival. Rambouillet appeared to be
superior to other exotic breeds. When more than one indigenous breed was used with the same
exotic breed, carpet wool breeds – particularly Magra showed superiority. The performance of progeny
produced from inter-breeding half-breds was not much inferior to that of the first generation (F1) half-
breds.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
1. Livestock breeding policy in the fast changing scenario needs to be reviewed keeping in
view the farmers needs and perception, demand and supply of animal products like milk,
meat and wool, availability of feeds and fodder, existing species/breeds and their
performance, infrastructure and support system in different agro climatic zones.
2. Attention should be given to raise animal productivity from low to intermediate level rather
than providing genetic potential for productivity that cannot be supported economically
and might seriously hamper sustainability of natural resources.
3. In case of crossbreeding, implementation must be considered situation specific i.e. resources
needed for crossbreds must be available. Therefore, breeding of livestock should be in a
way that matches the available and accessible resources.
4. Crossbreds may be tried in the area where feed and fodder are available adequately and
they are not required to travel long distances in search of food.
5. Data base, pertaining to breed-wise (descript and non descript) population, animal
productivity, production of forage crops, industrial by-products and non-conventional feeds,
grasses available in forest areas and grazing lands, is grossly inadequate. This needs to
be updated through periodic surveys and livestock censuses. Important indigenous breeds
of sheep should be properly characterised both phenotypically and genetically. Experiments
should be undertaken to assess their population, production performance and to exploit
their production potential under ideal feeding and health management conditions. Elite
flock of different native breeds should be developed for producing genetically superior
rams
6. Development and transfer of appropriate viable technologies of livestock production systems
and farming systems deserve urgent attention by researchers involving farmers.
7. Since it has not been possible to get fine wool with desirable staple length from the higher
crosses in the arid and semi arid region, apparel wool production may be intensified only in
the temperate and sub-temperate region. In these areas 3/4th crosses of Rambouillet or
Merino including Bharat Merino may be propagated and annual clips may be obtained to

meet the requirements for apparel manufacture.

8. The carpet type wool producing breed such as Nali, Chokla, Patanwadi, Marwari, Magra,
Jaisalmeri, Pugal, Bhakarwal, Gurez, Gaddi and Rampur Bushair etc. should be further
improved through selective breeding. Efforts should also be made to introduce lustre in
indigenous carpet wool breeds to to harvest maximum return through sale of quality carpet
wool. Mutton type breeds like Malpura, Sonadi, Deccani, Muzaffarnagri, Mandya, Madras
Red, Mecheri, Ganjam etc. should be restricted to selective breeding. Carpet wool production
and quality should be concentrated in Rajasthan, Gujarat and parts of Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh.
9. There is a tremendous potential and demand of meat both in local market and for export
especially to Middle-East countries. Therefore, strategy to fulfil this potential is to breed for
more efficient, sturdy, prolific type of animals for both extensive (low input) and intensive
(feedlot) systems. Simultaneously, infrastructure has to be developed which will give boost
to meat and live animals trade. This includes: Livestock Markets; Transportation and Holding
facilities; Abattoirs; Financial support for various commercial activities from the farmers
level to the trader/exporter; Disease control; Quality certification laboratories; Farmer
Organizations, either as Cooperatives or Public Companies and Export promotion.
10. Elite male/ram germplasm centres should be developed for providing good breeding rams.
Such farms should evolve a system of Open Nucleus Breeding, where elite germ plasm
may be multiplied.
11. Under field conditions, the two important characters to be considered for selection for
improvement in carpet wool production and quality are: (a) First 6-monthly greasy fleece
weight, (b) Medullation percentage.
12. For improving mutton production the flock owner must ensure availability of fast and efficient
growing lambs. Ability to produce fast growing lean lambs ca be introduced through use of
right type of sire breed. In crossbreeding programme, choice of ewe breed should be
made on the basis of other factors (viz. lambing rate, mothering ability, wool production,
wool quality, availability and cost). This index will take care of the reproductive performance,
lamb survival and market weight. This criterion may also be used for improvement in the
production of dual-purpose breeds where 6-monthly greasy weight may additionally be
considered in ram lambs selected for improving mutton production.
13. Grading up of non-descript sheep through their continuous breeding with selected rams of
the desired descript breed(s), depending on characters to be improved should be under
taken.
14. Fecundity may be improved by proper selection for high prolificacy and adopting appropriate
management to support it. Cross breeding of prolific native Garole sheep with other
indigenous sheep subject to availability of sufficient milk with the ewes to sustain twin/
triplet should be attempted at different locations of the country so that their reproductive

Table 1: Sheep strains developed

Genotype with Parent breeds
Level of exotic
utility/location Indigenous Exotic inheritance (%)
Bharat Merino, for fine wool Chokla, Nali, Malpura, Rambouillet, Russian 75
CSWRI, Avikanagar Jaiselmeri Merino
Avivastra, for fine wool Chokla, Nali Rambouillet, Russian Merino 50
CSWRI, Avikanagar
Nilgiri Synthetic, for apparel Nilgiri Rambouillet, Soviet Merino 62.5/75
wool TNVASU Sandynallah
Patanwadi Synthetic, for Patanwadi Rambouillet, Soviet Merino 50
carpet wool GAU, Dantiwada
Avikalin, for carpet wool
CSWRI, Avikanagar Malpura Rambouillet 50
Avimaans, for mutton
CSWRI, Avikanagar Malpura, Sonadi Dorset, Suffolk 50
Indian Karakul, for pelt
CSWRI, ARC Bikaner Marwari, Malpura, Karakul 75
Sonadi Kashmir Merino,
for fine wool
J &K State Gaddi, Bhakarwal, Delaine Merino Rambouillet,
Poonchi Soviet Merino 50-75
Hisardale, for apparel wool Bikaneri Australian Merino 75
Haryana State
Table 2: Fleece characteristics of newly developed strains in India.

Breed Greasy fleece Av staple length Av fibre diameter Medullation
weight (kg) (cm) (m) (%)
Hissardale 1.46 to 2.72 5.52 to 6.15 21.53 to 24.45 0.0 to 0.55
Kashmir Merino 2.45 to 2.80 4.77 to 5.60 20.40 to 20.94 0.0
Nilgiri 0.20 to 1.40 7.01 to 8.70 21.57 to 27.40 8.40 to 18.0
Deccani Merino 1.50 5.75 22.1 1.6
Nilgiri Synthetic 1.0 to 1.5 4.6 to 5.0 20.6 to 21.6 1.00 to 3.20
Patanwadi Synthetic 1.2 to 1.7 4.6 to 5.2 19.3 to 23.2 9.0 to 20.8
Bharat Merino 2.61 to 2.8 2.88 to 9.40 17.61 to 20.24 1.00 to 1.08
Avivastra 1.90 3.50 21.6 7.60
Avikalin 1.72 4.26 25.2 24.9

Source: Singh and Singh (1998).

Table 3: Growth performance of crossbred (mutton type) sheep.
Breed/Genetic group Birth wt. 3-month 6-month 12-month Source
(kg) wt. (kg) wt. (kg) wt. (kg)
Garole x Malpura 2.24 ±0.03 10.37± 0.14 16.33 ±0.18 22.81 ±0.25 Mishra and Arora (2003)
Avimaans 3.21±0.012 14.11±0.07 22.08±0.12 26.71±0.16 Charyalu and Arora
(1998)
Dorset x Muzaffarnagari 3.54±0.08 15.21±0.40 21.26±0.53 30.26±0.74 Report (1993)
Suffolk x Muzaffarnagari 3.89±0.11 16.25±0.58 23.56±0.77 31.99±1.11 Report (1993)
Dorset x Deccani 3.52±0.06 13.83±0.11 20.28±017 25.05±0.72 Report (1993)
Kheri 3.12 ± 0.07 10.81 ± 0.16 15.97 ± 0.10 23.68 ± 0.27 Kumar et al (2003)
Dorset x Madras Red 2.98 12.01 16.49 21.16 Report (1993)
Awassi x Malpura 3.59±0.04 16.53±0.31 24.39±0.41 30.40±0.38 Report (1996)
Avikalin 2.95±0.04 14.92±0.21 19.92±0.28 30.15±0.39 Report (1996)
Avikalin x Avimaans 3.04±0.05 15.81±0.30 20.79±0.34 30.62±0.44 Report (1996)
Source: Charyulu and Arora (1998).
Table 4: Feedlot performance of crossbred (Mutton type) sheep

Breed/Gen. Group Initial wt. Final Av. daily Feed Hot Dressing
Dressing wt. gain eff. carcass (%)
(kg) (kg) (g) % weight(kg) EWB
Avimaans 18.93 32.54 151 15.71 - 59.12
Dorset x Muzaffarnagri 18.57 32.29 152 19.46 - 58.82
Suffolk x Muzaffarnagri 13.33 26.41 145 23.62 - 56.94
Dorset x Deccani 12.17 27.41 143 13.87 10.84 54.97
Dorset x Madras Red 12.02 26.04 123 14.07 11.07 57.39
Source: Charyulu and Arora (1998).
efficiency could be increased. The fecundity gene should be detected at an early age in
the ram lambs born out from such crosses.
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th
Seminar on “ Golden Jubilee Seminar on sheep, goat and rabbit production and utilization, from 24-26
April, 1998, organized by Indian society for sheep and goat production and utilization at Jaipur.
Task Force. 1996. Report of the Task Force on Sheep, Goat and rabbit production, Ministry of Agriculture,
Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Govt. of India.

ISAGB/13
BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR SHEEP IN TAMIL NADU

P.KANAKARAJ AND S.M.K.KARTHICKEYAN
Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai- 600007
Sheep play vital role by significantly contributing to the production of meat, fibre and skin and
also to the provision of rural employment, especially in ecologically difficult areas. Tamil Nadu is
having highly diversified physical features and agro-ecological conditions. Based on rainfall, irrigation
pattern and other physical, ecological and social factors, the state is classified into seven distinct
agro-climatic zones and each possessing distinct breed/breeds of sheep.
Agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu
Agro-climatic zone District covered Sheep breed(s)
North eastern zone Chennai, Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur, Madras Red

Vellore, Thiruvannamalai,
Villuppuram and Cuddalore
North western zone Dharmapuri, Namakkal and Salem Mecheri
Western zone Coimbatore and Erode Coimbatore
Cauvery delta zone Thanjavur, Tiruchirapalli, Nagappattinam,

Karur, Thiruvarur, Permbalur and Pudukottai Trichy Black
Southern zone Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Dindigul, Ramnad White,

Theni, Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Tuiticorin Vembur and
and Tirunelveli Kilakarsal
High rainfall zone Kanyakumari district Migrating flocks
Hilly zone The Nilgiris Nilgiri
Most of the breeds have evolved through natural selection to adapt to particular agro-ecological
conditions. These eight recognised breeds of sheep can also be classified based on wool type as
follows:
1) Hairy type - Madras Red, Mecheri, Ramnad,White, Kilakarsal and Vembur.
2) Coarse wool type - Coimbatore and Trichy Black.
3) Wool type - Nilgiri.
In the state, the total livestock population did not vary very much over the years [25.13 million in
1951 to 26.15 million in 1997 (provisional)]. But the sheep population of 8.02 million in 1951 has come
down to 5.37 million in 1997. On the contrary, goat population shows an increasing trend (4.04 to 6.32
million). These alterations in the population size reflect the economic utility and viability of different
farm livestock.

Research Programmes:
Research on small ruminants has also been carried out and following genetic improvement
programmes were undertaken.
Title of the Scheme Funding Agency Location
AICRP on fine wool sheep* ICAR Sheep Breeding

Research Station,
Sandynallah
AICRP on mutton ICAR Livestock Research

Station, Kattuppakkam Survey, evaluation and
ICAR – Mecheri Sheep Research
characterization of Mecheri NBAGR Station, Potteneri
sheep breed
ONBS and Network Project ICAR Livestock Research

on improvement of Madras Station,
Red Sheep Kattuppakkam
Characteristics and TANUVAS Veterinary College and

performance of Vembur Research Institute,
sheep in the habitat Namakkal
*A synthetic breed of sheep for fine wool “Sandyno” was also evolved in Sheep Breeding Research
Station, Sandynallah by crossing Nilgiri with Merino.
Survey and Evaluation
All the breeds of sheep have been defined and distinguished in terms of phenotype and
geographical distribution. Detailed evaluation of the breeds include population dynamics, flock
structure, physical environment, land use pattern, feed resources, physical conformation, economic
traits, demand of the produce/utility, besides considering the improvement programmes and their
impacts. This characterisation should be done by adopting FAO’s breed descriptors for the purpose
of universal understanding of the resources. Systematic characterisation has also been completed in
Madras Red and Mecheri sheep. However, sheep breeds such as Coimbatore, Trichy Black, Ramnad
White, Kilakarsal and Vembur need detailed survey and systematic evaluation in their native tract to
identify their distinct qualities and performance characteristics. Based on the population size and
status, conservation measures are to be initiated.
Breed description and evaluation should also be supported by studies on gene marker
characteristics. Molecular characterization of indigenous sheep germplasm has been taken up under
ICAR-NBAGR Network project on Core Laboratory. Hence, small ruminant populations of Tamil Nadu
should also be defined in terms of phylogeny and genetic architecture using microsatellite markers.

Selection and Breeding
As there is existence of distinct breeds of sheep, selection within local breeds preserve the
essential adaptation characteristics to the environment. Breeding programmes in sheep are to be
concentrated on growth, body weight and improved reproductive efficiency. Tropical breeds acquired
the adaptability characters through natural selection and hence the selection and breeding programmes
should rely mainly on the improvement of adapted breeds. Hence, only pure breeding/selective breeding
should be carried out in the breeding tract to improve the performance. This can be achieved through
following ways:
Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme (ONBS):
Open Nucleus Breeding Schemes (ONBS) should be effected in different regions to monitor and
augment the production performances of different breeds of sheep in Tamil Nadu. The ONBS concept
comprises a nucleus herd established under controlled conditions to facilitate selection. The nucleus
is established from the best animals selected from the base population. These are then recorded
individually and the best animals are selected to form the elite herd of the nucleus. The elite females
and superior sires are then mated and the resulting offsprings are reared, recorded and the males
among them are evaluated and such elite males with high breeding values can be used in the farmers
flock for genetic improvement. Already a scheme on “Network Project on Sheep Improvement –
Madras Red sheep” is in vogue. By this, greater genetic improvement can be made in large population
of sheep in their home tract.
For development of sheep in the field, breed societies for sheep in key areas of the breeding
tract and / or co-operatives can be started, strengthened and linked to the organisations. This kind of
participatory sheep Development Programme would cover larger area and population, there by bringing
the benefit and achieving the goal of sustainable production. Various co-operative Zones can be
created and the small ruminant population can be improved through Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme
(ONBS).
Sire Referencing Scheme:
Some sheep flocks are often small in size and that limits the speed of genetic improvement they
can achieve. However, this constraint can be overcome through co-
operative breeding schemes such as sire referencing schemes where
flocks are linked together genetically by sharing a few rams in common
without forming a central nucleus. With these links established, the
genetic merit of sheep in separate flocks can then be directly and
accurately compared. This is one of the best strategies to select
and use those “reference rams” shared across flocks to facilitate
quick rates of genetic gain while minimizing inbreeding.
Under nucleus breeding system, the nucleus flock should be SIRE REFERENCING
maintained in the home tract of the respective breed of sheep. The

nucleus (either a Government District Farm or University Farm) should have sufficient breeding stock
to satisfy the demands from the herds or farmers flocks. Under the nucleus (for a particular breed), 3
to 5 cooperating units (Government Institutions / University Centres/ NGOs/ Self help groups) are to
be engaged in monitoring the breeding and improvement plans, depending up on distribution of
flocks and feasibility in coverage. The cooperating centres have to make detailed recording of
performance to study the impact of the programme and change the rams among the farmers flock
once in a year to avoid inbreeding.
There is ample opportunity for greater use of improved breeding stock through:
l Increasing the number of recorded flocks
l Improving the dissemination of high merit breeding stock through wider use of AI, if possible
l Further use of comprehensive recording and sire referencing schemes
Exotic breeds generally show poor adaptability and require major alterations of the management
and feeding systems to produce satisfactorily. Although there are many examples of failure, the
possibility of utilizing some of their genes in suitable crossbreeding programmes should not be entirely
ruled out. The exotic breeds used in Tamil Nadu were Merino, Rambouillet, Dorset and Suffolk.
“At no point, crossbreeding of sheep should be resorted”. Introduction of exotic breeds

should be avoided to prevent the genetic dilution and uniqueness of the specific breeds rather
upgradation or crossbreeding.
Determining need for conservation :
As per Acharya (1990), the Nilgiri breed of sheep is the one which requires conservation in Tamil
Nadu. In-situ preservation of some of the breeds has been made in farms in the University and state
Animal Husbandry Department as follows:
S.N. Name of the Farm Breeds maintained

State Livestock Farms
1. District Livestock Farm, Pudukottai Ramnad White
2. District Livestock Farm, Abishekapatti Kilakarsal
3. District Livestock Farm, Chettinad Kilakarsal
4. Sheep Farm, Chinnasalem Mecheri
5. Sheep Farm, Sattur Vembur,
6. Sheep Farm, Mukundarayapuram Madras Red
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
1. Livestock Research Station, Kattupakkam Madras Red
2. Mecheri Sheep Research Station, Pottaneri Mecheri
3. Sheep Breeding Research Station, Sandynallah Nilgiri, Sandyno synthetic

In order to maintain the purity of these breeds, measures should be taken for in-situ preservation
of breeds such as Trichy Black and Coimbatore sheep in the existing organised and institutional
farms in the respective breeding tract.
It can be concluded that sheep are an integral part of our agricultural production system. The
productivity of indigenous sheep breeds though low, but under present farming system, it is not totally
inefficient, considering poor feeding resources of low nutritive value, the harsh environmental
compulsions and primitive managemental practices. Development of breed societies and recording of
information on population dynamics will help in conservation and making the farmers to actively
participate in the development programmes to achieve further improvement in the vast population of
sheep.
Recommendations:
1) Pure breeding/selective breeding of sheep breeds in their respective breeding tract.
2) Genetic improvement of field stock through network project/Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme
(ONBS)/participatory sheep breeding programme.
3) Critical documentation of distinct populations (eg. Kachakatti sheep) for their identity and
for recognising them as breeds.
Conservation of vulnerable breeds based on population dynamics, establishment of elite nucleus

stocks of sheep and in-situ preservation in organized farms.

ISAGB/14
SHEEP AND RABBIT BREEDING FOR WOOL AND MEAT PRODUCTION IN

NORTH TEMPERATE HILLS OF INDIA
K.S. RISAM AND R.S. BHATT
North Temperate Regional Station
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Garsa (Kullu) H.P. 175141
The livestock sector in India in general and in hilly region in particular is significantly contributing
to family nutrition, income, employment and poverty alleviation. The limited availability of land for
cultivation coupled with uneconomic size of holdings restricts modern agricultural technology. In the
hilly region where crop and dairy farming are not economical, small ruminants such as sheep and
goat contribute significantly to the agrarian economy and plays an important role in the livelihood of
larger proportion of small and marginal farmers and land less labours. Sheep and rabbits, which
produce wool and meat, can greatly contribute to the rural economy in temperate and sub-temperate
region of the country. At present, the sheep husbandry is in declining stage due to shrinking pasture
lands and dwindling forests as well as shifting of farmers to more remunerative enterprises such as
vegetable farming, horticulture and floriculture. Due to colder climatic conditions, dependence on
tourism industry and non-vegetarian feeding habits of hilly population, there is huge demand for both
wool and meat. In such a situation, rabbit farming which needs less space, infrastructure, grazing
land and can be handled by all the members of family i.e. children, women, old aged and even
handicapped without affecting their routine activities is not only an alternative source for these
commodities but also provide an opportunity for food security, employment generation and socio
economic upliftment of farmers in hilly region.
The north temperate region falls under the influence of the Himalayas. In Jammu & Kashmir, it
comprises three distinct regions i.e. Leh, the Kashmir Valley and Jammu. Leh slopes gradually towards
the north and northeast, while the Kashmir Valley slopes toward the south of the Himalayan axis. The
hilly region of Uttaranchal consists of a Himalayan tract in the extreme north and comprises Almora,
Garhwal and Nainital. Himachal Pradesh is traversed by hills ranging in altitude from low to high. In the
north eastern area it consists of states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura , Manipur
and Sikkim.
In the extreme northern Himalayan (snow-clad) region, poorly developed skeletal soils are found.
The tribal territory of Kashmir and Ladakh has mountain meadow soils. Southern Kashmir, Jammu
and northern Himachal Pradesh have sub-mountainous podsols, while southern Himachal Pradesh
and northern Uttranchal have brown hill soils. Extreme northern Uttaranchal, along the Himalayan
ranges, represents terai soils. Major crops grown in this region are maize, wheat, cowpea, pulses,
oilseeds, millets, sorghum, sugarcane, rice, cotton, etc.
Sheep Population and production

Year 2003 census reported about 1024 million sheep population worldwide as compared to
61.47 million in India. India rank fourth in sheep production in the world (Singh, 1998). North temperate

region has about 4.87 million sheep. Sheep production in the country as well as in the north temperate
region is on the increasing trend which is in contrast to the world trend.
Sheep population in million over the years:
1992 1997 2003

World 1157.8 1041.5 1024.0
India 50.78 57.49 61.47
North Temperate Region 4.54 4.68 4.87
North temperate region harbors a sheep population of 4.87 m, representing 7.93% of that of the
country as a whole; it produces about 3.81 m kg of wool, 11.78% of the country’s wool production
which is mostly fine in nature. Of this wool, 0.77 m kg is of 36s to 48s quality (suitable for carpets and
blankets), and 2.32 m kg is of 48s quality and above (suitable for apparel and superior-quality carpets).
The wool produced from the sheep of north eastern region is coarse and is of carpet type (Singh and
Gurmej,1998).
Sheep Population: (in 000) in hillly region:
State 1972 1982 1992 1997 2003

Himachal Pradesh 1040 1090 1079 1080 926
Jammu & Kashmir 1073 1909 2947 3170 3411
Assam 0051 0046 0150 84 170
Manipur 0002 0014 0014 8 06
Meghalaya 0018 0026 0023 17 18
Sikkim - 0011 0016 5 6
Tripura 0002 0005 0005 6 3
Uttranchal - - - 311 296
Nagaland - - - 2 04
Aurnachal Pradesh - - 32 27 19
(Singh,.1998;and www.dahd.nic.in)
Sheep Germplasm According to FAO database there are 1313 living breeds of sheep of which 20%
are at the risk of extinction and further 30% are of unknown status. Sheep diversity is basically related
with the geography of the region, production system, ecological and environmental variation and
genetic constitution of breeds in terms of production, reproduction and fitness parameters. Sheep
are less prone to genetic erosion than many other major domestic animals species. There are problems
with breed’s definition, which should be widened to include populations defined by geography or
social system. It is also necessary to have clearer guidelines as to what breed should be included by
countries in the database (Quartermain, A.R.2002).

Although vast genetic resources in form of 42 breeds of sheep exist in India but the economic
regions are relatively smaller when compared with exotic breeds. Active conservation of the small ruminant
genetic resources means both the creative utilization in sustainable production system and the long
term preservation of key genetic resources to meet unseen future needs (Khan and Arora, , 2002).
Sheep in this region are reared mainly for wool and meat production. The recognized sheep
breeds of the region are Rampur Bushair, Gaddi, Gurez, Karnah, Bhakarwal, Poonchi, Kashmir Merino,
Changthangi, Gaddi synthetic, Tibetan and Bonpala. Most of these have been improved over the last
few years through cross-breeding with exotic fine-wool breeds for increasing apparel-wool production.
Although the exact number of cross-breds is not known, the majority of flocks, especially the migratory
flocks in Jammu & Kashmir, are mostly cross-breds.
The sheep raising tracts of India can be broadly divided into four regions, each being represented
by different types of sheep. These are the temperate Himalayan region, the dry northern region, the
southern region and the eastern regions. The temperate Himalayan region, comprising the states of
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttranchal and hilly parts of Punjab, affords grazing facilities
at different heights during the year. The wool of this region is long stapled, soft and fine and is entirely
utilized for the manufacture of shawls, coarse light blankets, pattu etc. Sheep with superior fleece and
with fine undercoat are found between 2400-3600 m high hilly ranges where grazing conditions and
rainfall are adequate(Krishnamurthi,1997). Sheep found in the Uttranchal areas have coarse fleece.
Flock of sheep in Kangra, Chamba, Kullu and Kashmir valley periodically, move to higher altitudes
and have wool of better quality. A brief description of the important sheep breeds of this region is
given below:
Gaddi: Kishtwar &Bhadarwah tehsil of Jammu and Kashmir and Kullu and Kangra districts of Himachal
Pradesh. These are medium-sized animals, usually white, although tan, brown and black and mixtures
of these are also seen. Males are horned; 10 to 15% of females are horned. Tail is small and thin. The
fleece is relatively fine and dense. Average annual yield is 1.13 kg per sheep, clipped thrice a year
Rampur Bushair: These animals are found in Shimla, Kinnaur, Nahan, Bilaspur, Solan and Lahaul &
Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh and Dehradun, Rishikesh, Chakrota and Nainital districts of Uttar
Pradesh. The animals are well built medium sized have prominent horns, curling backwards and
downwards. Most females are polled Eyes are narrows and ears are large. Tails is short and thin. The
ears are long and drooping. The face line is convex, giving a typical Roman nose. The fleece colour
is predominantly white, with brown, black and tan also seen on the fleece in varying proportions. The
fleece is of medium quality and dense. Legs, belly and face are devoid of wool.
Bhakarwal: They are migratory in habit and are found at the foot hills of Kashmir and at high elevation
of Pir Panchal mountains. A number of flocks migrate to the Kashmir valley, Liddar and Pahalgam.
Medium-sized animals, with a typical Roman nose. The animals are generally white, although coloured
fleeces are occasionally observed. There is a tan or brown color round the eyes and muzzle. All
animals are spotted fawn or grey. Rams are horned; ewes are polled. Ears are long and drooping. Tail
is small and thin. Some sheep have fat tails The sheep grows colored, coarse wool.

Poonchi: Poonch area and part of Rajori districts of Jammu province Similar in appearance to
Gaddi, but lighter. Majority of the sheep are hornless Animals are predominantly white in colour,
including the face, but spotted sheep are also seen, varying from brown to light black. Ears are
medium long. Tail is short and thin. Legs are also short, giving a low-set conformation.
Karnah: Karnah valley a mountainous tehsil in North Kashmir at an altitude of 1200-4600 m. Rams
have big curled horns and a prominent nose. Wool is fine, medium and short types, free from crimps
and predominantly white.
Gurez: This breed is found mostly in the Gurez area of Northern Kashmir. Largest of the sheep
breeds in Jammu & Kashmir. Generally white in colour, although some animals are brown or black or
have brown or black spots. A small proportion of the animals have small, pointed horns. Tail is thin
and short. Fleece is generally coarse and hairy. Ears are long, thin and pointed.
Kashmir Merino: Flocks of Kashmir Merino are being maintained by State department of J&K. The
animals are highly variable because of the involvement of a number of native breeds, and no specific
description of the breed can therefore be given
Gaddi Synthetic: Flock is being maintained at NTRS, Garsa Medium sized animals white in
colour, male are horned, ewes are hornless, tail is big , fleece is fine and dense
Changthangi: Changthang region of Ladakh These animals are strongly-built, large-framed

animals with good fleece cover which has an extraordinarily long staple
Production Potential
GADDI (also known as Bhadarwah):
The total sheep population in the Gaddi distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was
0.686 m, and according to the 1977 census 0.804 m, of which 0.147 m adult males and 0.501 m adult
females. Breeding practiced is generally pure breeding, but cross-breeding is also practiced to a
limited extent with exotic fine-wool breeds (especially Rambouillet and Merino), primarily through natural
service with exotic or cross-bred rams. The cross-breds show improvement in fleece production and
quality over the pure breed.
Production performance of different breeds:

Breed Gaddi Rampur Kashmir Gaddi
Bushair Merino synthetic Changthangi
Body weight (kg)
At birth 2.52±0.05 2.38 ± 0.04 3.37 ±0.05 2.96±0.11
At weaning 7.44±0.20 12.69 ± 0.16 21.8±0.02 13.81±0.45
(120d)
At 6 months 10.81±0.35 21.07±0.72
At 12 months 14.29±0.38 17.84 ± 0.46 24.86±1.40

Adult male 28.84±0.21 38.64±0.57

Adult female 26.59±1.9 25.38±0.25 34.0±0.62
Body Length (cms) 57.45±1.21 62.33±0.21 76.0±0.77(M)
75.2±0.89(F)
Height at withers ,(cms) 56.14±1.10 59.05±0.22 69.0±0.71(M)
67.0±0.65(F)
Chest Girth (cms) 70.42±2.04 67.97±0.22 97.5±1.28(M)
89.0±0.80(F)
Lambing percentage 58.9 52.9-88.3 64.16
Mortality
0-3 months 20.5 13.9 17.65 20-35
3-6 months 27.6 17 Nil
6-12 months 42.4 6.52 10-20
Adult 10.7 19.86 10.00
Wool Production 0.78±0.02 1.17±0.06 2.8±0.08 0.93±0.02 1-1.5
Staple length 5.70±0.0 7.70±2.05 15.6±0.07 3.79±0.08
Fibre diameter(µ) 28.52±0.07 34.35±2.7 20.4±0.14 20.66±0.32
Medulation 28.80±0.33 23.81±1.3 0.19±0.07
RAMPUR BUSHAIR
The flock migrate to the border of Tibet in summer and return to the lower Shivalik ranges in the
Jamuna, and Satluj Valley. Different verities of this breeds are found on account of its possible cross
breeding with other non descript hill breeds during summer and winter migration. Most of the wool
produced is consumed locally. Tweeds are produced from the wool of brown coloured flocks.The total
sheep population in the Rampur Bushair distribution area, according to the 1972 census, was 0.550
m, of which 0.086 m adult males and 0.334 m adult females.Pure breeding is practised except in
limited areas where the State Department of Animal Husbandry has initiated cross-breeding with
exotic fine-wool breeds (Rambouillet and Merino). The cross-breds show improvement in both fleece
production and quality.
BHAKARWAL
The name of the breed is derived from the nomadic tribes who rear these sheep. Adult ewes
weigh between 29 and 36 kg; rams can weigh as much as 55 kg. In adult females, height at withers: 62
cm; body length: 65 cm; chest girth: 82 cm. The total annual wool produced, per animal, ranges from
1 to 1.5 kg which is clipped thrice a year. Fleece is coarse and open. Wool is used locally for the
manufacturing of lohis. Most of this breed have now been crossed with Merino for improving greasy-
wool production and quality for apparel wool and only a very small proportion of flocks still contain
pure Bhakarwal animals. The wool is coarse with an average fibre diameter varying from 36 to 38µ.

POONCHI
These sheep are the best for wool production, average annual yield a 1.6 kg per sheep clipped
twice or thrice a year. Wool is of medium to fine quality, mostly white in colour. Fibre length ranges
between 15 to 18 cm and average fibre diameter ranges between 22 and 30µ. Flocks are raised on
rich summer pastures and are stall fed during winter on stored grasses and fodder.
The weight of the adult ram ranges from 35 to 40 kg, that of a ewe from 25 to 30 kg. Weight of
females at 2½ years: 27.64±2.00 kg. Average height at withers of adult female: 57.0±1.89 cm; body
length: 56.7±1.97 cm; chest girth: 72.6±2.63cm. Most of the flocks are being crossed with Merinos to
improve greasy wool production and quality for apparel wool and thus now contain cross-breds with a
varying level of Merino inheritance.
KARNAH
Wool is fine, medium and short types, free from crimps and predominantly white. The adult body
weight of the ram is about 72.0 Kg whereas ewes weigh about 59.0-62.0 Kg. Height at withers is about
70.0 and 59-63 cms of ram and ewes, respectively. Chest girth in adult male and female is 102 and
70-75 cms respectively. Average annual wool yield is 0.90-1.36 kg per sheep clipped twice a year.
Staple length ranges from 12 to 15 cm and average fibre diameter between 29 and 32µ.Cross-
breeding with Merino has been introduced in Karnah, although the proportion of cross-breds is lower
than for Gaddi, Bhakrawal and Poonchi.
GUREZ
This breed is being crossed with Merino for improving apparel-wool production and quality.The
annual greasy-fleece weight varies from 0.5 to 1 kg per animal.
KASHMIR MERINO
This breed originated from crosses of different Merino types (at first Delaine Merinos, and
subsequently Rambouillet and Soviet Merinos) with predominantly migratory native sheep breeds,
such as Gaddi, Bhakarwal and Poonchi. The level of inheritance in the cross-bred animals included in
Kashmir Merino varies from very low to almost 100% Merino; a level of from 50 to 75% predominates.
CHANGTHANGI
Flocks are migratory and their strength varies from 200 to 300. Some are stationary flocks
having 10 to 15 animals. Sheep and goats are combined in flocks, generally in a ratio of 30:70. Cross-
breeding with Merinos has been initiated for improving greasy-wool production and quality for fine
apparel-wool. Mortality in lambs varies from 20 to 35% and in adults from 10 to 20%. Animals are
usually shorn twice a year, generally in May/June and September/October, but in some cases shearing
takes place only once a year, in July/ August. Greasy-wool production ranges from 1 to 1.5 kg per
animal per year. The wool is of a good carpet/medium apparel quality.

Prospects of sheep production in temperate regions
The experience gained so far through research and development efforts for sheep improvement
have been of value in terms of generating basic information on a limited scale regarding performance
of some of the indigenous breeds and their crosses with exotic/ dual purpose breeds. In general the
basic principle of sheep improvement may remain unchanged in the coming future, although there will
be development in the detailed applications of these principles( Singh and Gurmej, 1998). In view of
this and the experiences gained within India and other countries as well as the national needs, the
future strategies may be summarized in terms of following approaches.
1. Evaluation /cataloging /conservation of indigenous breeds: A detailed evaluation

with respect to genetic architecture and production potential of the indigenous breeds for
developing them as efficient producer is of prime importance.
2. Developing breeding policies: According to Department of Animal Husbandry and

Dairying , the present breeding policy for sheep includes selective breeding among
important indigenous breeds and use of dual purpose improved breeds for increasing
body weight and wool yield. However, a well defined breeding policy on regional /national
level with clearly defined goals and objectives is still a gap.
3. Region specific development programmes: Steps are required to be taken to link the
research and development activities. There is a need to develop the sheep of Northen
temperate region for fine wool production along with higher growth and reproductive rates.
4. Data recording system and database: Though in the research programmes detailed
data recording system have been developed, yet under the development programmes
basic data are not available. It is therefore required that measurement and recording of
traits both for direct and indirect selection will have to be made more elaborative.
5. System approaches to sheep production: In order to give a holistic approach to

productivity performance in a group of animals, may it be indigenous, crossbred or new
breeds/ group, their performance has to be tested in a particular system of production to
evaluate their relative efficiency of production as well as cost benefit ratio.
6. Utilization of germplasm: Having identified the genetically superior animals, the genetic
improvement of population will depend much on how well the genes of these animals can
be spread.
7. Technology of handling fertilized ova: Ova transfer technology, now readily available,
has been useful in rapid expansion of small number of animals and in introduction of a
breed from one location to other.
8. Exploitation of heterosis: Use of cross breeding, both to utilize heterosis and genetic
differences between breeds will be more useful
9. Gene markers: Identification of genetic markers such as blood groups and biochemicals

value in the hope that they are linked with or play a part of physiological control of the trait
needs to be studied.
10. Wool Pricing policy: Comparison of the wholesale price index with the general wholesale
price index will reveal that the wholesale wool price index has been fluctuating and is not in
lines with the increasing trends of the general wholesale price index, and as such, adversely
affects the wool producer. This coupled with the increasing input costs for maintenance of
sheep make wool production a unprofitable proposition and adversely affect the economy
of the sheep farmers.
Potential of Domestic Rabbits
Rabbits are quite, docile, can be handled easily by all kinds of people even by young children,
old aged and disabled persons without any discomfort (Thear, 1981; Cheke et al., 1982). They need
simple housing and does not require any special land thus avoids deforestation unlike other livestock
species (Mahajan, 1998; Risam and Das 2004). Biologically, rabbits are non-competitive with human
food demands and more efficient than most of other livestock species for forage protein utilization.
They have simple feeding habits with high feed conversion efficiency even on fibrous diets. They can
convert unused crops into high protein meat. Rabbits are highly prolific with a constant state of
reproduction i.e. concurrently they can bear pregnancy as well as lactation. Early maturity and rapid
growth rate advances the species for a comparison with broiler chickens. They have a high genetic
diversity both among and within breeds and has speedy adaptation to different environments (Sanford,
1986, Lukefahr, 1990).
ANGORA RABBIT
Among the domestic rabbits, Angora breeds are popular for it’s fine wool production. It has
attracted the special attention of textile industry as it is one of the finest, lightest and warmest natural
animal fibre. The angora wool has a great demand in the domestic as well as in the international
market. The cost varies between Rs. 800-1000 per kg of Angora wool in local market. Although the
production is somewhat higher in Angora breed reared in other temperate countries but in Indian
situation, 800-900 g wool/animal could be exploited in the best possible managemental practices
(Risam and Das, 2004). Angora wool is blended with other natural and synthetic fibres to produce
yarn.
Angora wool is utilized in the manufacturing of value added products to fulfill market demand.
Several valuable garments and decorative materials are prepared from Angora wool. Utilization of this
specialty fibre is presently confined to cottage and small industry sector. For a better industrial utilization,
a large scale exploitation is needed to fix the fluctuation in market price by balancing demand and
supply (Singh, 2004).
Table 1: Reproductive performance of German Angora

Parameters Unit
Doe weight at service(g) 3.61±0.05 (54)

Doe weight at kindling (g) 3.58±0.05 (54)

Litter Size at Birth (No.) 5.56±0.19 (54)
Litter Size at Weaning (No.) 5.22±0.19 (54)
Litter Weight Birth (g) 304.0±11.1 (54)
Litter Weight at Weaning (g) 3629±136 (15)
Table 2: Fibre characteristics of German Angora wool

Wool Attributes Unit
Staple length (cms) 6.17±0.05
Fibre Diameter (micron) 13.33±0.11
Guard hair (%) 4.12±0.22
Table 3: Production performance of German Angora

Parameter Wool Yield g)
Progeny
1st shearing 19.32±0.29
2nd shearing 87.93±0.62
3rd shearing 156.62±1.25
4th shearing 219.72±3.43
Adult (general flock) 817.57±4.5 (annual)
Breeding flock 928.92±6.22 (annual)
BROILER RABBIT
Domestic rabbit is an economic and one of the best meat producer among the species which
contribute and play a significant role in World’s meat production. As the human population exerts
increasing pressure on the world’s food resources, it is likely that rabbits will assume an increasingly
important role as a source of food. They possess various attributes that are advantageous in
comparison to other livestock (Cheeke et al., 1982). The rabbits eat local fibrous/ fodder crops and
by products for which they do not compete with human and their high productivity since one female
produces as much meat in a year as three sheep or four goats can produce (Camps, 2003). Rabbit
production does not fit into the industrialized, globalized, corporate-controlled model and may offer
an alternative method of animal production more acceptable to the public (Cheeke, 2003).
In China, the rabbit has been recognized as a meat producing animals for a number of years,
and developments are currently taking place in both the small and commercial rabbit farming
(Sandford,1986). The high demand for meat in tropical developing countries offers a strong challenge
to local meat producing industries to increase both the quantity and quality of meats available in

these areas (Aganga et al., 1991). It has also been observed that the consumption of rabbit meat in
developing countries has increased considerably in recent years as has the proliferation of rabbit
farms (de Lara, 2003). The studies indicate that rabbit may support to meet out the growing demand
of animal protein in developing countries. In India, there is a huge potential for raising rabbits as meat
animal. This can combat the challenge encountered by high population growth and relatively lower
availability of animal protein per capita.
Rabbit meat is white, wholesome, fine grained, delicious flavored and pleasant in taste. It is rich
in protein, certain vitamins and minerals as compared with the meat of other species. It is low in fat,
cholesterol, sodium and caloric contents. Rabbit meat is considered to be highly digestible, nutritious
and appetizing. The meat to bone ratio is higher in rabbit meat than chicken. Rabbit meat is soft,
needs little cooking and easier to remove from carcass (Arrington and Kelley, 1976; Anon, 1978;
Cheeke et al., 1982; Williams, 1982; Sanford, 1986; Lebas et al., 1986; Fielding, 1991; Camps,
2003).
In developed countries, different table dishes are prepared from rabbit meat and served in
hotels, restaurants and clubs. In Mexico, the number of restaurants (registered with the Texcoco
chamber of Commerce, Division of Service and Tourism, Mexico) that include rabbit meat in their
menus with an extensive variety of dishes like adobo, mixiote, broiled or grilled are most popular and
observed in half of the restaurants (Gamboa et al., 2003). The restaurants, which do not include
rabbit meat, are either due to lack of availability (60%), lack of demand from consumer (10%) and
high price (10%). On the contrary, in our situation despite the availability and low price, not a single 3/
5 star hotel at Manali included rabbit meat in their menu list (personal observation).
Production performance of Broiler Rabbits:
Breed Litter size at Litter size at Weaning Slaughter

birth weaning Weight (28 d) weight (84 d)
NZW 5.8 5.5 469.3 1.65
WG 5.93 5.56 494.5 1.67
SC 4.83 4.64 475.8 1.67
GG 6.69 6.50 453.5 1.67
Strategies for Improvement of Rabbit Production:
Superior Germplasm Availability

1. Import of Fresh Germ plasm, 2. Selection of Superior Germ plasm, 3. Dissemination of Superior
Germ plasm.
Feeding Strategies:
1. Complete Feed Pellets, 2. Optimum feeding schedule, 3. Utilization of Agro-industrial By-
products.
Thus an approach should be made to identify the locally available, low cost, quality grade agro-
industrial by-products which are devoid of toxic principles and growth inhibitors in order to achieve

economic Angora production.
Exploration of Marketing Opportunities:

1. Create Marketing System, 2. Reduction of Channels between Producer and Users, 3. Export
of Products/ Garments.
Popularization of Rabbit farming:
1. Extension programme, 2. Training /Rabbit show, 3. Loans/ Subsidies Incentives (Award/ Prize/
Recognition), 4. Impacts of Programme, 5. Epidemiological Survey and Development of Diagnostic
tools for Rabbit Diseases, 6. Hygienic Management and Control Measures of Disease, 7. Pelts
Processing, 8. Meat Animal, 9. Improved Industrial Utilization
References
Aganga, A. A., Aduku, A.O., Abdulmalik, M. and Sekoni, A. (1991). Effect of different protein sources and their
levels on the reproduction of breeding rabbits. Journal of Applied Rabbit Research 14: 30-33.
Arrington, L.R. and Kelley, K.C. (1976). Domestic Rabbit Biology and Production. University Presses of Florida
Book, Gainesville, USA Anon (1978). Commercial Rabbit Production. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food, London, Bulletin No. 50.
Camps, J (2003). Basic program for farming rabbits in rural areas, but with “minimums”. World Rabbit Science,
11: 253-254.
Cheeke, P.R. Patton, N.M. and Templeton, G.S. (1982). Rabbit Production. Cheeke, P.R. Patton, N.M. and
th
Templeton, G.S. (ed). 5 edition, The Interstate Printers and Publishers. Inc. Danville, Illinois, USA.
deLara, R.R. (2003). Control of reproduction in female rabbit. World Rabbit Science, 11: 256-257.
Fielding, D. (1991). Rabbits. The Macmillan Press Limited, London.
Lebas, F. Coudert, P., Rouvier, R. and de Rochambeau, H. (1986). The Rabbit Husbandry, Health and Production.
Lebas, F., Coudert, P., Rouvier, R. and de Rachambeau, H. (ed). FAO, Rome, Italy.
Mahajan, J.M. (1998). Angora rabbit- A Boon to Farmers and Woollen Industry. In: Golden Jubilee Seminar on
th
Sheep, Goat and Rabbit Production and Utilization, 24-26 April, 1998, Jaipur, Rajasthan, Souvenir of
Lead papers and Abstracts, pp. 73-76.
Khan, B.U.and A.L. Arora (2002) Present status and future of conservation and managemental of sheep genetic
resources. Asian-Australian Association of Animal Production Societies, Xth International Congress of
AAAP 23-27, 2002 pp 188.
Krishnamurthi,A.(1997). A dictionary of Indian raw materials and Industrial products, The Wealth of India, Raw
materials Vol.VI (livestock) Eds.
Quartermain, A.R. (2002). Current issue and initiatives in the conservation and management of sheep genetic
resources Asian-Australian Association of Animal Production Societies, Xth International Congress of
AAAP 23-27, 2002 pp 190.
Risam,K. S. and Das, G. K. (2004) Strategies for improving Angora rabbit production in the country (2004). In:
th
National Seminar on Angora Wool and Cashmere Production and Utilization, 25-26 September, 2004,
Manali, H. P., Souvenir of Lead Papers and Abstracts, pp. 33-44.
th
Sanford, J.C. (1986). Breeds and verities. In: The Domestic Rabbit. Sanford, J.C. (ed). 4 edition , Collins
Professional and Technical Books. London U.K.
Singh, R.N. (1998). Sheep production and improvement in India- A perspective . Golden Jubilee seminar on

th
sheep, goat and rabbit production and utilization at Jaipur 24-26 April, 1998 , Lead Paper and Abstract
pp. 1-9.
Singh,V. K. (2004). Policies research/ development of Angora rabbit/Pashmina production in the changing
scenario of the country . In: National Seminar on Angora wool and cashmere production and Utilization,
th
25-26 September, 2004, Manali, H.P., Souvenir of Lead Papers and Abstracts, pp. 18-24.
Singh,V.K. and G. Singh (1998) Breeding strategies for improving wool production . Golden Jublee seminar on
th
sheep, gaot and Rabbit production and utilization at Jaipur 24-26 April, 1998 , Lead Paper and
Abstract pp 45-52
Williams, A. (1982). Backyard Rabbit Farming. Prism Press (Reprint), Great Britain.

ISAGB/15
CONSERVATION OF INDIGENOUS POULTRY BREEDS

B.P. SINGH AND B. SINGH
Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar- 243 122 (U.P.)
The Indian sub-continent is one of the most important mega biodiversity center in the world and
is gifted with a rich reservoir of genetic diversity in livestock. This is exhibited from manifestation of
almost all species of domesticated farm animal, and an extraordinarily large number of genetic variants
in each species. The indigenous livestock breeds including poultry manifest a perceptible supremacy
in using low quality feeds and are adapted to endure high environmental temperature and humidity
and further display higher resistance to tropical diseases. A large part of indigenous poultry stock,
except Aseel and Kadaknath, is an admixture of two or more genetic breeds and is generally referred
to as non-descript or desi and by and large cannot be precisely allocated to any documented poultry
breed.
Indian has the pride of place in world poultry history to be the original home of the well known
Red Jungle Fowl, along with neighboring countries in the east, from which modern layer and broiler
breeds have descended. Poultry sector has brought pride and glory to the country by making the
poultry revolution-pushing India as the world’s fourth and fifth largest producer of egg and meat,
respectively. The Indian Poultry Industry today is worth Rs.65 billion and contributes significantly to
the national GNP and employment. The growth of poultry industry can be seen as multidimensional in
productivity, quality and size. Despite high production, the percapita availability of poultry egg and
meat is low and needs to be increased. The economic benefits of poultry revolution have not reached
the rural sector fully. In the post WTO scenario, India needs to tap the avenues opened up in the
international poultry products market with particular reference to organic poultry products. Therefore,
efforts need to be undertaken for poultry products produced in the country confirm to the international
standards.
Rural poultry is considered as crucial to poverty reduction in most tribal communities of our
country. Income from poultry production either as meat and eggs or fighting cock is seasonally limited
and hence even for mainly crop dependent farming communities, poultry constitute an element of risk
aversion against periods of crop failure. Poultry possesses other attributes not shared by other farm
animals: small unit size and low value per animal, gender issue and poultry is easier to raise reproduce
and slaughter; and usually belongs to women and children. Such diverse roles of poultry in meeting
demands for various products and services in different agro-ecological and production systems around
the country are possible because of the genetic diversity existing in poultry genetic resources (PoGR).
Popularity of indigenous fowls is decreasing day by day for being poor egg producers, slow
growers, having broodiness, smaller body and egg size as well late sexual maturity. Despite a drastic
increase is the import of high yielding strains from developed world, the local fowls still retain preference
in its native environment. They are rugged, disease resistant and well adapted to the harsh rural
environment. They are best suited to contribute to the economic benefits ot the farmers in their

respective home tracts. They are good foragers, efficient mothers, require less cost and special care
to grow and thus have characteristics essential for raising poultry under village conditions (Singh,
2005). Indigenous fowls enjoys the privilege of superiority over exotic birds due to its following
distinguished characteristics as listed recently by Singh (2005).
l Acceptability of the coloured desi bird by the landless laborers or marginal farmers.
l Use of broodiness for hatching the chicks.
l Capability of self defense from predators due to its alertness, light body weight, longer
shank length, camouflagic characters and aggressiveness.
l Can thrive well under adverse environments like poor housing, poor management and
poor feeding.
l Indigenous birds are comparatively disease resistant to protozoon and ecto-parasites.
l Have better adaptability to extreme climatic conditions prevailing in the country.
l They are comparatively hardier and need less health care than exotic birds.
l The meat from native fowl has significantly higher amino acid contents (arginine and lysine)
than meat for special dishes and often fetches higher prices.
l The brown-shelled eggs of native fowl are rich in threonine and valine than farm eggs,
have good flavour and fetch premium price.
A wide variability is observed in morphological characteristics of indigenous fowls. Three variants

have been distinguished i.e. dwarf, normal and heavy body weights. Plumage pigmentation tends
mainly towards blackish and pied colourations. Plumage distribution is mainly normal with special
forms such as crest, naked neck, frizzle type appear sporadically. The comb is single but rose, pea
and walnut are also found. The shank and skin are also frequently pigmented showing green and
blue variants. In addition to this melanin deposition in skin, meat, internal organs and bones in some
breeds (e.g. Kadaknath) are also encountered. Some of these variants are due to the presence of
major morphological marker genes, which increases the adaptability of these breeds to tropical climatic
environments (Singh, 2005).
Decisions on conservation of poultry genetic resources have to rely upon a range of information
including the degree of endangerment, adaptation to a specific environment, possession of specific
traits, and breed cultural or historical value. Genetic resources are determined as populations with
unique genetic characteristics. Although differences between breeds, both visual and otherwise, display
a wide range of diversity associated with a given species, the term breed is rather a cultural one than
a technical. The process of domestication and breeding, however, have involved a multidirectional
gene flow, especially in chickens. Thus, different breeds may often have a common or closely related,
recent history. Conversely, they may have arrived to a similar phenotype along different genetic
routes and may show similarity in same characteristics without being closely related. Therefore, it is

clear that poultry genetic resources require further identification and evaluation in order to set up
efficient measures for their conservation and utilization.
It has been argued before the advent of DNA technology that introgressing of a gene from an
unselected population through repeated backcrossing would render pure bred lines uncompetitive.
The modern “Cut and Paste” DNA technologies provide a promising solution to this constraint. The
real issue now becomes what breeds should be conserved within the financial constraint.
Representative samples of breeds, which are closely related genetically, should be considered together
with phenotypic characteristics and populations history.
Molecular genetic variation
Weigend and Romanov (2001) reviewed the first and earlier poultry diversity studies focused on
morphological characters (phenotype), allelic protein variants (allozymes) and blood group
polymorphisms. However, to understand the diversity analysis and consideration, it is essential to
have knowledge of the population genetics concept of below mentioned terms I. Allelic frequency II.
Artificial selection III. Genetic diversity IV. Effective population size V. Genetic distance VI. Genetic drift
VII. Hardy-weinberg equilibrium VIII. Heterosis including Heterozygote, Homozygote, Inbreeding and
inbreeding depression and IX. Hetrozygosity.
Genetic-threats to populations are due to the slow erosion of genetic variation by drift, lowering
of fitness due to inbreeding (loss of alleles) and phenotypic effects of inbreeding depression. Selected
populations (commercial pure lines) may face the added threats of accelerated drift by the intense
selection constraints on gamete selection.
The advances in molecular biology and genome analysis set the stage for the development of a
number of molecular marker methods (DNA-based) for the characterization of genetic variation within
and among poultry populations. The markers which have been used extensively in poultry diversity
studies are: random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), endogenous virus (ev) loci; minisatellite and
microsatellite markers; restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of single genes or gene
families such as the MHC; and the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) complex, mitochondrial DNA sequences
have also been used to study relationships within/among poultry. These studies mostly based on
chickens, quails and turkeys by minisatellites and microsatellities. Variation in the DNA sequence is
referred to as polymorphism. Specific subtypes of polymorphisms are usually caused by base-pair
substitutions, insertions or translocations, and take repeats or short regions of deletion. Polymorphism
leads to genetic variations and different forms of the same gene that occur at a locus are known as
alleles.
Genes code for proteins, and genes that differ in their DNA sequences may cause differences in
the protein they encode. Most of these genetic variations do not affect gene function but some
polymorphisms may cause modification of proteins that are involved in the architecture of traits of
economic importance.

Microsatellite Analysis for Genetic Diversity in Poultry
Microsatellite markers, also known as simple sequence repeats (SSRs), short tandem repeats
(STRs), or simple sequence length polymorphisms (SSLPs), are a subclass of highly repetitive short
DNA sequences in all eubaryotic genomes and to a limited extent in prokaryotes (Tautz and Resiz,
1984). Microsatellite DNA consists of tandem repeats of a 2-5 bp care motif with unique flanking
sequences, which are used to develop primers for PCR amplification of the locus. PCR amplification
size usually ranges from 100 to 300 bp. Advantages of microsatellites for diversity studies include:
results are locus specific; loci are highly polymorphic (many alleles); loci are evenly/randomly distributed
across the genome. Interestingly, the poultry genome is reported to be deficient in microsatellite
frequency relative to mammals (Primmer et al., 1997); Co-dominant inheritance of these locus-specific
markers means that allele frequency data is easily generated; Techniques are relatively straight
forward; and large numbers of individuals can be handled. Disadvantages include the need for
expensive equipment (thermocyclers, imagers or sequencers) and sequence data (for primer
development). Although microsatellites are stable there is evidence suggesting that they may show
mutational bias and heterozygote instability (Amos et al., 1996).
Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) or arbitrarily primed PCR is a PCR technique that
does not require prior knowledge of the DNA sequence. RAPD polymorphism can be used to construct
genome linkage map quickly. The major problem with the technique has been reproducibility of the
results.
Amplified Fragment, Length Polymorphism (AFLP) is a technique similar to RAPD. Prior knowledge
of the sequence is not needed the technique is more reliable than RAPD.
Conclusion of different molecular studies in poultry
l Both, the results of DFP and microsatellite diversity studies suggest that there exists a
strong genetic reservoir among the different categories of poultry genetic resources and
reduced genetic variation within specific populations.
l Not surprisingly, directionally selected poultry populations have less genetic variation as
compared with their random-bred controls.
l The data suggest that the number of alleles per locus is greater in broilers than in layers
and that the heterozygosity values of broilers are typically higher (double) than that of
layers.
l A consensus is emerging that the wild Jungle fowl and unselected local breeds have the
highest amount of variation, followed by the broiler and dual-purpose breed including brown
egg layers.
l Different research lines and white egg layer populations show the lowest level of genetic
variation.
The recent advances in molecular technology with particular reference to SNPs have opened

up new horizons for characterizing genetic diversity at DNA level and for working out conservation
measures. The future links between biodiversity and modern genomic will definitely facilitate a
sustainable management of genetic diversity in avian species and ensure its exploitation for human
benefit.
Conservation of indigenous poultry resources:
Conservation is the management of human use of biosphere, so that it may contribute to maximum
sustainable benefits to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations. In situ and ex-situ are two methods used for genetic conservation
activities.
In Situ Conservation of poultry genetic diversity:
In situ conservation is the maintenance of live populations of birds in their adaptive environment
or as close to it as is practically possible. The most important advantage of in situ conservation is its
requirement for simple technologies for implementation and allowing birds to respond and adapt to
changing climatic, disease, economic and socio-cultural demands. However, it is often unprofitable to
rear indigenous poultry from economic point of view. One of the greatest strengths of this method of
conservation lie in their own diversity.
Ex-situ conservation of poultry genetic diversity:
The representative population of birds can be maintained both in-vivo as well as in-vitro.
¨ Maintenance of small population at a place away from the main breeding tract of the breed
is the ex-situ conservation of the live birds.
¨ CARI is currently maintaing a variety of avian genetic lines including Kadaknath, Kashmiri
Faverolla, Aseel Peela, Aseel Kagar, Frizzle fowl, Naked Neck fowl, Silky fowl and birds
having Frizzling (F), Slow feathering (K), Non inhibitor dermal melanin (id), Fibromelanosis
(Fm) genes. These birds have been used to develop four types of high yielding germplasm
suitable for backyard production, namely CARI NIRBHEEK, CARI SHYAMA, UPCARI and
HITCARI.
¨ Cryopreservation of spermatozoa in poultry has already been achieved, however ova or

fertilized eggs connot be preserved in the same way because of their large size and yolkladen
structure. Therefore, the only alternative is to cryopreserve germ line cells like blastoderm
and PGCs in liquid nitrogen. These germline cells could be used to reconstitute viable
offspring via ex-vivo embryo culture, germline chimeric and transgenic chickens. These
genome banks can serve well the urgent need for conserving indigenous poultry populations
at risk.
¨ Poultry genetic resources must be preserved and conserved to sustain agricultural

development and to improve the quality of life during current century. Further, the use of
the indigenous genetic resources would play vital role in conservation of desirable genes
and genomes.
ISAGB/16
EQUINE RESOURCES IN INDIA AND STRATEGY FOR THEIR CONSERVATION

M.K. SINGH1 AND M.P. YADAV2
National Research Centr on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hissar (Haryana)
1. Scientist (SS), CIRG, Makhdoom (Mathura); 2 Director, IVRI, Izzatnagar, Bareilly (UP)243122
India has six breeds of horses viz. Kathiawari, Marwari, Manipuri, Spiti, Bhutia and Zanskari,
evolved in different agro-climatic zones and representing both Arabic and Mongolian types. All horse
breed are facing endangerment due to small effective population size and need immediate attention
for sustainable conservation.
The equines (horses/pony, mule and donkey) are the important race and draft species having
an edge over oxen, buffaloes and camel with a multipurpose use for draft, transport, pack, pleasure,
and patrolling and traditional ceremonies. Horse (Equus cabillus) has unique place in history of
civilization. Many horses have played great role in winning the battles. Still, horse is the only domestic
animal occupying great position in Olympic Games. Equine are still integral part of Indian Army on
mountains terrain. Pony, mule and donkeys are primary source of livelihood of sizable section of the
society. Donkey and pony are well known to perform under extreme cold and hot conditions and to
utilize low quality feed resources, which other species hardly consumed. India has six breeds of
horses representing both Arabic and Mongolian types. These are Kathiawari, Marwari, Manipuri,
Spiti, Bhutia and Zanskari that have evolved in different agro-climatic zones. Small population size of
all these six breeds has put them under endangered category. FAO has also recognized 3 other
breeds of Indian horse, namely Chummarti, Decceni and Sikang. Besides horse, asses (Equus a
sinus), Asiatic Indian wild asses namely Kulan in the Ran of Kutchh in Gujarat and Kiang in upper
Himalyan region are also important equine germ plasm. As a result of mechanization and road network
the horse has become obsolete in its primitive activities. Due to decline in need for horses in other
areas, there is a decrease in commercial pressures to maximize breeding efficiency. There is an
urgent need to implement in-situ conservation measures by involving horse breeders in their respective
home tracts.
Among the domesticated animals that man has kept for some 12,000 years ago, the horse
occupies a unique place. Horse was recognized as prized animal. Fossils carry the history of horse,
back some 50 million years. In India remains of horse have been found in Pliocene deposits of Siwaliks
and Narbada. Till 400 BC, the horse bore little resemblance to the former wild horse Hittite from
Turkestan. Thus the breeding aim became more and more closely defined and accordingly cross
breeding was adopted. Intially Arabia, Syria, Persia, Turkestan, Mongolia and North India were the
original breeding areas of horses appear to be the sources of origin of two main blood steams. The
Arab blood flowed to India and South-East Asia, Europe and North America, while Mongolian spread
all over Central Asia, China, Turkestan, Himalayas, Burma, Russia and North Europe. Throughout
middle age, horse breeding in India remained the chief occupation of Rathore’s of Marwar and
Maharawala of Kathiawar. India has several indigenous breeds of horses, developed through import
of blood mainly from Arab and Mongolia. Climate and soil has been found to be an essential ingredient

for horse evolution. Western areas with its hot climate (50°C) during summer has produced par
excellence hot blooded horses with fine line, concave faces (Arabs) with eager fiery generous
temperament, light built and fleet of foot (Singhvi, 2003).
Horses attain their greatest height in temperate climate and diminish in size in cold climatic and
under some circumstances in hot areas also. Dwarfing influence of high altitude is well demonstrated
by small-sized Himalayan ponies (Bhutia, Spiti and Nepali). Cold with diminishing heights produces
this effect chiefly in reducing the length of limbs but does not reduces animal’s vigour. Excess of
climatic heat on the contrary reduces the size of body to a much greater extent of limbs and
consequently diminishes the animal’s comparative strength. Australia having temperate climate with
hilly and undulating country side produces best Jumpers with good size. The best boned and most
healthy desirable breeds are from Ireland whose contribution to the horse world as Steeple Chasers
in on the top (father of oriental hot blooded breeds of horses). The amounts of moisture in pasture
upon which the horses are brought up for many generations greatly affect their conformation. Heavy
carthorses are produced where herbage is succulent. Saddle and light horses on the contrary thrive
well on comparatively dry soil.
Majority of the equines (97.96%) in India are owned by landless, small and marginal farmers
belonging to socio-economically deprive communities in rural and semi urban areas, particularly in
hilly terrains and north-west parts of the country. Breeding of such equids is mostly unorganized. The
organized breeding is practiced only at small scale in few states (2.04% of horses including thorough
breds) and donkeys maintained by Indian army, police and Stud Farms in public and private sectors.
Population trends indicate continuous decline in equine population between 1951 and 1997 for horses,
ponies and donkeys, except mules which have shown a study increase (Table). Donkeys, horses/
ponies and mules constitute 50.24%, 40.93% and 8.83% of the total equine population in India (Yadav
et al 2000).
Table: Equine population (Millions) status in India
Species 1951 1956 1961 1966 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997
Horse 1.50 1.50 1.30 1.10 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.80 0.82 0.59
Mule 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.20 0.20 0.29
Donkey 1.30 1.10 1.10 1.00 1.00 1.02 0.96 0.96 0.97 0.91
Marwari
Marwari breed of indigenous horse is characterized by a compact conformation and known for
endurance with maximum height among Indian horse (14 hands). The native tract of Marwari horse is
Marwar, Mewar and Rajputana area of erstwhile Rajasthan. These animals are also found in Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. It is believed that the Marwari breed has
evolved from the crosses of Arabian and local horses. The face of Marwari horse is long, lean, convex
profile pointed with oval nostrils and expressive eyes and head well coupled in the neck. The neck is
long and slightly arched. Ears are of medium length, erect and located on 90o axis. The ear tips meet

each other when animal rotate them. Brown, bay, chestnut, piebald and skewbald is common coat
colours. Strip and star on face, sock and stocking are common body marks. Purebred Marwari horse
estimated population is less than 5000 (Singh et al, 2002 Singh and Yadav 2004).
Kathiawari
Kathiawari horse got it’s name from the region of their origin i.e. Kathiawar area (Surendrangar,
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Junagarh and Amreli districts) of Gujarat. This horse is product of Arab and
Mongolian pony (Equus przevalskii, Lydekker,1912). The Kathiawari horses are well adapted in arid
and semi-arid environment with sandy to rocky soil of Kathiawad region. However, these horses are
also found in other regions of Gujarat and some Northern states namely Rajasthan, U.P., Punjab and
Haryana. The temperature in their habitat ranged from 4ºC to 38ºC (winter) and 30ºC to 47ºC (summer).
These horses are adapted to utilize low quality, locally available feed and fodders as this area often a
crossed with repeated draught. Broad fronted head, pre-orbital depression, inwarted ears, medium
height (12-14 hands), and concave profile of face are typical characteristics of Kathiawari horse.
Eyes are widely set on head, ears are of medium size, erect and sickles shaped and frequently rotate
at 180o axis. Muzzle and mouth are small; nostrils are big with thin edge. Chestnut and Bay are the
common colours. The least squares means for height at withers, body length, heart girth, face length,
ear length and cannon circumferences were 146.9, 148.5, 165.2, 50.6, 10.9, 18.2 cm., respectively.
Common coat colours are chestnut, bay, grey and dun. These animals are reared under semi intensive
system of management with 2-3 kg concentrate mixture. Auspicious whorls, colour of choice, rawal
chal (gait) and height were the main criteria’s of selection. The horse population is very thin and
highly scattered. The breed have come under endangered category mainly due to declined utility,
crossbreeding with Marwari horses, less availability of purebred stallion and faulty selection practices.
As per Department of Animal Husbandry, Gujarat, the estimated population of the purebred Kathiawari
horses is less than 7000 and decline in population have been continuing unabated (Singh et al,
2002).
Marwari and Kathiawari breeds traditionally classified as horse and other breeds classified as
pony due to their small height (10-12 hands). Both Marwari and Kathiawari resemble each other
because both share Arab blood and interbreeding during the course of their evolution. Important
comparative phenotypic differences were summarized as:
Comparative phenotypic differences between Marwari and Kathiawari horse
Characteristics Marwari Kathiawari

Face Length More Length
Face Width Same to Kathiawari Same but appears more
Face Profile Convex Concave
Mandible Prominent Wide, curved & more prominent
Ear length More Less
Nostril - Relatively wide

Forelock - Relatively short

Neck Long Short
Height at Withers More Less
Body Length More Less
Cannon Circumference More Less
Pastern Length More Less
Dorsal Strip on back - Common & prominent
Hind Quarter Sloppy Prominent & squared
Prominent Coat Colour Brown & Piebald Chestnut & Bay
Spiti
This horse is known for sure footedness and traditionally called pony due to small height (115-
135 cm). These horses are found in Lahul and Spiti and Yanthang area of Kinnaur district in Himachal
Pradesh. People of Kannait community mostly keep them for riding, transportation and as pack animals.
This horse also effectively used by Army and civilians at high altitude due to ability to smell glacier,
easily walk on undulating and narrow land and on ice. Legs and mane are thicker and well covered
with long coarse hair. Face is convex with prominent forelock, ears are erect with broad base, eyes
are black and tail is long and usually touches the ground. Horses are docile in Temperament. Common
coat colours are gray, brown and dun. The average height, body length, face length and ear length of
these ponies are 129, 100, 49 and 15 cm respectively (Pundir, 2001).
Zanskari:
Home tract of this horse is Zanskari valley in Leh and Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir.
Common coat colours are gray and brown and. Height of this horse ranged between 132 and 147 cm
(9-11 hands) and traditionally called pony. These horses are known for sturdiness and ability to
perform at high altitude in cold desert. Legs are covered with thick hairs. Face is concave, medium in
length (45-50 cm) with prominent mandible and eyes. m. Tail is long and heavy, almost touching the
ground. Body hairs are fine, glossy and long. These horses are used for draught, transport in hilly
undulating tract, riding and sports. Phenotypic characteristics of these horses overlap with Spiti probably
due to common blood of Mongolian horse breeds. Population of these ponies is very thin. The breed
is at the verge of extinction due existence of only few hundred animals in the valley. A Zanskari
breeding farm has recently established at Leh by Animal Husbandry Department of Jammu and Kashmir
for improvement and conservation of the breed with selective breeding.
Manipuri:
Manipuri horses/ponies are found in Manipur, Meghalaya and Assam states. These ponies are
known for agility, look and hardiness. This breed of pony has blood from the Asiatic wild horse,
Arabian horse and Mongolian pony and are famous for polo. The animals are of small to medium built
standing 112-132 cm at withers. The common body colors are bay, brown, gray and chestnut. Ears
are alert and almond shaped. Head is light and well proportioned with a straight profile. Withers are

moderately built, neck well formed with a full mane, the chest deep, the back straight with slightly
sloping shoulders and croup. Tail is well set, legs well build and sturdy and foot has tough born.
Average body weight is 300 kg. Muzzle is slightly wider and nose is a bit convex. The population of
these horses has reduced to endangerment and need immediate conservation measures.
Bhutia:
These horses are distributed in Sikim and Darjeeling area of West Bengal. Predominant coat
colours are gray and bay. This breed resembles Tibetian pony and Spiti pony. Height at withers
ranged from 125-140 cm and body weight 275 to 360 kg. These pony are mainly used as pack and
riding animal on hilly terrains. Strong legs and long hairs on neck and tail are typical characteristic
features of this breed.
Mule:
The production of mules involve breeding of jack stock for use as stallion, breeding of horse
mares and crossing of jack with mare. One of the difficulties in mule production is to locate a fertile
jack that can serve a horse mare. Common practice in vogue is to tease the mare with a horse stallion
and allow the jack to serve only after she has been properly restrained. Mares used in mule production
are of no fixed type or breed and vary in size and temperament. Mules are most useful as draught,
pack and transport animals, particularly in difficult terrains including hills. Mule combines some of the
superior qualities of both the species. It has size, speed, strength and spirit of the horse and sure
footedness, lack of excitability, endurance and ability to thrive on poor feed from the sire. The draft
mules stand from 155 to 172 cm in height and weigh from 450 to 650 kg. Ideal mule has deep body,
back short and strong, and the hips broad, ears long, neck heavily muscled, fits neatly at the shoulder
and has a slight crests. Legs are squarely placed, the pastern moderate is length, strength and have
a desirable slope. Feet are strong, wide and high at the heels with concave soles (Yadav et al,
2000).
Donkey
Donkey (Equus asinus) is an integral part of sheep and goat farming system in Rajasthan,
Haryana Jammu& Kashmir and many other parts of the country. This animal is used to provide draught
power for various services for human beings, such as transport of goods, construction work, tracking
and tourism. Inadequate and deficient feed and fodder, negligence in managemental practices,
deprived veterinary care, over burden was observed to be major factors responsible for poor health
of working equids. Poor management, non-availability of quality jacks, lack of appropriate harness of
donkey drawn implement and lack of awareness are the major causes of low performance of donkeys.
Open nucleus herd of donkeys should be created to produce quality jacks of good height (115-120
cm), which may be allotted to gram-panchayat/ societies where sizable jennies exists. Such jacks may
be used on rotation to avoid inbreeding. The appropriate implements for donkey should be designed
and popularized at farmers level. Efforts are needed to enhance the potential of donkeys through
selection, adequate feeding and improving working conditions (Singh et al, 2005).

Major Reasons of Horse/Pony Endangerment

1. Crossbreeding between Marwari and Kathiawari horses to gain height.
2. Indiscriminate breeding between Zanskari and Spiti; Manipuri and Bhutia, and Spiti and
Bhutia
3. Reduction in utility due to rapid mechanization and changes in the social customs. During
last few decades, motor bike/car have largely replaced the horse. Earlier, the person keeping
a good horse was considered respectable in society. In marriages, the Ghurchadi was an
essential custom and rich persons also used to gift a mare to their daughters.
4. Faulty selection practices: Over emphasis for whorls and colour
5. Lack of availability of purebred stallion of owner’s choice.
6. Lack of viable breed society
7. No race or other such activities as meant for thoroughbred horses.
8. Inadequate support for equines in various livestock development programmes
Conservation Status
With global mechanization, the equine based draught power throughout the world has been
reduced to a great extent. In India the horses were mainly bred and held by state rules for use in the
army, sport and pleasure. However during the last 6-7 decades the equines population as a whole
has drastically reduced with slight increase in mule population. Unless proper and firm steps in in-situ
conservation of these breeds are taken, it is feared that these breeds will lose their identity and
extinct. Since all the known breeds of horses in India are endangered, as a result of indiscriminate
breeding for want of purebred stallions as well as due to poor management, there is an urgent need
to take necessary steps by Central Government as well as State Governments by involving horse
breeders to conserve these breeds in their respective home tracts. Gujarat State Animal Husbandry
Department in collaboration with Agricultural University has taken a lead by creating stallion breeding
service centers at different locations. Gujarat Government also maintaining two Kathiawari horse
breeding farm at Junagarh and Inaj. Simultaneously Gujarat Government also supporting Kathiawari
Horse breeder’s society. The state Government of Himachal Pradesh (Spiti farm at Kamand in Mandi
district) Jammu and Kashmir and Manipur have also initiated action to conserve their Spiti, Zanskari
and Manipuri horse breeds through establishing horse breeding/improvement centers. Marwari is
most reputed horse breed however; Rajasthan State Government has not yet initiated to conserve
this valuable horse. Equine Production Campus, Bikaner (National Research Centre on Equines) has
initiated to create a small nucleus herd of Marwari horses.
Measures for conservation

1. To make a viable society with following mandates: (i) Maintenance of records pertaining to
pedigree, growth and reproduction, (ii) Discourage the horse for breeding not conforming
to breed standard (iii) Vaccination against important infectious diseases at a subsidized
rate to members (iv) Technical bulletin may be published by the society to provide information
to its member on health, breeding, sale/purchase and demand of horse for TV serials,

films, safari etc. (vi) A stallions should be allotted to a particular area to provide service for
farmers mares and it must be regularly examined for proper health and should be changed
after every 2 to 3 years to avoid inbreeding. The stallion allotted to farmer’s mare should
meet the local demands and also true to the breed.
2. Technology pertaining to in-situ and ex-situ conservation should be made available to the
society.
3. Studs with good herd size and with pedigree records should be registered under herd
registration programme. Incentives should be offered to them for maintaining purity of
breed.
4. Farmers/breeders should be made aware of the importance of breed purity.
5. Promote use of horses ie supervision/security of government agricultural farms, sports
and safari.
6. Creating a nucleus herd and carrying out selective breeding for In-situ conservation. The
ex-situ conservation tools should also be utilized to in the form of frozen semen of required
number of purebred stallions, embryos and DNA of each breed.
7. The organization keeping horses i.e. N.C.C., Police, agriculture farms and colleges and
veterinary College etc. should be encouraged to keep purebred indigenous stock.
8. Creating awareness among horse lovers/breeders for improvement and development of
horsemanship
REFERENCES
Lydekker, R (1912). The horse and it’s relatives. Ballantyne, Hanson & Co. Edinburg, U.K
Singh M K, Yadav M P and Mehta N T. 2004. Factors influencing body weight and
physical traits in Kathiawari horses. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 74: 673-675
Singh M K, Yadav M P and Mehta N T. 2002. Characterization of Marwari and Kathiawari breed of horses.
Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 72: 366-70.
Singh M K, Gupta A K and Yadav M P. 2005. Donkey: its role and the scope for better management. Livestock
International. 9: 18-21
Singh M K and M P Yadav. 2004. The Marwari horse: Pride of India.
Livestock International. 9: 18-21
Pundir R K. 2001. Physical and morphological characteristics of Spiti
horses. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 71: 381-82.
Singh M K 2000. Selection of horse by conformation. Short Course on “Equine health and management”.
National Research Center on Equine, Hissar (Haryana).
Singhvi N M. 2004. Equine Genetic Resources of India: Prospects and Potential. National Symposium on
Livestock Biodiversity vis- a- vis Resource Exploitation: An Itrospection.11-12 Feb,2004, NBAGR, Karnal
(Haryana).
Yadav MP, Ghei J C and Tandon S N. 2000. Equine Genetic Resources in India and their Conservation. National
workshop on conservation and Management of Genetic Resources of Livestock. 21-23 Feb,2000,
GBPUA&T, Pantnagar(Uttranchal)

ISAGB/17
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF MITHUN (BOS FRONTALIS) IN INDIA AN

EVALUATION AND FUTURE BREEDING POLICY
CHANDAN RAJKHOWA
Director, National Research Centre on Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema, Nagaland – 797 106
Introduction
Mithun (Bos frontalis), “the Cattle of Mountains” probably originated more than 8000 years ago
and considered as the domesticated form of wild gaur. This rare species of bovine has a limited
geographical distribution and is mainly found in North-Eastern Hill Regions (NEHR) of India. Mithun is
rightly known as “pride of NEHR” of India and plays an important role in the economic, social, cultural
and religious life of the local tribal population. The animal is reared by the tribal community mainly for
meat purpose and is considered as a sign of prosperity and superiority of an individual in the society.
Mithuns are basically free grazing animals dependent upon the natural vegetation, forage, tree leaves,
herbs and shrubs. The animals are reared under free-range condition at various altitudes between
300 and 3000 M msl. It is one of the underutilized animals and has greater potentiality especially for
meat production.
There is a wide gap between the requirement and availability of meat and milk in India. Cattle,
buffaloes, sheep and goat mainly contribute the country’s meat and milk production. However, to
cope up with the present demand, it is highly essential to give more emphasis for producing meat and
milk from non-conventional sources so that the target requirements can be fulfilled. At this perspective,
mithun may play an important role on augmenting the total milk and meat production of the country.
Mithun meat is one of the preferred meats to the local tribal populations of NEHR. At present farmers,
rear this animal under semi domestic, free-range condition without any defined breeding policies.
Hence, there is an immediate need to define and to implement a sound breeding policy for this unique
bovine species.
EVALUATION OF MITHUN FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
Strains of mithun
Currently there are four defined mithun strains, namely Arunachal, Nagaland, Mizoram and
Manipur strains. The names indicate the strains are in their home tracts of respective states of North-
Eastern-Hill-Region (NEHR). According to 1997 census, there was a total number of 176693 mithuns
in the different states of NEHR. The populations of different mithun strains were 1, 24,194 (70.25%),
33,445 (18.86 %), 16,660 (9.42%) and 2,594 (1.47%) respectively for Arunachal, Nagaland, Manipur
and Mizoram strains. Whereas, as per 2003 census, the populations of different mithun strains are 1,
84,343 (74.85%), 40,452 (16.42 %), 19,737 (8.01%) and 1,738 (0.70%) respectively for Arunachal,
Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram strains with a total of 2, 46,270 numbers of mithuns for the entire
region. Above data indicate that there are significant increase in mithun populations in Arunachal
Pradesh and decrease drastically in Mizoram. This valuable resource should be scientifically used for

conservation. The future breeding programme of this unique species should be recognised as an
important issue in planning animal husbandry in NEHR. Conservation and utilisation should be of
particular concern with specific breeding programme in the mithun inhabitant areas to avoid the
chances of replacement of indigenous livestock species with other livestock enterprises.
Productive performances of mithun

Mithun could be utilised as a potential beef-producing animal. The daily and fortnightly body
weight gains of mithun calves are presented in table 1. The birth weight of mithun calves varies 17 to
20 kg (Mondal et al.1, 2001). It is also reported that male calves are heavier at birth than female (16 to
18 kg). The average daily body weight gain of this animal varies from 250 to 550 gm. Mithun attains
maturity around 3 years of age with an adult body weight of 400 to 500 kg.
The level of GH at the rate of 445 ng/ml after a single administration of growth hormone-releasing
hormone (GHRH) and higher basal GH level (˜ 30ng/ml) in adult mithun are ample indication of 6 to 8
times and 4 to 5 times higher GH level after GHRH administration and normal basal GH level, respectively
in this unique animal than reported in any other species of animal so far. The gene responsible for GH
may, therefore, be exploited in other species also to get tremendous production potential (Mondal et
al1, 2004).
The composition of mithun carcass is presented in table 2 (Mondal et al.2, 2001). The protein
content in muscle and organs varies from 14 to 19 %. Whereas, the figures for crude fat and
carbohydrate have been found within the range of 0.4 to 3.5 % and 0.4 to 4.9 %, respectively. The
above data clearly indicate that this particular species could be a good beef producer under proper
breeding and managemental conditions. Among the four different mithun strains, three can be utilised
potentially for meat and milk purposes. The Arunachal strains may be used for dual purpose, meat
and milk, whereas, the Nagaland and Mizoram strains may be used for meat and milk purpose,
respectively.
Though farmers utilise mithun primarily for beef production, the milk production capabilities of
this animals have been explored recently. Mithun milk is with high protein, fat and SNF contents but
the quantity of milk production is very less. The milk production potentiality of mithun is presented in
table 3 (Mech, 2005). The average daily milk yield varies from 1.0 to 1.2 kg. Whereas, average total
solid, SNF, protein and fat contents (%) in mithun milk has been found 22.6 to 24.7, 12.4 to 13.3, 5.8
and 10.5 to 11.7, respectively. The nutritive value of mithun milk indicates that the animal can be used
as a potential milk producer too.
Reproductive performances of mithun

No breed development programmes can be implemented unless the animal is having sound
reproductive traits. It has been found in earlier reports (Ahmed et al., 2001; Bhusan et al., 2001) the
mithun is a sound breeder with fairly good reproductive performances (Table 4). Mithun attains puberty
within 22 to 39 months. The calving interval in mithun varies from 349 to 395 days. The gestation
length in mithun has been found to be varied from 280 to 320 days. The exogenous GHRH was found
to stimulate ovarian steroidogenesis in terms of increase LH secretion suggesting thereby its possible

use for early attainment of puberty in mithuns (Mondal et al2, 2004 and Mondal et al4, 2005).
The quality of mithun semen has been found to be comparable with cattle and buffalo
(Bhattcharyya et al., 2001). The important seminal parameters are presented in table 5. The average
semen volume (ml), mass activity (1 to 5 point scale), sperm concentration (106/ ml) have been found
to be 3.1 ± 0.3, 1.6 ± 0.3 and 710 ± 97.8, respectively when collected by artificial vaginal method. The
seminal characteristics indicate that the mithun semen can be preserved if collected through artificial
vagina and may be cryopreserved for artificial insemination.
Breeding policy for mithun

Being a free-range animal, to adopt a scientific and sound breeding policy to improve the
production performance of mithun seems to be a real challenge. Indeed, farmers rear this animal
under semi domestic free grazing conditions in its natural habitat. The mithun herds move around
jungle throughout the year and bred naturally by the herd bulls. Under such managemental practices
to improve, mithun for meat and milk purposes through artificial insemination is not an easy task. In
the prevailing situation of rearing, the farmers are not being able to monitor their animals for the onset
of estrus and take help of superior bulls at their own choice for breeding.
Hence, a practical approach towards mithun breeding for better production is probably the
introduction of superior male into the farmers herd. For this purpose, the mithun breeding farms
should be established for each states of NEHR, where the distinct mithun strains are available. The
nuclear herd should be maintained at the sate level mithun-breeding farm, where the superior males
and females can be maintained under good managemental condition. Intensive selection separately
for meat and milk purposes should be the prime objective of the breeding farm. All the parameters of
importance of this rare germplasm must be taken into consideration at the time of selection for
propagation, preservation and conservation of this valuable species. Simultaneously, superior males
generated out of the nuclear stock should be introduced to the farmers herd at the ratio of 10:1
(female: male). The responsibilities of the state mithun breeding farms will be continuous supply of
the superior males separately for meat and milk according to the farmer’s choice. The artificial
insemination with the semen collected from superior bulls could be an alternative method for improving
mithuns that are managed under intensive system in mithun breeding farms but it need to be
standardized to explore the possibility for field application. Even depending upon the facilities available,
other selection methods like progeny testing through multiple ovulation and embryo transfer can be
adopted to develop the superior nuclear herd. Estimation of GH in neonatal calves can also provide
the picture of its genetic potential for milk production in female and for superior sire selection in male
mithuns. Hence, this technique may extensively be used for identification of genetic superior mithun
at the very neonatal level thereby reducing the cost of rearing and increasing profit out of the mithun
rearing to a great extent. The existence of correlation between the concentration of growth hormone(GH)
in blood and the temperament of mithuns in four different strains, ranging in age from newborn to
adult can also be contributory factor to the selection of specific strains of mithun (Mondal et al3, 2005).
The concept of improving animals through cross breeding has raised many controversial issues.

Table 1: Daily and fortnightly weight gain in mithun calves
Fortnight Male Female
Weight Increase Average Weight Increase Average

gain in body daily gain (kg) in body daily weight
(kg) weight (%) weight weight (%) gain (gm)
gain (gm)
1 7.0 33.3 467 7.6 38.0 507
2 8.0 28.6 533 5.4 19.6 360
3 10.0 27.8 667 8.0 24.2 533
4 7.0 15.2 467 11.0 26.8 733
5 7.0 13.2 467 10.5 20.2 700
6 6.0 10.0 400 7.5 12.0 50
7 4.0 8.1 267 5.0 7.1 333
8 8.5 12.1 567 4.0 5.3 267
Overall 7.2 18.3 479.4 7.4 19.1 491.6
Table 2: Composition of mithun carcass
Particulars Composition (%)
Intestine Bone Muscle Heart Liver Kidney

Dry Matter 20.40 16.10 21.53 19.99 25.87 18.57
Ash 0.94 33.11 1.07 0.95 1.47 1.20
Crude protein 15.92 18.35 19.58 15.47 18.35 13.99
Ether extract 1.08 3.58 0.42 2.72 1.08 1.63
Carbohydrate 2.46 0.06 0.46 0.85 4.97 1.75
Acid insoluble ash 0.18 0.99 0.21 0.12 0.16 0.17
Calcium 0.08 0.41 0.09 0.97 0.16 0.16
Phosphorus 0.16 0.64 0.20 0.17 0.40 0.20
Many a times, experts used to propose cross breeding of mithun with cattle to augment the milk
production potential. However, it is sincerely suggested not to adopt cross breeding of this unique
bovine species with cattle for augmenting production potentialities with an aim to conserve and preserve
the unique characters of this rare species of animals. Scientific mithun rearing is a new introduction to
the animal husbandry field. Currently this unique species has been explored only partially for its
production and genetic parameters. At present, our knowledge on the genetic diversity of this species
is limited. Any indiscriminate cross breeding for production augmentation may lead to a great loss of

Table 3: Composition of mithun milk
Particulars Morning milking Evening milking

Mean±SE Range Mean±SE Range
Milk yield (gm) 816 ± 67 604 – 1144 417 ± 68 262 – 750
Total solid (%) 22.6 ± 0.9 15.6 – 28.2 24.7 ± 1.0 11.6 – 36.6
Fat (%) 10.5 ± 0.7 3.4 – 16.4 11.7 ± 0.7 3.6 – 17.7
SNF (%) 12.4 ± 0.4 7.4 – 16.7 13.3 ± 0.6 6.8 – 20.2
Total protein (%) 5.8 ± 0.2 4.4 – 5.8 5.8 ± 0.1 4.7 – 7.6
Ash (%) 0.88 ± 0.00 0.66 – 1.06 0.91 ± 0.00 0.76 – 1.00
Table 4: Reproductive traits in mithun

Particulars Range
Age at puberty (months) 22 – 39
Calving interval (days) 349 – 395
Gestation length (days) 282 – 320
Estrous cycle length (days) 19 - 24
Duration of estrus (hours) 10 - 369
Table 5: Physical parameters of mithun semen collected by different methods
Particulars Methods
Artificial vagina Rectal palpation
Volume (ml) 3.1 ± 0.4 0.7 ± 0.1
Mass activity (1-5 point scale) 1.6 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.1
Progressive motility (%) 55 ± 8.8 67.7 ± 2.4
Live count (%) 71.7 ± 3.4 68.5 ± 1.8
Sperm concentration (106/ ml) 710.8 ± 97.8 507.8 ± 65.7
its innate genetic potentiality and valuable genes. Hence, any breeding programme for the genetic
improvement of this valuable species should emphasise the conservation of its genetic diversity and
its unique characters. The idea will also be applicable even before implementing any breeding
programme that includes the component of inter-strain breeding in mithun.
CONCLUSION
The mithun is a rare bovine species of Asian origin, which has cultural association with the tribal
people inhabiting the region and has been playing a vital role on economic, scientific, and social life

of the people involved in mithun husbandry. NRC on Mithun has been working for last several years to
save this precious germplasm from extinction and further deterioration. The population of this unique
animal is threatened, thereby it becomes utmost essential to propagate, preserve and conserve this
valuable species in their home tract.
Therefore, a sound breeding policy as proposed is need of the hour to augment the production
performance and simultaneously conserve this valuable germplasm in their respective home tract of
NEH region of India.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, F. A., Bujarbaruah, K. M. and Kumar, S. 2001. Some of the reproductive parameters of female mithun.
Annual Report, 2000-2001, NRC Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema- 797 106,Nagaland.
Bhattacharyya, H. K., Kumar, S., Bujarbaruah, K. M., Mondal, S. K., Pal, D. T., Rajkhowa, S. and Bhusan, S.
2001. Collection and preservation of mithun semen. Annual Report, 2000-2001, NRC Mithun, Jharnapani,
Medziphema- 797 106,Nagaland.
Bhusan, S., Kumar, S., Mondal, S. K. and Bujarbaruah, K. M. 2001. Improvement of mithun through systematic
breeding. Annual Report, 2000-2001, NRC Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema- 797 106,Nagaland.
Mech, A. 2005. Composition of mithun milk. Personal communication.
1
Mondal, S. K., Bujarbaruah, K. M.and Bhusan, S. 2001. Birth weight and biometry of mithun. 2001. Annual
Report, 2000-2001, NRC Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema- 797 106,Nagaland.
2
Mondal, S. K., Khate, K., Bhattacharyya, H. K., Ahmed, F. A., Rajkhowa, S. and Bajarbaruah, K. M. 2001.
Carcass characteristics of mithun. Annual Report, 2000-2001, NRC Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema-
797 106,Nagaland.
1
Mondal, M., Dhali, A., Rajkhowa, C. and Prakash, B.S . 2004. Secretion patterns of growth hormone in growing
mithuns (Bos frontalis). Zoological Science, 21: 1125-1129.
2
Mondal, M., Dhali, A., Prakash, B.S., and Rajkhowa, C . 2004. Development and validation of simple sensitive
enzyme immunoassay(EIA) for growth determination in mithun (Bos frontalis) plasma. Advances in
Ethology, 38: 30.
3
Mondal, M., Dhali, A., Prakash, B., and Rajkhowa, C . 2005. Peripheral blood growth hormone level can
influence temperament in mithun (Bos frontalis). Hormones and Behaviour (In press).
4
Mondal, M., Rajkhowa, C. and Prakash, B.S . 2005. Twenty four hour rhythmicity of growth hormone in captive
adult mithuns (Bos frontalis). Biological Rhythm Research (In press).

ISAGB/18
BREEDING AND OTHER MANAGEMENTAL ASPECTS OF MITHUN IN NORTH

EAST HILL REGION OF INDIA.
SAKET BHUSAN1, C. RAJKHOWA AND K.M. BUJARBARUAH
National Research Center on Mithun, Jharnapani, Medziphema, (Nagaland)–797106
1
Senior Scientist, Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, P.O. Farah–281122, Distt. Mathura
(U.P.)
Distribution and Climate
Mithun is a large ruminant and free range animal. This is a important animal of bovine species
which is found in Northeast region of India. In Northeast, Mithuns are found only in Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram states at an 300 to 3000 m above msl. Other than India, mithuns are
distributed in adjoining countries of South East Asia like Bhutan, Burma, Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia,
Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia), Thailand, Viet Nam and China. It
is found generally in cool climate for optimum production. Mithun prefer high altitude, hilly terrains of
high slopes, dense forest to avoid direct sunlight and high rainfall area where plenty of fodder trees
and shrubs are available. Habitat’s temperature and humidity of mithuns range from 4 to 35 degree
centigrade and 50.87 to 76.31 % respectively. Annual rainfall of mithun habitat varied between 994.8
and 4724.40 mm with an average of 2117.09 mm. Rainfall was recorded throughout the year with its
peck in July.
Taxonomy and Development
It belongs to the kingdom Animal, phylum Chordata, sub-phylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia
order Artiodactyla, sub order Ruminantia, family Bovidae genus Bos and species frontalis. Carey and
Tuck (1896) reported that mithun is a hybrid between a bull gaur and a common cow. Hermanns
(1952) also advocated this status of mithun’s origin. There is one believe than mithun was evolved
and developed from the gaur. However, considerable variation exists in the phenotypes of mithun
and the gaur as highlighted by Schumann (1913). In some countries it is known as Gayal or Mithan.
Chromosome number of mithun is 58. . According to the breeding tract, productive and reproductive
traits, NRC on Mithun divided the mithun population into four strains, i.e., Nagamese, Mizoram,
Arunachalee and Manipuri.
Population
According to 1992 census, mithun population was 1,54,000 in India. The population distribution
of mithun in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram was 1,0,5000, 26,000, 22,000 and
1,000 respectively. Arunachal Pradesh has the highest population (68.18 %) of mithun. Within state
the highest concentration of this animal was recorded in East Siang district followed by Lower Subangsiri
and East Kameng district. Population density of mithun in Arunachal Pradesh was recorded to be
1.18 / sq. km. Nagaland ranks second position (16.18 %) in so far as for as the population of mithun
is concerned. Zunheboto district had the maximum number of mithuns followed by Kohima and Pheck

districts. Manipur is representing 14.28 % population of total mithun population. Out of the total
population, maximum concentration was found in the Ukhrul East district only. Population density of
mithun in this state was recorded to be 1.0/ sq. km. Mizoram has the lowest population of mithun (0.64
%). Most of the mithun population was found in Aizawl district of Mizoram.
Management
Some times mithuns are described as semi domestic animal because they spend most of their
life in dense forest without much human assistance. Mithun survive on browsing of tree leaves, green
twigs and long grasses growing naturally in forest. Many times mithun cow calves in the forest and
returns at owner house with calf after a month of calving. Generally mithuns browse tree leaves,
green twigs and soft grasses found at high slopes of hills. Mithuns have very peculiar system of
rearing and spend most of their life in dense forest without any assistance of human being. Mithuns
return from forest to owner house one or two times in a month to take common salt. Farmers give the
identification mark to own mithuns to bring out the mithun from forest for slaughtering.
Importance
It is a holy sacrificial animal to the local tribal people and slaughtered in all the marriages,
gathering and party. It has the great importance to them for its cheaper red meat. The tribal people of
NEH region rear mithun mainly for meat purpose and only few tribes use the milk of this bovine
species.
Phenotypic Characteristics
They are docile and have massive body size. It has broad frontal and flattened foreheads,
horns are medium, conical and has gentle curve. Neck is more thick and muscular in case of males.
The dewlap of mithun is larger than gaur. Mithun has the shape like cattle but body is heavy than
cattle. Dewlap of mithun is small like buffalo. Hump of mithun is absent but found a dorsal muscular
ridge at the place of hump. Arunachalee mithuns are white in colour whereas mithuns of Nagaland is
black in colour with whte patches on fore head. Most of Nagamese mithuns have white colour from
knee to dewclaw of legs. Body length, shoulder height, tailLength, Body Weight are 250-330 cm, 70-
220 cm, 70-100 cm and 400-800 kg respectively .
Breeding Programme
Cross Breeding: Arunachal Pradesh had under taken a cross breeding programme of mithun with
cattle to increase milk production of mithun cows so that a new hilly breed or strain could be developed
for higher milk, meat and draught purpose. The F1 male progenies obtained through the crossing of
cows with mithun bull was named as ‘Jatsa’. F1 females were named as ‘ Jatsamin’. F1 males were used
for draft and meat purposes. F 1 females also produced higher milk than their mothers. There was a
problem to cross again the F1 progenies because most of the crossbred male calves were reported
infertile might be due to difference in chromosome number of mithun (58) & cattle (60). Male and female
progenies of the forward crosses (Male mithun x Jatsamin) had been named ‘Nupsa’ and ‘Nupsamin’
respectively. Nupsamin was used as milking cow. Similar experiment was carried out in Bhutan also but

this cross breeding was not succeeding due to infertility nature of crossbred male calves of F 1.
Pure Breeding / Selective Breeding: According to breeding tract, NRC on Mithun classified mithuns;
Nagaland into four strains i.e. Nagamese, Arunachalee, Mizoram and Manipuri. Healthy 5 adult breeding
females with 2 mithun bulls of each strain were selected for the programme on the basis of body
weight and health conditions at NRC on Mithun, Nagaland. Mithuns of all strains were kept in separate
sheds of Livestock Farm of NRC on Mithun at Jharnapani and Porba for the experiment. Semi intensive
system of rearing was applied. Grazing area was distributed separately to each strains of mithun to
check breeding between different strains. Breeding males and females were also allocated separate
grazing field to avoid random breeding. Concentrate ration according to body weight and 500 gm
common salt were provided to each adult mithuns daily in the morning. Clean water was provided at
morning and evening. Natural mating was followed after detecting the heat of females. Calves were
weighted by Plate-form balance at birth, 3 months age, 6 months age and at 12 months of age. 6-15
calves from the different strains were got for data recording. Birth weight was recorded within 24
hours after birth. All calves were allowed the suckling up to 6 months of age before the milking of
mithun cow. Concentrate (grower ration) and 250 gm salt in a day was given to each calves after 2
months of age according to their body weight. After 4 months of age all calves were sent for grazing.
After 6 months of age, all calves were separated from their mother and stop the suckling. Calves of all
strains of mithun were kept in same management condition. Body weight at birth 3, 6, and 12 months
of age of calves for each strain was recorded. Correlations between body weights at different age
groups were also measured for Nagamese calves. No work on birth weight of mithun calf was reported
in India. Huque et. Al. (2001) made a study on mithun calves in Bangladesh and birth weight and
weaning weight were reported to be 20.2 kg and 81.8 kg for female calves and to be 24.3 kg and 84.0
kg for male calves respectively. Mia et. al. (2001) reported birth weight of female and male mithun
calves to be 20.2 kg and 19.0 kg respectively. According to Heli (1997), the average birth weight of
female calves varied from 17.5 kg to 19.50 kg and average birth weight of male calves varied from
16.50 kg to 18.50 kg. Bhusan (1993) reported only average weight of adult male mithuns.
Random Breeding in farmer flock:
During the peak of the breeding season, unattached males wander widely in search of receptive
females. No serious fighting has been recorded between males, with size being the major factor in
determining dominance. Males make a mating call of clear, resonant tones which may carry for more
than 1.6 kilometers. Mithuns have also been known to make a whistling snort as an alarm call, and a
low, cow-like moo. Mithun calves without any human assistance in the forest and return with her calf
after a minth from the forest after calving
REFRENCES
Bhusan S. 1993. A brief note on mithun production in North-East region. Livestock Adviser,18 (9): 3-4.
Carey B S and Tuck H N. 1896. The Chin Hills. A history of the people, our dealing with them, their customs
and manners and a gazetteer of their country. Superintendent Government Printing, Vol. 1: Rangoon,
Burma, p. 236.

Heli T. 1997. Mithun breeding farm at Sagalee: An overview: Arunachal Review, 1: 6-8.
Hermanns M. 1952. Were animal first domesticated and bred in India? Journal Bombay Branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society, 27: 134-173.
Huque K S, Rahman M M and Jalil M A. 2001. Study on the growth pattern of gayals (Bos frontalis) and their
crossbred calves. Asian Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 14 (9): 1245-1249.
Mia M M, Majid M A and Giasuddin M. 2001. Mithun keeping in Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Animal
Sciences,71(4): 383-384.
Schumann H. 1913. Gayal und gaur und ige gegenseitigen Beziehumgen, Kuhnarchiv 3: 7-80.

ISAGB/19
UTILITY OF YAK (POEPHAGUS GRUNNIENS. L) AS A PACK ANIMAL

D.N. DAS1, AND A. CHATTERJEE2
1
Scientist (Senior Scale) and corresponding author, NDRI, Southern campus, Bangalore-30 (E-mail:
(dn_das2002@yahoo.com). 2 Scientist (Senior Scale), NDRI, ERS, Kalyani, Nadia (West Bengal).
Introduction
Chinese anthropologists are in their opinion that the ancient Qiang people who developed first
taming of wild beasts for domestic purpose possibly 30000 years ago established the earliest animal
husbandry known as the Qiang culture, a culture of excellence in the world. After domestication the
yaks have been spread over conversely in different adjoining areas of China, Tibet, Mongolia, former
USSR, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan and India originated from Tibetan - Quinghai plateau. In India, these
animals are found mainly in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir (
Das et.al., 1998). In addition to the exploitation of various economic traits like growth, production and
reproduction, this animal genetic resources can also be utilized as the animals for crisis management
period. Bovines are being used as a source of motive power in agriculture all over the world for more
than 4000 years. In India more than 82 million bullocks are utilized for work which accounts for
approximately 1 hectare / bullock. Draught horse-power (H.P) is presently available to the extent of
only 0.2 as against the requirement of 0.8 H.P. (Misra and Sharma, 1989; Vaidyanathan, 1988).
Inadequate draught power adversely affect crop production in the plain lands in India. In the high hills,
the yaks provide the only motive power for transport as well as plough. In China, a much better H.P. is
obtained from animal power which is approximately 0.6-0.7 H.P per day. In northern China work animals
are used for an average of 270 days / year @ 6 hrs / day. It is reported that the Maiwa breed of yaks
is more efficient as pack with 70 kg load (18% of their body weight) and could travel 30 km in just 6.2
hours, equivalent to 4.84 km / hr (Cai Li and Gerald Weiner, 1995).
In the defence this animal is gaining more and more popularity as it provides much more efficiency
for carrying load in the higher altitudes where no motor vehicle can move and even the horse or mule
also fails. Yak, the camel of high hills with its unique anatomical as well as physiological nature helps
to adapt in the adverse climate even in the snow covered areas.
Adaptation against adverse climate :
This unique bovid has developed morphological, conformational and physiological changes
during the course of evolution to combat excessive cold at high hills (2500-5000 metre altitude)
during winter season.The adaptational features of yaks against cold are as follows :
Typical body conformation :
Yaks have very compact and angular body with short extremities like neck, limbs, ears and tail.
This attribute is much more applicable in F1 and consecutive crosses of yak with hill cattle. Yak does
not have dewlap. The scrotal sacs are covered with long hairs which not only protect against cold but

also helps in maintaining the internal temperature of testicular tissue for optimal spermatogenesis
especially during cold season.
The surface area in yak is very low in comparison to cattle and moreover the skin of yak is
almost wrinkle free. The skin is very thick with a wide variation among all body parts. The average
thickness is 7.5 ± 0.83 mm at back, 5.6 ± 0.36 mm on shoulders and 5.6 ± 0.4 mm on knees (Li
Shihong et al., 1984). It is very interesting to mention that the skin of yak absorbs less water than that
of other bovids. The subcutaneous fat layer is deposited during summer season when sufficient lush
pastures are available at alpine meadows. This dense layer of subcutaneous fat along with
intramuscular fat not only gives insulation to the skin in cold weather but also maintains internal body
heat in extreme cold season when feed scarcity is very common.
There are two types of fleece. The outer coat consists of long glossy hair having variable length
at different parts of the body. The back is generally covered with small hairs whereas, the hairs at
legs, belly and tail are very long and sometimes touch the ground. Literatures revealed that the
difference in gradient was higher in winter (-18oc) than summer (22oc) on shoulder, rump and belly
having dense hairs/fleece, and lower on extremities with lesser fleece.
Physiological adaptation against adverse climate :
The lungs in yak are larger than other bovines in the same age group. It has generally been
accepted that the lungs of yaks at alpine types are larger than the plateu types. The spacious lungs
aided by big trachea fitted with narrow cartilages help to inhale more air to compensate the low
oxygen content of air. Yak heart has relatively higher degree of capillarization of right ventricle than
left. This may be the adaptational change in yak heart to cope up with low oxygen tension specially
when it carries load on higher altitudes (Belkin et al., 1985). Gupta and Kumar (1994) reported the
average respiration rate with a range of 20 to 32 per minute at 3500 meter altitude when the ambient
temperature was about 15o c and it is 18-25 at 5500 m altitude with subzero temperature.
Utility as load carrier :
The yak is a unique vehicle for trans Himalayan transmission. It is considered as the ship of
Himalayas. The common features of the environment in which the yak lives are extreme cold, the yak
pockets are hilly, uneven and difficult to travel by any vehicle or even by other animals like the horses
and mules especially during snow-covered season. It is an important riding animal of snow-covered
mountain plateau. This animal can carry a load of 30-60 kg, the load capacity may extend upto 120-
150 kg (Reinhardt,1912). Normally during winter season the availabilty of pasture is very much negligible,
but they can sustain on it and is able to carry the pack which other animal can not. Mondal et al.
(1997) studied on load carrying capacity on yak and it’s haemato-physiological effects. The results
revealed that irrespective of the load which varied from 13 to 28 per cent of the body weight took
almost a similar time i.e. 4.5 minutes on an average to cover 200 metre, which is equivalent to 2.6 km
per hour. The average body temperature within a span of 4 minutes rose from 101.9o to 102.8oF which
was significantly different from the base values in all of the weight difference groups. The authors also

stated that the yaks were able to carry a load of 40-50 kg with the accelerating respiration and heart
beat. But, these are not as high as in horses (240 / minute) within 45 to 120 seconds of the starting
of exercise and come to the normalization by 2 to 20 minutes (Blood and Radostits, 1989). Observations
recorded on Maiwa yak in Sichuan province of China, revealed that it takes almost an hour to return
to pre-work value when the yaks are made to work with 75 kg load for about 6.2 hours (Cai Li and
Weiner, 1995). The rise in body temperature in yaks may be due to increase in muscular activity by
many folds followed by decrease in depth in respiration and for the heavy hair coat, the later providing
very little avenues for dissipation of heat.
Utility of Yak Genetic Resources as Pack Animals in Defence:
The yaks and their hybrids are being used by the Defence Personnel in Arunachal Pradesh for
carrying load for different border areas like Jang (8532 ft above m.s.l), Broxer (10000 ft. above m.s.l),
Thimbu (11060 ft above m.s.l), Mago (11700 ft. above m.s.l), Chunna (12984 ft. above m.s.l) and
Lunger (13500 ft. above m.s.l). The distance between Jang (location of Main Camp, 31 Assam Rifles)
and Thimbu is 33 km, whereas, Mago is 51 km far away from Jang and Lunger, is 69 km far from
Mago . All these areas (3000 – 4000 metre above m.s.l) have a typical uneven landscape, mostly full
of dense forest and in the peak winter, these are covered with thick snow which remain as it is for days
together, even for months together. These areas can not be approached by motor vehicle because
there is no proper road or infrastructure. Yak, the sole animal of these high altitudes can sustain even
without feed for days together due to their unique physiological mechanism to adapt in the vagaries of
climate. In addition, they put their whole hearted effort to reach the destination without any false
stepping in the snow covered terrains due to their unique anatomical feature of the hooves. The
wooden saddles are used by the Defence personnel to carry load on the back of yak which does not
provide injury to the yaks. Generally, travelling after every 20-25 km with a load of 50 kg on their back,
the yaks are provided rest for that particular day and next day the journey is followed. For the all
round development of yak genetic resources, and their proper utilization for the betterment of the end
users, National Research Centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh is conducting various R&D
programmes including conservation of germplasm and enhancement of performance on various
economic traits. One of the major objectives is to exploit this valid and unique germplasm as a pack
animal in the hilly terrain especially in snow bound higher altitudes. In Defence, there is a vast scope
of utilization of this valuable germplasm for its pack utility.
Conclusion :
It is very clear from the above mentioned discussion that yak is a unique pack animal which help
in carrying the load on its back from one hilly terrain to another even on the snow covered areas due
to its sure footed nature of hooves and slow but steady movement without missing direction. The
terrain and the climate of the habitat being so hostile that the animals are rarely reared under range
system without any shelter even in the worst time of blizzards. The management practices require
much improvement. Though it is the era of high-tech, even the utility of yaks in the mid to high hills in
our country can not be overruled, rather, we should think seriously to utilize this genetic resources
most systematically in those remote areas.

REFERENCES :
Belkin V, Astakhov, O.B and Gutorov, S.L. 1985. Capillarization of Myocardium in the Yak. Arkh Anatomy
Histology Embryology 88 : 53-57 (fide Cai Li and Weiner G. 1995).
Blood, D. C. and Radostits, O. M. (1989). Veterinary Medicine. A Textbook of the Diseases of cattle, Sheep,
Pigs, Goats and Horses. & 7th edn. ELBS, Bailliere Tindall. pp. 44 &84.
Cai Li and Gerald Weiner (1995). The Yak. FAO. Bangkok, Thailand. Pp.105 – 106.
Das,D.N, Das, B.C, Sarkar, M, Mohanty, T.K, Mondal, D.B, Singh, B.P, Pal, R.N and Ray, S (1998). Yak and
its Domestication. Asian Agri – History Foundation : 2(2)-143-156.
Gupta, S. C and Kumar, P (1994). Technical Report on Livestock Genetic Resources of Ladhak. National
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, karnal.
Li Shihong et. al. (1984). The observations on heat resistance. A research on utilization and exploitation of
grassland in the north-western part of Sichuan province. Pp 171-74, Natonal Publishing House of Sichuan
province, PR China.
Misra, S. N. and Sharma, R.K. (1989). Livestock Development in India. Vikas Pub. House. Delhi. Pp.88.
Mondal. D.,Pal, R.N, Barari, S.K, Mohanty, T.K and Nandankar, U.A. (1997). Effect of normal haematophysiology
nd
due to pack on yaks - a preliminary study.Proc 2 Intl. Cong. On YakXining, China.
Reinhardt, L (1912). Kulturgeschte der Nutztiere, Munchen, Reinhards. (fide Epstein H, 1974).
Vaidyanathan, A. (1988). Bovine Economy in India. Oxford &IBH. New Delhi. Pp. 12-65.

ISAGB/20
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF YAK IN INDIA- AN EVALUATION AND BREEDING

POLICY
K.P. RAMESHA1 AND M.BHATTACHARYA2
National Research Centre on Yak (ICAR), Dirang – 790 101, West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh
1 Senior Scientist (Animal Genetics & Breeding), 2 Director, NRC on Yak
Yak is a unique bovine species of economical importance in high hill and snow bound areas and
had originated from the cold regions of Tibet and Siberia. It provides milk, meat, hair/wool, transport,
draught and fuel to the high landers. They are found usually between 3000 – 4500 m and even at
6000 m above msl of China, Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal, Russia and India. The domesticated yaks
(Poephagus grunniens or Bos grunniens), a native of Tibetian plateau, are originated from wild yaks
(Poephagus mutus przewalski). Yaks have contrasting difference with other large ruminants that
dwell usually at lower elevations or on plains, possessing the species specific phonotypical, anatomical
and physiological characteristics that help this wonderful species not only to survive under the stressful
environment but also in subsistence of the local population with useful products (Bhattacharya, 2004).
Domestication and distribution
Yaks are believed to be domesticated by Qiang people in the Qiangtang and other northern
areas of northern Tibet. The domestication of yak has been thought to have begun in the late Stone
Age and led to the primary yak industry beginning in the period of the Longshan culture of the late
New Stone Age (2800 – 2300 BC).
Present status
Yaks are reared in India, Nepal and Bhutan of the Himalayan mountain and in Russia, Mongolia,
China, Tazakistan and Georgia of the Altai , Kun Lun Shun , Pamir and Cacassus mountains. In India,
Yaks are mainly distributed in the Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim
and Arunachal Pradesh in an area of approximately 14,000, 23,000, 2,000 and 1,500 sq km,
respectively. Pal (1993a) reported that the yak population in India was around 1,30,000 in the late
70’s but drastically declined to only 30,000 in 1987. However, Nivsrakar et al. (1997) reported that yak
population in India was about 43000 in 1972. In Arunachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, the yak
population was reported to be 14,000 and 33,000; whereas, in Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim, the
population was 7,000 and 5,000 respectively (Anonymous 1997-98). The distribution of yaks mainly
remain in between 780-790E and 310 -350 N in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Whereas in
Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, yaks are mainly found in between 91040´- 920 30´ E, 880 – 890 E and
270 – 280 N. The climate of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim is cold and per-humid, whereas, it is cold,
dry and arid in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Pal et al. (1994) categorized Indian yaks
into three types (i) Common yaks (ii) Bisonian and (iii) Bareback yaks and their respective population
are 56.2%, 29.8% and 14.0%. The common yaks are comparatively smaller in size, the appearance
of the head and body conformation are like cattle. The Bisonian type are hefty animals with compact

head connected by strong and short neck to the main trunk. The bareback yaks are bodily rectangular
with short hairs on rump and wither. The rosette of hairs hangs down the belly line and almost touching
the ground. Based on morphological traits, Das (2003) reported that there are five different types of
yaks in India, and they are Common, Bisonian, Bareback, White and Hairy forehead types. Since
Indian yaks are in disadvantageous position due to predisposing constraints there is influence on the
existence of its population. Though yaks in India are not threatened with extinction there is a need
to initiate ex situ conservation, as there are different types of yaks, which are yet to be genetically
characterized.
Improvement of yak
The living condition in the high altitude is so difficult that the young generation does not prefer to
adhere to its ancestral profession Without yak improvement, it is likely that in the decades to come
there will be a significant decline in yak population and a major shift in human population away from
these highland regions.
Table 1: Productivity status of yaks and their hybrids
Produce Annual Production (Kg/Yak) Yak Hybrids

Country Milk Yield Meat Hair (kg) Milk Yield
(kg) (kg) Coarse Fine (kg)
Nepal 200 – 700 1690
India 129 – 282 70-190 3.0-6.0 0.4 400
China 159 – 195 150 – 290 3.4 0.45 602
Mongolia 500 – 700 145 – 245 900
USSR 585 – 1066 2500
Perusal of the above table clearly indicates that the productivity of Indian yaks is significantly
lower than the yaks of other countries and the variability is also high which indicates that there is great
scope for their genetic improvement. Pal (1994) opined that the major causes of low productivity in
Indian yaks are (i) inbreeding (ii) unscientific husbandry system and (iii) inadequate nutrition coupled
with lack of disease control measures.
Opportunities exist for the improvement of yak production through genetic and non-genetic
routes. The available non-genetic routes to improve yak production are (i) Proper land management
(ii) Feed supplementation during scarcity (iii) Proper disease control measures (iv) Providing market
facility for yak products.
Genetic routes for yak improvement
As yaks are living in the harsh environments and unfriendly ecosystems, the natural selection
has played a pivotal role in yak breeding. The factors that influence natural selection are mortality
pattern, longevity of sexual activity, fertility rates, survivability under given environment, grazing habits

and other characteristics which are beneficial in sustaining harsh climatic conditions.
The aggressive behaviour of yak bulls during breeding season helps dominant bull to have
maximum number of progenies while old and weak bulls will not be able to retain breeding position in
the hierarchy of the herd. Thus replacing old bulls by stronger and young bulls, before their daughters
in the herd attain puberty. This plays a role in reducing inbreeding in the herd. Many researchers
(Pal, 1993b, Wiener 2003) believe that there is a high risk of inbreeding in yak due to the usage of
small number of males often only one for several years. There is wide variability in various traits in yak
population of India, which has to be properly utilized for their improvement. However, the productivity
of Indian yaks in respect of milk yield, growth rate and other economically important traits is low.
The following economically important traits have to be substantially improved by using suitable
breeding strategies for improving the economic status of highlanders.
1. Milk yield: (a) Daily and lactation yield (b) lactation length (c) Milk composition: fat and SNF
contents.
2. Growth and meat production: (a) Birth weight (b) Growth rate (c) Feed conversion efficiency
(d) Dressing percentage (e) Lean meat yield
3. Fiber production: (a) Hair yield (b) Down fiber yield (c) Fiber fineness
4. Work efficiency and packability.
5. Reproductive efficiency.
In order to improve the above-mentioned economically important traits, it is most essential to

know the genetic diversity in the yak population of India. Knowledge of the genetic relationships
among breeds or populations of yak will be useful in planning for improvement and conservation of
yak genetic resources. By crossing different types / varieties, one can achieve the benefits of hybrid
vigor but one has to take care that genetic diversity is not lost due to substitution. The semen from
wild yak could be used to improve the growth rate and yield of domestic yaks. The offspring vitality
and reproductive performance of yaks could be greatly improved by introducing wild and semi wild
yak blood.
Suggested Strategies
Research and development programmes aimed at bringing about genetic improvement of

domestic yak have to be planned keeping in mind its uniqueness, its multifarious usefulness and
above all the indispensability of yak to the highlanders under the prevailing culture and socio-economic
conditions and its role in maintenance of agro-biodiversity in most fragile ecosystem by utilizing low
growing grasses and its refurbishing by seed dispersal and manuring. On the basis of experience of
the native yak farmers and research experience, the following research and breeding strategies have
been suggested for economic gain.
Selective breeding
In medium and long term, selection of superior germplasm is the main tool available to improve

the genetic potential for the productivity. The major problem for the yak improvement is the lack of
pedigree information and performance records with respect to milk production and milk composition,
growth rate and meat characteristics, fiber production, disease resistance etc. Many a time, selection
based on phenotypic traits is counter productive for improvement of productivity. Secondly, survival of
the yak in a harsh, even hostile environment is of great importance perhaps higher than any single
performance trait. The most practical way for yak improvement in India would be to concentrate on
one or two most important traits. Superior females and males have to be identified from the yak
population and to be used for producing bull calves. For the improvement of yaks in India, it is
appropriate to have nucleus farm with controlled management and collaboration with herders’ herds.
The herders’ herds to be supervised and monitored regularly to achieve the goals. The selected
females from the nucleus herd could be used as bull mothers and proper performance recording and
pedigree recording can be restricted to nucleus group. Thus produced superior males could be
distributed to the participating herds. Generation after generation superior genotypes from the
participating herds have to be selected and introduced into the nucleus herd. In long term, progeny
testing and Open Nucleus Breeding System (ONBS) could be used for genetic improvement of various
productive and reproductive traits.
In yaks, normally a small number of males have most of the progenies in a herd. Even it may
happen that its son or close relative will become the dominant male thus increasing inbreeding
coefficient. Inbreeding leads to inbreeding depression resulting in reduced reproductive performance,
growth, milk yield, fitness and general vigor. Hence, it is essential to avoid inbreeding by exchanging
males from one herd to another herd after certain period of time, say one year. In India no systematic
crossbreeding programme is practised among the different types or populations of yak.
Marker assisted selection
The most important tool of genomics is the genetic marker. Though large number of molecular
markers associated with economically important traits have been identified in cattle, pigs, sheep and
goats. Such markers are yet to be identified in yaks. The studies on Indian yaks using RAPD markers
indicated no significant difference between Common, Bisonian, Bareback, White and Hairy forehead
types (Ramesha et al., 2005). Selective breeding programmes could be effectively used if pedigree
information and performance recording are practiced in the yak breeding tracts. Presently such
information is lacking in yaks. Under these circumstances, in the short and medium term, molecular
markers could be used for parentage identification and genetic diversity studies.
Hybridization for genetic improvement
Species hybridization between male hill cattle and female yak is common in Arunachal Pradesh
and Ladakh but only on a limited scale in Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh. (Pal, 1992). The F1 males
are known as Dzo and the females as Dzomo. Species hybridization is carried out to obtain the benefit
of heterosis in producing females with higher milk yields or larger animals for higher beef production
or draft. Yak hybrids adapt better to the intermediate zone between cattle and yak habitats and are
therefore, able to utilize grazing areas too low in elevation for yak, but too high for cattle. Crossbreeds

give more milk and better meat as well as they are an excellent work animal for carrying loads at
moderate altitudes. The milk yield and lactation length are enhanced in crossbred but fat percentage
is reduced by 10-15 percent. Hybrids produce less undercover of fine hairs. The male crossbred off
springs are sterile while female crossbreds are fertile. The crossbred F1 of either sex is widely accepted
to be superior to its parents in terms of growth and productivity. However, crossbreds are less adaptable
to environments in higher elevations, especially during winter (Wu, 2000). F1 offspring’s are not
suitable for elevations above 3000 meters above sea level (msl). The size and productivity of crossbred
animals from F2 onwards decrease substantially and not remunerative. (Pal, 1992). Cattle bulls used
for hybridization with female yak should have high production potential, but be of smaller in size to
avoid calving difficulties. In Tibet, yaks are readily crossed with cow. The mountain tribes of Central
Asia regularly cross their cattle with yaks in order to produce hardier and stronger animals with better
milk and meat production. In the frontier areas of Tibet, yaks are often crossed with Chinese cattle.
The male off springs of all such crossbreeds are sterile which prevents interse breeding.
Wild yaks and its utilization for genetic improvement of yak
Wild yaks have better adaptability to cold, shortage of forage and variable weather. The wild yak
has a better reproductive performance. Due to the superiority of wild yaks, their semen could be used
for the improvement of Indian yaks also after taking all the required care.
Breeding Policy
The goal of any livestock improvement programme should be to change the genotypes of that
animal population to best fit the total environment of its production system including climate,
management, social, cultural and economic factors. Specialized single purpose breeding goals
should not be applied to yak breeding in difficult environments of our country but multi-purpose
breeding objectives must be kept in mind while formulating the breeding programmes. Pure breeding
is the predominant practice with yaks in India. Selective breeding is to be adopted to improve Indian
yaks. Economic efficiency of yaks has to be measured on the basis of overall lifetime profitability. In
the long-term strategy, there is a need to apply biotechnologies like marker-assisted selection for
milk, meat, fiber and other beneficial traits.
Establishment of effective breeding bull supply and exchange system

It is suggested to establish conservation zones and nucleus herds. Quality bulls have to be
selected from nucleus herd and supplied to pure breeding zone. The use of cattle has to be prohibited
in conservation zone. However, the superior bulls from nucleus herds and pure breeding zone could
be used for crossbreeding in other zones. It is recommended to use breeding bulls (including frozen
semen) of other types including wild yak semen to increase genetic diversity and to improve performance
and vigor. The young bulls not selected for breeding purposes should be castrated before reaching
maturity.
The performance of hybrids of yak and cattle are superior and are preferred by farmers. It is
desirable to carry out programmed well-designed hybridization programme outside the conservation
zones to increase performance and farmers’ income. Though hybrids produce better yields but their

feed requirements is also high, therefore the availability of forage supply during winter has to be
borne in mind before implementing hybridization in the yak rearing tracts. In order to conserve the yak
females for producing pure yaks, it is advocated to use hill cattle as dams due to their small size and
less feed requirements as compared to huge exotic breeds.
The special genetic qualities of yak need to be conserved and may find a role in future not only
in the yak rearing countries but also in other parts of the world for genetic improvement of livestock.
The limiting factors in the genetic improvement of yaks need to be identified and solved. In India the
breeding policy is to improve the Indian yaks by selective breeding. Emphasis has to be given for
providing superior bulls. Outside the conservation zones, yak and cattle hybrids could be used for
profitability. Given proper technical know how, the economy of the highlanders can be transferred for
a better tomorrow.
Summary
Pure breeding is the predominant practice with yaks in India. The productivity of Indian yaks is
low and the major causes of low productivity are (i) inbreeding (ii) unscientific husbandry system
and (iii) inadequate nutrition coupled with lack of disease control measures. No rigorous selection
programmes are used for the improvement of yak. This could be due to the lack of performance and
pedigree records and also location of yaks in harsh environments and remote areas. Quantitative
genetic characterization of yak is largely absent in India due to lack of pedigree information and
performance recording. Selective breeding of yaks is the tool to be used for the improvement of yak.
Exchange of males amongst herders is suggested to avoid inbreeding and its resulting adverse
effects. Systematic hybridization of yak with other cattle has been practised for many years. These
hybrids find a special niche with herdsmen in providing extra milk and as draught animals usually at
somewhat lower altitudes than the yak tract. The hybrids are always mated back to either yak or cattle
males. There is no alternative to this as F1 males are sterile. It is suggested to use hill cattle females
with better milk production potential as dam and yak males to produce hybrids in India due to low
population of yak. The identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) may provide a basis for genetic
improvement of yak. The suggested strategies for genetic improvement of yak in India include selective
breeding, marker assisted selection in long term, hybridization of yak using hill cattle females and
introduction of wild yak germplasm to Indian yak.
REFERENCES
Anonymous 1997-98. Census Report, Dept. of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Govt. of India.
Bhattacharya, M. 2004. Yak farming. Edited by Ramesha,K.P. and Sharma, D.K., p.p. 1-9.
Das, D.N. 2003. Genetic Studies On certain Physical, Biochemical and Performance traits of Yak on Arunachal
Pradesh. PhD thesis submitted to Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat , Assam.
Nivsarker A.E., Gupta S.C. and Gupta N.1997.Yak Production, Directorate Of Publication and Information on
ICAR , New Delhi, pp393.
Pal, R.N.1992 Yak Hybrids. Asian Livestock.XVII:85-88.
Pal,R.N.1993a .Halting the decline of the Yak Population in World Animal Review,76(3):56-57.

Pal ,R.N.1993b. Domestic Yak (Poephagus grunniens) .A research review. Indian Journal Of Animal Sciense.63
(7):743-753.
Pal, R.N. 1994.Yak Rearing –An economically viable practice of the high altitude. Pashudhan.9 (8):1-5
Pal, R.N. 2004. Yak husbandry in India: a perspective. Pashudhan, 19: 10:1&5.
Pal,R,N.,S.K.Barari and A Basu.1994 Yak and its types-a field study. Indian Journal of Animal Science.64:853-
856.
Ramesha, K.P., Prasanna Kumar,K.V., Chandra Shekar, K, Sandeep Das, and Arundathi Fukan.2005.Randomly
Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) fingerprinting of Indian Yaks. Proceedings of the symposium on
“Advances and challenges in reproductive health in the post genomic era. Mumbai, 9-12 Jan.2005.
Wiener, G., Han Jianlin and Long Ruijun .2003.The Yak. Second Edition RAP-FAO (Food And Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations) Regional Office For Asia and Pacific, Bangkok,Thiland.
Wu. N. 2000 Yak Breeding Programmes Iin China, In:Galad S., Boyazoglu J and Hammond K(eds),Workshop
on developing breeding strategies for lower input animal productions environments held at Bella Italy 22-
25 September,1999, International Council For animal Recording: Technical Series 3,Rome,Italy.pp 409-
424.

ISAGB/21
GENOMICS FOR HIGH LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY: THE BOVINE GENOME

PROJECT
P.K. ROUT, A. MANDAL AND R.ROY
Genetics and Breeding Division, CIRG, Makhdoom P.O.Farah-281122, Mathura (UP) India
Completion of the human genome sequence provides the starting point for understanding the
genetic complexity of man and how genetic variation contributes to diverse phenotypes and disease
. It is also noted that additional species must be sequenced to resolve the genetic complexity of
human evolution and to effectively extrapolate genetic information from comparative veterinary medicine
to human medicine. The selective pressures have differentiated ruminants in different agro-climatic
zones and produced phenotypes extremely relevant to human need; therefore it is imperative to
understand genetic interactions with environmental factors. The bovine model is the fundamental
research platform for human health research, developing human reproductive techniques and for
studying reproductive diseases. Domestic cattle are one of several ruminant species that are used
extensively in biomedical research; sheep and goats are used in the nutritional , reproductive and
biomedical research. Moreover ruminants play a major role in transmissible zoonotic disease. Karyotypic
data demonstrate extremely conserved genomes in these species, suggesting that a complete sequence
of the bovine genome will provide a genomic matrix for all ruminants (Gallagher et al., 1994).
As we know the international release of first draft of bovine genome sequence was declared in
October 2004 and is now available in free public databases for use by biomedical and agricultural
researchers around the world. This data has made it possible a step ahead to understand how a cow
works and will underpin the next several decades of cattle research. Sequencing and assembly of the
bovine genome began in December 2003 and was led by Richard Gibbs and George Weinstock at
the Baylor College of Medicine’s Human Genome Sequencing Center in Houston. The sequencing
effort was started in December 2003 and finished in early September 2004. The first draft was based
on DNA taken from a Hereford, a breed of cattle used in beef production and was produced by
sequencing the genome 3.3 times. A more complete draft, produced by sequencing the genome six
times, is expected to be completed sometime in the first half of next year and an in-depth analysis will
be completed by the end of next year. International consortium has sequenced the bovine genome,
the first ruminant mammal to have its genome sequenced and Other partners are CSIRO Livestock
Industries; the National Human Genome Research Institute; the US Department of Agriculture; the
State of Texas; Genome Canada; and, New Zealand’s Agritech Investments Ltd, Dairy Insight Inc and
Ag Research Ltd; the Kelberg Foundation; and the National, Texas and South Dakota Beef Check-off
Funds. The Bovine Genome Sequencing Project also plans to sequence the genomes of additional
cattle breeds at lighter coverage, which will help discovery of traits for improved meat and milk production
and will help for developing a better model of human disease. Those breeds are Holstein, Angus,
Jersey, Limousin, Norwegian Red and Brahman. The significance of the sequencing data is that the
researchers around the world now have a powerful new tool for exploring the biology of cattle. The
researchers will use such information to improve meat and milk production, and to develop new

strategies for protecting cattle from disease. Medical researchers will compare the bovine genome
with the human genome sequence in hopes of gaining new insights into human health and disease.
The choice of the breed was not very specific for technological reasons and wasn’t certainly an easy
decision. The breed had wide popularity and long history of consistent breeding and was therefore
thought that the Hereford was a good choice. The physical map and sequence information will make
it possible for researchers to identify where key genes are located on the bovine genome, where the
control switches for these genes are located, and how to select for desired traits more efficiently. The
bovine genome is similar in size to the genomes of humans and other mammals, with an estimated
size of three billion base pairs. Besides its potential for improving dairy and meat products and enhancing
food safety, adding the genomic sequence of the cow (Bos taurus) to the growing list of sequenced
animal genomes will help researchers learn more about the human genome.
Feature of the bovine genome project

l The cow is the first mammalian farm animal to be sequenced (the chicken was the first farm
animal to be sequenced).
l Researchers can now begin the work of analyzing the bovine genome to uncover more
information about individual genes.
l The first draft, which was produced by sequencing the bovine genome 3.3 times, was based
on DNA taken from a Hereford, a breed of cattle used in beef production. A more complete
draft, produced by sequencing the genome six times, is expected to be completed sometime
in the first half of next year and an in-depth analysis will be completed by the end of next year.
l Like the human and rodent genomes, the bovine genome consists of 25,000-30,000 genes.
Comparison of these genomes will allow researchers to identify regulatory regions for
genes.
l This will be a valuable resource used for marker-assisted selection of elite animals in
breeding programs and help people to identify animals that are better suited to a particular
market or environment.
l The information yielded from the bovine genome will also have direct application to sheep,
goat and other farm animal research.
l The bovine genome physical map and sequence will help to select desirable production
traits, identify genes involved in pest and disease resistance and enable better matching
of products to market specifications
We can access the sequence data through the following public databases (external sites):
l GenBank at NIH’s National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
l EMBL Bank at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory’s Nucleotide Sequence Database
l DNA Data Bank of Japan
The data can also be viewed through (external sites):

l NCBI’s Map Viewer
l UCSC Genome Browser at the University of California at Santa Cruz

l Ensembl Genome Browser at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge, England
Selected References:
Band, M.R., Larson, J.H., Rebeiz, M., Green, C.A., Heyen, D.W., Donovan, J., Windish, R., Steining, C.,
Mahyuddin, P., Womack, J.E., and Lewin, H.A.: An ordered comparative map of the cattle and human
genomes. Genome Research 10: 1359-1368, 2000.
Barendse, W., Armitage S. M., Kossarek, L. M., Shalom, A., Kirkpatrick, B. W., Ryan, A. M., Clayton, D., Li,
L., Neibergs, H. L., Zhang, N., et al.: A genetic linkage map of the bovine genome. Nat. Genet. 6:227-
235, 1994.
Bishop, M. D., Kappes, S. M., Keele, J. W., Stone, R. T., Sunden, S. L., Hawkins, G. A., Toldo, S.S., Fries,
R., Grosz, M. D., Yoo, J., et al.: A genetic linkage map for cattle. Genetics 136:619-639,1994.
Gallagher, D.S, Derr, J.N., and Womack, J.E.: Chromosome conservation among the advanced pecorans and
determination of the primitive bovid karyotype. J. Heredity 85: 204-210, 1994.
Gao, Q. and Womack, J.E.: A genetic map of bovine Chromosome 7 with an inter specific hybrid backcross
panel. Mammalian. Genome 8:258-261, 1997.
Georges M, Dietz AB, Mishra A, Nielsen D, Sargeant LS, Sorensen A, Steele MR, Zhao X, Leipold H, Womack
JE, Lathrop, M.: Microsatellite mapping of the gene causing weaver disease in cattle will allow the study
of an associated quantitative trait locus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 90:1058-1062, 1993.
Georges M, Nielsen D, Mackinnon M, Mishra A, Okimoto R, Pasquino AT, Sargeant LS, Sorensen A, Steele
MR, Zhao X, Leipold H, Womack JE, Hetzel J.: Mapping quantitative trait loci controlling milk production
in dairy cattle by exploiting progeny testing. Genetics 139:907-920, 1995.
Green, E.: Comparative Sequencing of targeted regions in multiple vertebrates: Reconnaissance for Future
Genome Explorations. Plenary Lecture at Plant, Animal & Microbial Genome meeting, San Diego, Ca.
January 12- 16, 2002.
Kappes, S. M., and Stone, R. T.: Association of the muscle hypertrophy locus with carcass traits in beef
cattle. J Anim. Sci. 76:468-473, 1998.
Kirkpatrick, B.W., Byla, B.M., and Gregory, K. E.: A search for quantitative trait loci for ovulation rate in cattle.
Anim. Genet. 27:157-162, 1996.
Phillips, P. H.: Preservation of bull semen. J. Biol. Chem. 130:415, 1939.
Polge, C., Smith, A. and Park, A. S.: Revival of spermatozoa after vitrification and dehydration at low temperature.
Nature (London) 164:666, 1949.
Roelants, G.E.: Natural resistance to animal trypanosomiasis. Parasit. Immunology 8: 1-10, 1986.
Stone, R. T., Keele, J. W., Shackelford, S. D., Kappes, S. M. and Koohmaraie, M.: A primary screen of the
bovine genome for quantitative trait loci affecting carcass and growth traits. J Anim Sci. 77:1379-1384,
1999.

ISAGB /22
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES FOR CAMEL IN INDIA:

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND BREEDING POLICY
M.S.SAHANI AND S.C.MEHTA
National Research Centre on Camel, Post Box-07, Bikaner-334001
INTRODUCTION
Camel, the beast of burden in desert, has diversified uses ranging from the primary use as a
draught animal to sport, national security and the production of commodities like hair, milk and meat.
Despite of it’s potential to thrive well on meagre resources under extremes of desert climatic conditions;
the population of camel is decreasing at a significant rate. This situation is not congenial for the
conservation of biodiversity, which is a matter of global concern and our national commitment. It is
strongly felt that utility of this species should be increased by making it a better producer of quality
milk and meat while retaining it’s potential to travel long distances in the desert with scarce water
intake. In addition, the camel has a great role in the tourism industry of Rajasthan, which can be
further exploited to earn more foreign exchange. Most of the hot arid regions frequently encounter
erratic monsoons leading to droughts, difficult situation of crop cultivation along with depletion of
grazing resources, which affects the livestock particularly cattle & buffalo and leaving alternate for
small ruminants and camels due to their better physiological and anatomical adaptation to the arid
region. Camels are able sustain 20 to 22 % of body weight loss during severe famine conditions
where as other livestock species such as cattle and buffaloes can not sustain beyond 10 to 12 % loss
in body weight. These special features make the camel farming most economic and profitable in this
region for short distance transportation and agricultural uses, as compared other livestock. It also
serves as source of livelihood to about 7 to 8 % population of rural and urban sector in this region.
Camel generates draught force equivalent to 17-22 % of body weight and provides 1.1 hp bio-energy
continuously for 6-7 hrs. (Annual Report 1990-91). The camel farming scenario is undergoing rapid
change due to change in cropping pattern under arid ecosystem with introduction of canal and tube-
well irrigation resulting to continuous shrinkage in grazing land and decline in natural vegetative
resource due to mechanised agriculture in rain fed cropping. Based on utility, camels have been
categorised as baggage and riding type. Camels have also been classified based on topography of
area viz. hilly, plain and intermediary camels between hilly and plains.
CAMEL POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION
Camel population of the world is 19.32 million, out of which about 70 percent are confined in
north east African countries followed by about 28 percent in southwest Asian countries and remaining
in rest of the world. Country wise trend indicates that Somalia has the highest population of around
6.2 m camels followed by Sudan 3.0 m, Mauritania 1.23 m and Ethiopia 1.07 m. India ranks fifth with a
population of about 1.03 m camels (FAO, year book 2002).
The state-wise distribution of camel population indicates that Rajasthan has highest population
of camel in India. The population of camel in Rajasthan is 4.98 lakh (Livestock Census, 2003), which

amounts to 77.81 % of the country’s population. Other camel rearing states are Haryana, Gujarat,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. If we look at the trend of change in camel population
over last 5 decades (1951-2003), the camel population of country in the year 1951 was around 6.0
lakh; an increasing trend in the population was noticed up to 1972 with an annual growth ranging from
1.92 % to 5.92 %. Later on a static trend was observed up to 1977 followed by a marginal increase-
decrease ranging from + 0.59 to -0.37% up to 1992 (Table-1). The livestock census carried out in the
years 1997 and 2003 indicated negative annual growth of 2.33% and 5.93% respectively. If this
significant reduction in the population of camel at the national level is compared with the reduction in
the population of camel in Rajasthan, which is the prime camel rearing state, it is very much perceptible
that this reduction is comparatively less in Rajasthan. This clearly indicates severe reduction in the
population of camel in other camel rearing states. (Table-2). The camel population of state is mainly
concentrated in the 10 arid districts comprising of Barmer 69712, Bikaner 61861, Hanumangarh
46946, Churu 46822, Jaisalmer 36952, Jodhpur 30240, Jhunjhunu 24477, Sri Ganganagar 21694,
Sikar 20538 and Nagour 17148.
Table 1. Camel population and growth trend in India

(in million)
Year Population Annual Growth (%)
1951 0.60 5.92
1956 0.80 2.38
1961 0.90 2.13
1966 1.00 1.92
1972 1.10 0.00
1977 1.10 0.00
1982 1.08 -0.37
1987 1.00 -1.53
1992 1.03 +0.59
1997 0.91 -2.33
2003 0.64 -5.93
Table 2. Camel population and growth trend in Rajasthan
(in million)
Year Population Annual Growth (%)
1977 0.752 -
1982 0.756 +0.11
1987 0.719 -0.98
1992 0.746 +0.75
1997 0.669 -2.06
2003 0.498 -5.12

If we analyse the increasing trend in camel population of state/country before 1972 it is evident
that vast rangelands were available in most of the districts for grazing/browsing of camels round the
year in addition to availability of agricultural fields after rain fed cropping near the villages. All the
camel herds were managed under traditional extensive system of management and the herd size
used to vary from 70 to 350 camels. The rain fed agriculture farming of the region was primarily
animal based.
The declining trend in camel and other livestock population after 1972 can be attributed mainly
to continuous shrinkage in rangeland as vast land has been brought under command area under
IGNP. There is also rapid increase in the number of tube wells in private sector in various districts
during last decade with the result that land is continuously utilised for agriculture cropping throughout
the year. Further rapid mechanisation in agriculture farming has affected the flora of arid region, with
the result that some of the well known varieties of perennial grasses and bushes of the arid region viz.
Sewan (Lesiurus sindicus), Dachab (Cyperus rotundus), Phog (Calligonum polygonoides), Senia
(Crotolaria burhia) are at the verge of extension in some of the zones. These were otherwise easily
available for sustenance of camel and other livestock during scarcity and drought period. There is a
continuous decline in replacement rate of trees (Prosopis cineraria) under arid region from 10 to 3 %,
which has affecting the soil fertility as well as grazing in rain fed cropping. The emerging camel
production system now tend to be less extensive and have forced the camel keepers to shift the
grazing practices from migratory to stationary thus resulting in the reduction of herds and their sizes.
PRESENT SCENARIO
More than 720 million population of country resides in 6 lakh villages and village population
ranges from 800-5000. The fair road connectivity is linked to 55 % of villages only. Connecting of
villages by road is heavy investment and is of low priority. Country has around 15 million animal
drawn carts out of which 12 million are estimated to be in rural sector, transporting about 6 billion tone
of fright every year. The main objective of camel rearing is obviously animal power for cart pulling and
ploughing. In irrigated zones camels are used for carting and ploughing but is a second choice after
tractors where as in non-irrigated zones camels are widely used for ploughing and carting but some
times these are under utilised.
CAMEL BREEDS
According to the National Commission on Agriculture (1976) the important indigenous camel
breeds available in the country are Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, Marwari, Mewari, Sanchori, Sindhi
and Revarine. But some of the workers are of the opinion that there are only 4 major breeds Bikaneri,
Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi and Mewari, while others are perhaps the crosses of these major breeds, which
have derived their names from their habitat. Till recent past very little information on characterisation
of indigenous camel breeds was available. The National Research Centre on Camel has characterised
the 3 major breeds of camel viz. Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri and Kachchhi based on quantitative, qualitative
and molecular genetic markers including the microsatellite markers. Sufficient information has also
been compiled and published on the Mewari breed of camel. Preliminary information on Sindhi breed
of camel has also been compiled.

CAMEL BREEDING FARMS IN INDIA

1. National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner, Rajasthan
2. Camel farm, Dhori, Bhuj, Animal Husbandry Department, Gujarat
3. Jhampura, Banaskantha, Animal Husbandry Department, Gujarat
BIKANERI
Bikaneri camels are predominantly bred in Bikaner and near by districts. The breeding tract
extends in east from 71°53’ to 78°15’ longitude and in north from 24°37’ to 30°30’ latitude with very
poor vegetation and low rainfall. The camels of Bikaneri breed are heavily built and are attractive with
a noble look. It is a multipurpose breed but the camels of this breed have been classified as baggage
type. It has good height, strong built and active habits. The colour of the coat varies from brown to
black. They have symmetrical body and slightly dome shaped head. The fore head has a well-marked
depression above the eyes “STOP”, which is characteristic of this breed. Nose is long and extends
upto two third of the head. Some camels of this breed have a luxuriant growth of hair on their eyebrows,
eyelids and ears. The males and females respectively have body weight at birth 38.29 & 37.68, 3
month 96.27 & 98.15, 6 months 151.05 & 158.73, 9 months 183.70 & 191.68, 12 months 204.68 &
218.04, 15 months 218.33 & 242.12, 18 months 227.33 & 247.35, 21 months 257.09 & 265.10, 24
months 267.27 & 275.06, 30 months 289.91 & 303.80, 36 months 323.81 & 332.51, 48 months
378.78 & 318.52, adult body weight 670 & 556 kg. The population of camel in the breeding tract of
Bikaneri breed is estimated to be about 0.239 millions.
Average birth weight of calves is 38.2±0.47 kg and males are generally heavier then females.
Bikaneri camels generate about 1.67±0.09 hp and could easily haul 1.5 to 2 tones of load for 8 hrs a
day with a rest of about 3-4 hrs and covers a distance of about 30-35 km per day. Bikaneri camels are
superior in annual hair production (0.806±0.05 kg) and quality (staple length – 6.27• }0.36 cm, hair
diameter 42.13• }1.37 m, pure hair – 27.03• }1.17 %, hetero type – 46.06• }0.95 %, hairy type-
24.64• }1.10% and Kemp- 2.30• }0.29 %) over other breeds. Camel hair is utilized in village cottage
industries for preparation of blankets, shawls, carpets, ropes etc. The daily milk production is
3.99±0.024 litres. An adult camel of the Bikaneri breed has 153.76±1.23 cm body length, 214.59±1.55
cm heart girth and 195.87±1.01 cm height at wither. An adult male weighs 670 kg and female 556 kg.
JAISALMERI
Jaisalmeri camels are gracious, lightly built, slightly lean and thin in appearance and well known
for riding and race potential.
The breeding tract of Jaisalmeri breed encompasses the Jaisalmer, Barmer and part of Jodhpur
district in Rajasthan. The breeding tract extends in east from 69°30’ to 73°04’ longitude and in north
from 24°37’ to 28°15’ latitude with very poor vegetation and low rainfall. Average height of the tract
from main sea level is about 250 metres. Sand dunes are the typical features of the tract. The tract
has some open wells around which most of the livestock populations remain concentrated. Tube wells
are quite successful in this area and are acting as the chief source of drinking water for the livestock.

Further, human intervention has created Indira Gandhi Nahar in this tract, which is also facilitating the
life of men and animals to some extent. The population of Jaisalmeri breed has been estimated to be
about 0.118 millions with 0.0329 million breedable males and 0.0413 million breedable females (based
on Livestock Census, 2003).
The Jaisalmeri camels are of active temperament and are quite tall with long and thin legs. They
have small head and mouth with narrow muzzle. The head is well carried on a thin neck and the eyes
are prominent. The forehead is not dome shaped and is without any depression above eyes (Stop).
Also, there is no luxuriant growth of hairs on their eyebrows, eyelids and ears as seen in Bikaneri. The
body colour is predominantly light brown. The Jaisalmeri camels have thin skin and short hairs on
body. The udder is mostly round in shape. It is a medium sized breed of camel. Though Jaisalmeri
breed is a multipurpose breed of came but the animals of this breed are preferred for travelling long
distances, riding and racing.
The daily milk production is about 3.72±0.17 litres and annual hairs production is about 0.733±0.01
kg. The hair quality attributes are: staple length – 6.06• }0.39 cm, hair diameter 45.84• }1.46 m, pure
hair – 27.54• }1.26 %, hetero type – 38.68• }1.01 %, hairy type- 31.20• }1.18% and Kemp- 2.51• }0.31
%). Younger camels of 3 years of age indicated higher production than other age groups. The
average gestation length is 397.2±2.25 days. An adult camel of the Jaisalmeri breed has 150.20±1.27
cm body length, 209.02±1.60 cm heart girth and 195.36±1.04 cm height at wither. An adult male
weighs 580 kg and female 556 kg
KACHCHHI
The camels of Kachchhi breed are heavy, well built and good in milk production with home tract
in Kachchh and near by regions of Gujarat. These animals are good in draught, through bit slow.
The forehead is not having any depression above eyes, ears are small and lactating females have
well developed udder. In general face has low hair coverage and body colour is predominantly dark
brown. Kachchhi camels generate around 1.58±0.07 hp and the average milk production is 3.94±0.31
kg. The average birth weight of calves is 35.1±0.64 kg. The average gestation length is 389.9±1.47
days. The hair is comparatively coarse and curly with average production of 0.624±0.018 kg. Males
indicated higher production as compared to females. The hair quality parameters are: staple length –
4.42• }0.51 cm, hair diameter 48.48• }1.91 m, pure hair – 33.26• }1.65 %, hetero type – 47.34• }1.32
%, hairy type- 16.58• }1.54% and Kemp- 2.77• }0.41 %). An adult camel of the Kachchhi breed has
147.43±2.12 cm body length, 205.81±2.68 cm heart girth and 190.76±1.75 cm height at wither. An
adult male weighs 638 kg and female 512 kg
MEWARI
Mewari breed is one of the important indigenous breeds of camel commonly found in South
Rajasthan and adjoining Malwa area of Madhya Pradesh. The breeding tract extends in east from
73°02’ to 77°20’ longitude and in north from 22°55’ to 25°46’ latitude with fairly good vegetation and
rainfall. Average height from main sea level is about 575 meters. The tract consists of hills of the
Aravali in Mewar area. The breeding tract has 0.026 m camels with about 25.30% decline in last five

years. The extent of cross breeding has been estimated to be 29.96% and the population of Mewari
has been estimated to be about 0.018 millions in the major breeding tract. The availability of breedable
males was only 3.38% of the total camel population and 8.89% of the breedable population. However,
some herds of the Mewari breed were not having even a single Mewari stud for breeding. This situation
is not congenial for conservation and propagation of the breed.
Mewari camels are stouter and a little shorter than Bikaneri. They have strong hindquarters,
heavy legs, and hard and thick footpads. Well adapted to travel and carry loads across hills. The
body hairs are coarse, which protects them from the bites of wild honeybees and insects. The body
colour varies from light brown to dark brown but some animals are almost white in colour, such variation
in body colour is generally not seen in other breeds of camel. The head is heavy, set on a thick neck.
Unlike the Bikaneri camel, the Mewari camel has no ‘stop’, but its muzzle is loose. Ears are thick and
short, set well apart, tail is long and thick. The milk vein is prominent and the udder is well developed
in females.
In view of the long lactation length and the production cost of camel milk there is need for
improvement in the milk production potential of the camel in this area. An integrated rotational grazing
land and forest development programme along with a disease control and breed improvement
programme can be of great use in maintaining the Mewari camel with diverse livestock species under
optimum production.
SINDHI
They are found on lower parts of Indus and its delta. They are generally red or dark brown in
colour. They have prominent cranium, straight nose, fine muzzle and short coat. They are of heavier
type and have developed a habit of grazing on the mangrove in the swamps on the sea cost. The
have thin legs which helps them in walking in marshes without slipping. They are muscular and their
toenails are longer than other camels. They are good for pack purposes. They cannot go without
water for long.
DOUBLE HUMPED CAMEL
The Indian double humped camels are found in the Nobra valley of Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir.
The breeding tract extends in east from 75°15’to 80°15’ longitude and in north from 32°15’ to 36°
latitude in the cold desert with meagre vegetation and extremes of cold ranging from 10 to –40 °C in
winter and 40 to –10 °C in summer.
Double humped camels are compact, short in height and have well built muscular body. They
have long thick hair cover on body particularly the neck, shoulder, hump and mid side region. The
body colour varies from light brown to dark brown. The average body length, height at wither and
heart girth in adult male and female camel were 174.00±3.80 cm, 150.08±1.90 cm, 172.66±3.96 cm
and 154.25±1.98 cm, 201.66±7.22, 196.66±3.61 cm, respectively. The average body weight in adult
camels varies from 400-600 kg and males were found to be heavier than females.

CAMELS OF MEWAT AREA
Mewat area of Rajasthan, i.e. Alwar, Bharatpur and adjoining parts of western Uttar Pradesh,
has some camel population. The camel population according to livestock census 2003 in Alwar is
16372 and in Bharatpur is 4054. There are 30-35 Dhanis / villages of Rebari caste in Alwar and
Bharatpur districts. Important among them are villages Tehla, Satawat, Rajpur, Gaver, Machadi, Asanpur,
Reni, Jhamdoli, Digdigo, Dig, Bayana and Vair. The camel breeders have shifted to this area due to
the availability of dense forest and green vegetation. Rebaris, the traditional camel breeders in Mewat
area, prefer Mewari females as they are good producer of milk and are well adapted to the hilly tracts.
Whereas the Mev (Muslims) camel users prefer Bikaneri camels because they are engaged in
transportation of goods and Bikaneri camel has good draught potential.
BREEDING POLICY
The global camel husbandry scenario indicates that the camel is used for milk and meat production
to a great extent in several camel rearing countries. Camel race is another important aspect of camel
rearing in Arabian countries. The situation in our country is entirely different and the chief use of the
camel is in transportation of materials and ploughing of agricultural fields, though there are some
unofficial reports of camel slaughter with-in and out side our country. The National Research Centre
on Camel has put-in untiring efforts to increase the utility of camel milk by making almost all possible
milk products and by showing its’ therapeutic utility in the treatment of diabetes and tuberculosis.
The Bikaneri breed of camel is the best breed of camel in the entire world as regards its body
parameters, draught potential, and milk and hair production. The Jaisalmeri breed is well known for
riding, race potential and safari. The Mewari camels are adapted to the hilly terrains and are good in
milk production. The Kachchhi breed also has good milk production potential and is adapted to the
marshy land of run of Kachchh. The National Research Centre on Camel is therefore advocating
pure breeding with selection for improvement of draughtability by indirect selection. Right from the
year 1985, this Centre has distributed a total of 81 breedable males of Bikaneri (73), Jaisalmeri (7)
and Kachchhi (1) breeds in the breeding tracts through state government for genetic improvement.
In view of unique characteristics of camel milk viz. higher shelf life, longer lactation length,
therapeutic utility, direct selection on individual basis may be advantageous in the breeding tracts of
Bikaneri and Kachchhi breeds.
FUTURE UTILITY OF CAMEL
The present trend of decline in camel as well as other livestock population may continue, in near
future. The size and number of large herds may further decline to small and medium size herds in view
of continuous shrinkage in grazing lands and simultaneous enhancement of land under cultivation
both in irrigated and rain fed cropping. In addition, the fast mechanisation in agriculture farming
under rain fed areas in recent past is one of factor affecting camel population due to decrease in
availability of natural vegetative resource (grasses, shrubs and bushes). The traditional grazing
system in some of the areas will be further reduce and replaced by semi intensive system of grazing.

Further looking to the future threats to human and livestock from (I) Continuous price rise of
fossil fuel since more than last 3 decades and future oil reserve that could be extracted at reasonable
competitive price would keep world economy running for about 92 years at present consumption rate
(US Energy Information Administration). (II) The increasing trend of air pollution, which is getting
worse in developing countries because of economic growth and high population growth, without
adequate protection of environment growth is undermined. (III) Continuous global warming due to
omission of carbon dioxide most likely to cause planet warmer. (IV) Present trend of decline in sub soil
water table in most of the zones of arid and semi arid areas. These are some of the major challenges
for sustenance of agro ecosystem, agriculture farming and maintenance of soil fertility. In order to
over come this complementary role of agriculture and livestock is important for sustainable agriculture
farming in hot arid region.
Camel the “ship of desert” due to its ability to sustain water scarcity and excellent adaptive
mechanism under harsh conditions will continue its existence as single or few animals for agriculture
and transport for 30 to 36 % rural population belonging to small and marginal farmers, who owns
about 30 % of total agriculture land. The region is prone to frequent drought and camel is the only
source, which provides the source of livelihood in rural as well as urban areas.
Utility of camel milk is also likely to improve in some of the districts having large hilly/mountain
belts, which are unsuitable for agriculture cropping in view of good shelf life and therapeutic utility of
camel milk against some of chronic diseases like tuberculosis and diabetes.

ISAGB /23
EQUINE WEALTH OF INDIA: PRESENT STATUS OF SELECTION AND EVALUATION

PROGRAMMES FOR EQUINES
S.K. DWIVEDI
Director
National Research Centre on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hisar – 125 001 (Haryana)
In India livestock sector has significant impact on the country’s rural economy in terms of income
generation, employment, women upliftment, nutritional security and foreign exchange earning. With
around 26% of rural employment through livestock, this sector is the single largest employment
generating segment. Beneficiaries from the livestock sector primarily include small and marginal farmers
and landless labourers. In spite of extensive mechanization, livestock still provide draft power for
agricultural operations in several parts of the country. The livestock industry has also opened gates
for export opportunities. With the advent of GATT/WTO and the trade reforms policy of Government
of India during 1990s, the programme of economic liberalization and globalization of markets has
called for economic competitiveness and generating efficiency in agricultural production. Equine
husbandry contributes significantly in foreign exchange earning and environment protection.
Equine population in India is about 1.77 millions. Major equine population (approximately 97%)
comprising donkeys (0.78 million), mules (0.29 million) and ponies (0.66 million) provides livelihood to
the landless, small and marginal farmers and other section of our rural and semi-urban society through
draught and transport. Traditionally, these animals were utilized as draught and transport animals of
choice especially in the mountainous and hilly regions of the country and thus have special economic
significance in these difficult terrains where motorable roads are inadequate. About 12 million carts
are involved in rural transport and 3 million urban based animal drawn vehicles carry about 25 billion
tones of freight per year. More than 60,000 urban based horses and ponies are exclusively used in
tonga transport system. Of the rural population, about 0.5 million are directly involved in passenger
and goods transport. Inadequate health coverage and genetic improvement activities coupled with
poor managemental practices resulting into lower economic benefits from equidae are some of the
issues required to be addressed in the current scenario of equine production research. Additionally,
remaining equines (about 40,000), reared by racing industry (thoroughbred), army, mounted police,
ITBP, equestrian federation, polo horse and pony societies and those utilized for national ceremonial
activities are required to be addressed on priority.
Breed-wise census of horses and ponies appears to be poorly depicted. Information gathered
from different indigenous horse societies, a maximum of 3000 true to breed Marwari horses are
available in their home tract. Similarly around 2000 Kathiawari and 1500 Manipuri ponies are left in
their home tract. These breeds are loosing their characteristics due to cross breeding with non-
descript horses and other breeds. The main reason behind this is lack of awareness amongst farmers
on breed characteristics, non-availability of pure bred stallions, necessity of systematic breeding
policy and requirement of continuing education to both farmers and field veterinarians in the area of
equine health and management practices.

Conservation issues and genetic improvement

Since all the known breeds of horses/ponies are endangered in India for want of purebred
stallions as well as poor managemental practices, the issue of conservation of indigenous breeds of
equines in their home tract has been a major concern to the scientists, breeders and policy planners.
Efforts are on for in situ conservation of indigenous breeds of horses and ponies by developing breed
characteristics (both phenotypic and genetic) and making available the true to the breed quality
stallions and jacks. Taking a leap in the health programmes, which now run smoothly, the conservation
and preservation of precious indigenous breeds of horses like Marwari, Kathiwari, Manipuri and spiti
has been taken on priority. National Research Centre on Equines (NRCE) is maintaining a nucleus
herd of good quality stallions and mares of Marwari breed for research and developmental activities
in addition to provide this germplasm to the progressive farmers in the country. Ex-situ propagation
would include the availability of frozen semen from purebred stallions to the end-users. Molecular
genetic studies may also be utilized to preserve the ova, embryo or DNA of each breed.
To start with, Marwari breed has been identified on the basis of its geographical localization i.e.
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and parts of U.P. and M. P. Efforts have been made to document
the phenotypic characteristics of Marwari horses. Genotypic or molecular characterization of this
breed has been initiated to achieve the target of genetic distancing with other breeds of horses.
Molecular or genetic characterization of breeds will not only help in future assessment of pedigree but
will also help in their parentage testing, gene mapping, identification of disease carriers, sex
determination, marker assisted selection etc. Enhancement of animal productivity through the use of
biotechnological and other modern tools to enhance precision is the need of the hour. In addition,
making the stud books of stallions and mares conforming to the true breed characteristics would help
in conservation of each breed of horses and ponies.
Import of donkeys superior in heights and stamina for breeding of high quality mules has already
been taken up by NRCE. Superior quality jacks for mule production in order to augment load carrying
capacity and draughtability have been taken up on priority by ICAR (NRCE). Supply of purebred Poitu
jacks to farmers and cooperative societies has been the major extension activity of NRCE. This has
generated 3-4 times more income to the farmers particularly those located in Uttaranchal as per the
information available with us. Frozen semen of the superior jacks is available with NRCE and State
Animal Husbandry departments are called for to help the farmers by door to door AI service for
superior quality mule production particularly in mountainous and hilly terrains. Till such time artificial
insemination using frozen semen for production of true to breed horses and superior mules is brought
to practice by stake holders, it will be necessary to evolve a system of providing stallions true to the
breed and superior jacks at village level, so as to improve upon the existing equine germplasm of the
country. This is evident from the fact that selective breeding has resulted in the generation of many
improved breeds in other livestock.
Selection and evaluation programmes for equines in India
Selection is non-random differential reproduction of genotypes where certain number of animals
from the population are chosen to reproduce. The main effect of selection is to increase the frequency

of desirable genotype and gene in the population. In equines, it is important to recognize the best
horse/donkey with high breeding value, breed characteristics and adoption to different uses. Presently
the horses are classified according to weight, size, build and use as (1) light horses (2) work horses
and (3) ponies. Though a number of aids are known to select horse/donkey viz.
(1) Mass selection/undivided selection where selection is practiced for confirmation, appearance,
gait, temperament, age etc., (2) Pedigree selection: Selection of horse is dependent on the basis of
record of his/her ancestors, (3) Collateral relatives/family selection: Where horses are selected on
the basis of sibs and cousins performance, (4) Progeny: Where a stallion/mare is selected by evaluating
the performance of progeny preferably breeding performance.
In horse breeding, individual selection and preferably the selection by confirmation is most
common. There is no proper selection programme for improving traits of economic importance viz.
growth and reproduction. However, the horse owners are adopting mating between best to best for
improving and conserving phenotypic characters in horses. For improvement of donkeys, no definite
breeding and selection programme is in practice. However, National Research Centre on Equines has
imported French donkeys and upgrading of animals is being practiced. The graded jacks are being
used for improved mule production.
Enhancement of genetic potentiality of indigenous equine germplasm with particular

emphasis on superior quality mule production
In view of its multifaceted utility, mules are used extensively for pack and transportation in both
defence and civilian sectors in the hills and inaccessible terrain where motorable roads are not available.
Superior mules in terms of greater strength and size will be helpful in improving the socio-economic
status of marginal farmers. Mule production in the country in an organized manner is the demand of
the time in the interest of our territorial integrity and elevating the economic gains to the needy mules
and donkey owners. The technologies for cryopreservation of quality Jack semen and technique of
artificial insemination and pregnancy diagnosis using modern tools have been generated at National
Research Centre on Equines, Hisar/Bikaner. The institute has generated sufficient data on field utility
of AI using cryopreserved jack’s semen for mule production. In the recently held meeting of Equine
Development Board under the Chairmanship of Hon’ble Union Minister of Agriculture (GOI), it was
emphasized by the research and development wing of ICAR in equine sector that State governments
are required to come forward to adopt the technology of cryopreservation of semen, AI and pregnancy
diagnosis in equines. Similarly the problem of availability of inadequate number of true to breed
stallions of indigenous breeds of horses and ponies in their home tract is being addressed by generating
technology of cryopreservation of stallion semen using different dilutors. On-farm trials conducted by
NRCE has yielded fruitful results and initially propagation of true to breed Marwari horses could be
taken up with the help of NRCE in Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab depending upon the requirement
of the State governments. Human resource development in terms of training to the field veterinarians
on usage addressed above is high on the agenda of NRCE. Elaborating the above, it may be mentioned
that facilities for early pregnancy diagnosis between 14-18 days post insemination have been
demonstrated by the Centre using techniques of ultrasonography and the extension of this facility
helped the farmers to get more foals from a mare in its lifetime by reducing the inter-foaling interval.

This further reduced the cost of production by maximizing the output per animal. Thus the total benefits
became high.
MANAGEMENTAL ISSUES
Improvement in managerial practices for better management of equines in the remote areas will
add to the over-all conservation of the valued animals. Additionally, better management in respect of
stabling/housing, feeding/nutritional and conditioning management will be the key to obtain maximum
expected of the improved germplasm. The use of local resources will be of utmost importance as this
will not only reduce the economic burden to the poor and marginal farmers, but also the animals tend
to adapt faster on these resources. The indigenous technical knowledge in this area need to be
scientifically explored as our ancient literature is full of prescriptions composed of native resources
for the equines. The practice of ethnoveterinary medicine in these equines would boost the status of
the equines and bring them to international platform.
PUBLIC AWARENESS
The awareness among equine lovers/breeders for improvement and development of
horsemanship is another important aspect to be taken into consideration. There are only a few
organized stud/ farms of horses in their native environment. State Government, NGO’s and some
societies should come forward to initiate some important steps to conserve the breeds in their home
tract. Action initiated by Government of India to conserve the threatened breeds of livestock by providing
financial resources to the stake holders particularly the NGOs and horse breeding societies is yielding
fruitful results. Proactive approach by NRCE has stimulated farmers of both Marwari and Manipuri
breeds of horse and pony, respectively to propagate true to breed animals in their home tract.
In order to promote awareness to the vista of international trade in present post-WTO and
economic liberalization scenario and also to preserve the stock of the indigenous equine germplasm,
seminars, symposia, meetings, workshops or conferences are required to be conducted at various
levels. These are of utmost importance to attract the foreigners to import indigenous horses from
India like the horse shows organized by some of the indigenous societies to promote the Marwari
breed, famous for its dancing quality. Such societies can play a vital role in promoting the breeds by
educating the people about importance, utility of the breed as well as providing good quality stallions
for covering mares true to the breed. Indigenous societies of both Marwari and Kathiawari horses
have been in touch with NRCE on issues related to export of Indian breed of horses and generation of
foreign exchange through tourism by organizing horse safaris in both Rajasthan and Gujarat.
The parliament has passed the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection)
Act, 1999 which seeks to provide for the registration and better protection of geographical indications
relating to goods in India. Since the indigenous breeds of equines can be possible Indian Geographical
Indications, these can be registered for the interest of the producers in order to provide legal protection
and preventing their unauthorized use. This would be an aid in the conservation of the animals and
also boost the exports. Any Association representing the interest of the producers and established by
or under the law can apply for the registration with Registrar of Geographical Indications, Chennai.

ISAGB /24
GENETIC ENGINEERING OF MILK: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS

BONY DE KUMAR AND SATISH KUMAR
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
Hyderabad- 500 007
Acquisition of milk production capability by an ancestor of mammals is at the root of mammalian

evolution. Milk production is an essential component of reproductive strategy of mammals. The
development of zygote into an organism is accompanied by preparation of milk synthesis potential by
the mammary gland. Perinatal survival in mammals is solely dependent upon availability of milk from
mother.
The domestication of farm animals and breeding for milk production has played an important
role in development of human civilizations. Commercial importance of milk can’t be ignored in current
world scenario when market share of milk and milk products is increasing at an alarming rate. Gap
between demand and supply in this area is bound to widen. It is now firmly established that a new
generation of value added products can be harvested from milk. Till recently, emphasis has been on
breeding large animals to produce more milk but now attention of biologists has changed to addition
of value to milk for better commercial utilization of milk producing animals. Value addition of milk can
be broadly put into two classes: a) Improvement of milk attributes viz., nature of proteins and their
contents, nature of fats and their contents, alteration of primary structure of caseins, decreased
lactose content etc. for better health implications and commercial utilization. b) Production of
commercially important and therapeutic proteins in milk. In this article, we have reviewed the potential
that exists in genetic engineering of milk for various industrial applications and for wider health
implications and the available technologies to achieve these goals.
Why to engineer milk?
Engineering of milk have wider implications for diet and human health measures. It will on one
hand provide designer milk suited for people with specific dietary requirements such as low lactose
milk for patients of lactose intolerance, and on the other hand it will provide milk with improved proteins
and fats for better downstream processing in industries. For diet and human health measures, milk
can be improved by: a) Generating a greater proportion of unsaturated fatty acid (UFA), b) Reduced
lactose content, and c) Remove b-lactoglobulin from milk. From industrial perspective, alteration of
primary structure of caseins to improve technological properties of milk, production of high protein
milk, increased yield or more protein recovery, engineered milk with accelerated curd clotting time for
cheese industry, milk containing nutraceuticals and replacement for infant formula will be of great
utility. (Latha, 2004). It may be possible to produce fat-reduced or even fat free milk with modified lipid
composition through engineering enzymes involved in lipid metabolism; to increase curd and cheese
production by enhancing expression of casein gene family; to create “ hypoallergenic” milk by deletion
of b-lactalbumin gene; to generate lactose free milk by knockdown of a-lactalbumin locus; over
expression of human lactoferrin to produce ‘infant milk’ or to produce milk with a highly improved

hygienic quality through expression of lysozyme or other antimicrobial proteins in udder (Kues and
Neimann, 2004). Use of site directed mutagensis of isoleucine 71 to phenylalanine in aS1 before
gene transfer will lead to accelerated proteolysis and therefore faster ripening of cheese (Murray
1999). Brophy et al. (2003) produced transgenic cows over expressing b-casein and k-casein. Higher
k-casein content in milk is linked to smaller micelles, better heat stability and improved cheese making
due to greater rennet gel strength. Increased protein yield have a positive influence on the cheese
yield and milk protein concentrate industry. This will be helpful in vitamin tablets, infant drinks and
infant formula, paper coatings, cosmetics, button making, paints and textile fabrics where edible and
acidic caseins are used. (karatzas, 2003). Over-expression of human lysozyme decreased overall
level of bacteria in milk and significantly reduced udder infection in transgenic mice. Since lysozyme
is considered as part of passive immunity, milk consumption will provide natural defence against
bacteria, virus, parasites and fungi hence got health advantages (Murray,1999). The expression of
various proteins can be downregulated in vivo. L’Huillier et al. (1996) crossed three lines of transgenic
anti-bovine lactalbumin ribozyme to bovine a-lactalbumin transgenic mice and demonstrated a 50-
78% reduction in bovine lactalbumin protein in milk of double hemizygous. Kumar et al. (1994) showed
that b-casein is not essential component of milk protein through knock out mice model and illustrated
that profound changes can be made in composition of milk without disrupting general organization of
micellar system.
Transgenic animal bioreactor is a powerful tool to address the growing need for therapeutic
recombinant proteins. The mammary gland is preferred production site mainly due to quantity of
protein that can be produced and the ease of extraction or purification of the respective protein.
Favourable post-translational modifications, scale-up, exact protein folding, lack of immunogenicity,
lack of undesirable glycosylation and less recurrent cost and enhanced safety make it advantageous
over yeast, algae, filamentous fungi, insect cell systems, baculovirus and metazoan cell culture systems.
However, production of proteins in milk is limited by relatively long interval from birth to first lactation
encountered with domestic livestock, discontinuous nature of the lactation cycle, and the substantial
time and material investments required to produce transgenic dairy animals. (Wall,1997). Certain
bioactive proteins produced in milk can have adverse affects on animal health due to re-absorption
when these are produced in high quantity. Erythropoietin could not be expressed in transgenic cattle
and was detrimental to the health of the animal. (Hyttinen,1994). HFVIII yield was very low in ovine milk
because of rapid sequestering from milk. (Niemann, 1999) This limits the use of these transgenic
animals only for production of inactive or non-interfering proteins. (Massoud . et al. 1996,)
Progress in transgenic technology has allowed realising the fantasy of functional food. Functional
food or nutraceuticals are those designed to provide specific and beneficial physiological effects on
human health and prevent diet related diseases. These can be used to lower cholesterol levels or to
reduce high blood pressure by adding angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or to increase
immunity by adding specific immunostimulatory peptides. (German.1999)
Status of transgenic technologies in livestock

Ever since animals were first domesticated a few thousand years ago they have been modified

through selection for economic traits for higher production and better resistance to diseases. Animals
have been selected based on their observable phenotype. Although individual traits show only modest
rate of response to selection (0.5-3%) per year, but the changes are permanent and cumulative, and
over the years they have provided significant improvement in production traits. Although robust and
successful, conventional breeding is limited because of lack of speed of improvement, and the cost
and time required for improvement. Besides this, only traits present in parents or present in population
can be introgressed; introduction of novel genetic variation is not possible. Transgenic technology is
able to over come some of these limitations. The first transgenic livestock was produced in 1985.
(Hammer et al.,). Since then major technology advancement have been achieved and number of new
approaches have been developed to meet the need for faster, economical and better transgenic
approach in livestock. Microinjection of DNA constructs into pronuclei of zygotes was the first method
for generation of transgenic livestock. It was extremely successful in mice and later was extended to
produce transgenic livestock. This method works reliably in mouse but it is highly inefficient for livestock
species due to low level of transgenesis in these species (1-4%) and high cost of production of
genetically manipulated animals as a consequence of random integration of transgenes into host
genome leading to variable expression. Nottle et.al , 1999 generated transgenic pigs having porcine
growth hormone (hMT-pGH) regulated by zinc feeding. The animal shown improvement in economically
important traits such as growth rate, feed conversion and body fat muscle ratio.
Our current level of knowledge indicates that mammary gland specific promoters can be used to
direct tissue and developmentally regulated expression of transgene to the mammary gland with
varying degrees of efficiency. The expression of foreign protein in the mammary gland, in most of the
cases does not appear to affect the functioning of mammary gland. Exceptions include impaired
lactation of sows from three different transgenic lines expressing whey acidic protein in mammary
gland abnormal lactation in mice expressing bovine b-casein. Hence, mammary gland directed
transgenes can be successfully inserted and expressed in all species of mammals thus far studied.
Several recombinant proteins have been produced in the mammary gland of transgenic rabbit,
sheep, cattle, pig and goat, purified from the milk and biologically characterized ( Houdebine, 1994 ;
Meade et al. 1999). Product such as ATIII, a-AT or tissue plasminogen activator ( tPA) are advanced
to clinical trials. The enzynme a-glucosidase from milk of transgenic rabbits is successfully used for
treatment of Pompe’s disease. Several inducible promoters such as drug inducible, metal inducible,
heat shock induced or steroid responsive promoters are now available. These promoters will be of
greater value in regulating temporal and spatial expression of transgene. Another possibility to improve
transgene expression is to combine two or even more transgenes employing IRES elements to produce
more than one protein simultaneously ( Mountfort and Smith, 1995; Houdebine and Attal, 1999).
Through such an approach one can create artificial di or multicistronic cassettes expressing
independent of each other. An attractive application would be couple expression of a protein a with
reporter protein like GFP to track the expression on real time basis.
The basis for creating knock out or gene targeting in the mouse is the availability of embryonic
stem (ES) cells, molecular tools for homologous recombination and high probability of germ line

transmission from the genetically manipulated ES cells. (Evans and Kaufman, 1981; Martin 1981).
This provides a powerful approach to introduce specific genetic changes into murine genome. Non -
availability of ES cells, or EG (embryonic germ) cells in livestock is the major bottle neck in this aspect.
Cloning of sheep and cattle from adult mammary gland epithelial cells and fibroblast (Wilmut et al.
1997; Cibelli et al. 1998) has provided technique of nuclear transfer which circumvents the need of
true totipotent cells for generation of knock out or gene targeted livestock or for that matter for
generation of transgenic livestock. This emerging technology can be used to produce animals with
sophisticated genetic modifications through introducing the desired change first in somatic cells and
subsequently using the manipulated nuclei for nuclear transfer. However, it worth noticing that gene
targeting in somatic cells is relatively less efficient since efficiency of homologous recombination is
two order less in these cells as compared to that in ES cells. (Arbones et al. 1994; Hanson and Sedivy,
1995, Brown et al. 1997) and the frequency of non-homologous recombination is typically high. Recent
advance is viral transgenesis- the use of recombinant viruses to deliver genes into embryo. Retroviral
vectors based on Moloney murine leukemia virus transfer gene efficiently into murine, porcine and
bovine embryos (Cabot et al. 2001; Chan et al. 1998; Jaenisch 1976. ). However, retroviruses are
subjected to epigenetic modifications and retroviral expression is shut off during embryogenesis or
shortly. Vectors derived from lentivirus have been shown to transduce human embryonic stem cells
and preimplantation embryos. Hofmann et al. 2003 generated first transagenic pig using lentivirus
method expressing reporter gene. They have shown that the derivatives of three primary germ
layers, germ cells and extra-embryonic tissues contained the provirus and expressed GFP. An important
feature of lentiviral transgenesis in livestock is the linear correlation of transgene expression and
number of integrants. Silencing does not seem to have an important role in lentiviral transgenesis.
(Hofmann et al. 2003). In addition, ubiquitious as well as tissue specific expression can be easily
achieved by incorporating different internal promoters in lentiviral vector constructs. Lentiviral method
is more efficient and incur only one tenth of the cost of pronuclear injection.
Given the time and cost involved in production of transgenic livestock with engineered milk it is
important to model the desired changes first in small animal models to evaluate the approach and the
resultant phenotypic effect. To this end our group at CCMB have recently created a mouse model
lacking k-casein genes and work is in progress to create a mouse lacking all other caseins.
In conclusion, the recent advances in livestock transgenic technologies have provided exciting
real time possibilities to produce animals with desired genetic changes in milk both for enhancing
nutritional and industrial value of milk.
References:
Arbones ML 1994, Nat. Genet. 6: 90-97.
Brophy et al. 2003, Nat. Biot. 21: 157-162.
Brown JP 1997, Science 277: 831-834.
Chan AWS 1998, PNAS, USA 95: 14028-14033
Cibelli JB 1998, Science 280: 1256-1258

Evans MJ and Kauffmann MH 1981, Nature 292: 154-156

German B et al. 1999, Trends Biotechnology 17: 492-499
Hammer RE et al. 1985, Nature. 315: 680-683.
Hanson KD and Sedivy JM 1995, Mol. Cell. Biol.15: 45-51.
Hofmann A 2003, EMBO reports. 4(11): 1054-1060.
Houdebine LM 1994, J. Biot. 34: 269-287.
Houdebine LM and Attal J 1999, Trans. Res. 8: 157-177.
Hyttinen JM 1994, Biotechnology 12: 606-608.
Karatzas 1997, J. Diary Sci. 80: 2225-2232.
Kues and Niemann 2004, Trends in Biotechnology 22(6): 286-294.
Kumar et al. 1994, PNAS, USA. 91: 6183-6142.
L’Huillier PJ 1996, PNAS, USA. 93: 6698-6703.
Latha S 2004, Curr. Sci. 87(11): 1530-1535.
Martin GR 1981, PNAS, USA. 78: 7634-7638.
Massoud M 1996, Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 36: 555-563.
Meade HM et al. 1999, Gene Expression Systems, pp399-427. Academic press, San Diego, USA.
Mountford PS and Smith AG 1995, Trends Genetics 11: 179-184.
Murray JD 1999, Theriogenology 51: 149-159.
Niemann H et al. 1999, Transgenic Research 8: 237-247.
Nottle MB et al. 1999, Transgenic Animals in Agriculture pp145-156. CABI Publications, New York, USA.
Wall RJ 1996, Theriogenology 45: 57-68.
Wilmut et al. 1997, Nature 385: 810-813.

ISAGB /25
FUTURE OF DRAFT BREEDS OF LIVESTOCK IN INDIA

R.C. UPADHYAY AND S.V. SINGH
National Diary Research Institute, Karnal-132001
Draught animals play an important role in Indian agriculture and rural transport system. They will
continue to contribute for several more decades even with present pace of mechanization in agriculture.
Draught bullocks have declined in India due to mechanization of agriculture. In recent past bullocks
have been replaced by electromotive forces for irrigation, transport of produce, preparation of soil
and other adjunct operations in northern India, however they significantly contribute to agriculture
production system in southern, western and eastern India. The bullocks contribute to economy about
40 million horse power as energy to agriculture and transport.
Draught bullocks have been developed primarily to work under stressful hot- humid conditions
due to dependence of Indian agriculture on monsoon. The targets of agriculture plantations and crop
showing are completed within a span of about a month in Kharif season. This is the time when
vegetations are spars and green fodders are either not available or limitedly available, therefore,
these bullocks sustain and contribute to work power from their body reserves. The breeds of cattle
primarily contributing to farm power viz. Nagori, Hallikar, Kankrej, Kangayam etc are well adapted to
stress of climate and feed scarcity situations. The zebu bullocks of different breeds have morphological
and physiological characters suited to Indian climatic conditions prevalent in varied agro-climatic
zones. These animals have low metabolic rate and high nutrient conversion efficiency, low disease
susceptibility and maintenance, therefore are suitable for animal production system as a hole and
draught power in particular. With the expansion of electricity and development of road network use of
bullock power for transport, water lifting, oil extraction etc has declined but the power availability to
complete farm operations within a time span necessitates their use in agriculture in many locations.
The studies carried out at NDRI have revealed superiority of zebu bullocks over other animals
for farm operations. In the past attempts have been made to measure draught power of bullocks and
correlate physiological changes for their evaluation and comparisons. The important thing in
physiological evaluation of animal power is that a physiological function has limited relationship with
power output and no physiological system linearly changes in relation to work output. Work
performance largely depends upon animal structure and coordination between various physiological
capacities related to work. Past reviews present detailed accounts of these physiological functions
highlighting performance limiting factors (Upadhyay, 1989), fatigue assessment (Upadhyay, 1987)
and work-rest cycle (Upadhyay, 1993). Draught power estimates from biological measurements have
been made and an overview of methodology development for biological measurements for draught
power is available (Upadhyay, 1992).
These typical draught breeds have morphological and physiological adaptation characters
depending on the ecology of the zones. These animals have low metabolic rate, high nutrition
conversion efficiency, low disease susceptibility and high heat tolerant capacity. Besides, these animals

are able to sustain in scarcity of feed and water. Genetic superiority of these animals has not attracted
our desired attention mainly due to low milk production, though at high efficiency, and many important
and good qualities been ignored. In an attempt to improve milk production, these animals and their
genetic merits, have been ignored blaming economic returns. If looked into the physiological adaptation
process, we find that the draught zebu breeds are superior to milk producing zebu or European
animal due to their low basal metabolic rate and energy expenditure. The traits of low basal metabolic
rate required for adaptability is not compatible with high milk production capacity and high milk producing
animals due to their higher metabolic rate are stressed to a great level and therefore are unable to
sustain their production. If we look the their energetic efficiency of work production, we find that Zebu
bullocks under stressful condition are able to work continued for three hours with a high loads as
compared to two hours for crossbreds and efficiency is higher for the same work load in zebu. As the
work intensity or duration of work increases crossbreds of European breeds are affected more than
Zebu bullocks. The crossbreds reach level of fatigue much earlier than Zebu and manifestations of
fatigue are also markedly visible.
Body Dimensions and Draught Power:
The draught power of the animal largely depends upon the structure, conformation and
coordination in various physiological capacities related to work. The body dimensions and morphology
of large animals differ from small animals. Large bovine animals, though able to pull heavy loads, are
not as maneuverable as small compact ones, and move slowly (Upadhyay 1989b). Body dimensions
and geometric proportion of temperate- adapted cattle (Holstein, Red Dane and Brown Swiss) differ
from small sized Zebus (Hallikar, Nagore and Haryana) which are well adapted to tropical climatic
conditions. The large- sized temperate animals possess out of fundamental necessity, thick, straight
and short legs for supporting a large body mass. Draught Zebu animals have long slender legs and a
balanced proportional body for swift movement. These typical draught characteristics are not generally
found in the crossbreds. In general, temperament, body confirmations, symmetric body, leg structure,
placement and well-set joints are looked for in animals for better draught power. Gait, conformation
and leg defects may influence the movement and speed at work need to be considered, if higher
speed is the main consideration. But as load carrying capacity is related to body mass, body weight
needs greater consideration if animals are to be selected for heavy load pulling or carting work.
General consideration related to selection of bullocks (Upadhyay 1984) and buffalo (Upadhyay 1988)
have been described. Farmers, in practice, while selecting bullocks and/ or buffalo, often look for a
symmetric and balanced body with well set and stout joints in fore- and hind legs. Other important
points considered are temperament, basic conformation, leg defects and training.
Work leads to adjustments in various physiological functions due to increased metabolic activity
several folds above the resting level. This requires adjustments for uptake and transport of oxygen by
blood and its utilization in muscle tissues. Sustained work is possible only with proper aerobic processes
operating optimally. Important physiological activities that contribute to enhanced oxygen supply are
increased pulmonary ventilation (Upadhyay and Madan, 1985), increased cardiac output through
enhanced stroke volume and cardiac rate (Upadhyay and Madan, 1986). In order to sustain work

over prolonged periods and for several days heat of work produced due to increased muscular
activity needs to be eliminated (Upadhyay and Madan, 1988). Studies on working Zebu and crossbreds
and buffaloes reveal that large and rapid metabolic and hematological changes take place and blood
pH may increase over several hours of continuous working (Upadhyay and Madan, 1985; and
Upadhyay and Rao, 1985).
Prediction of Working Capacity:
Attempts have been made in the past to predict the working capacity of animals on the basis of
physiological and haematological parameters at rest and during work. The chief aim of these studies
has been to obtain a standard for an objective selection of animals most suitable for special type of
work performed (Brody 1945; Engelhardt 1977). Oxygen consumption has been used as an index of
work capacity and formed a basis for prediction of capacity, particularly where performance
consideration are of prime importance. Blood bio-chemicals and other haematological have also
been studied in bovine and equine species and it has been observed that animals with markedly
deviating values for these variables usually showed sign of reduced working capacity and stamina
(Upadhyay et al, 1987, Persson 1967). Often the result of haematological, blood bio-chemicals and
energy substrate level in oxen during load-pulling did not reveal anything conclusive and these variables
could not be used as a measure of physical working capacity, either individually or as an average for
cattle (Upadhyay and Madan 1988, Singh et al. 1968a).
The information with which to evaluate the draught animal (DA) for power output has to be
gathered from visual assessment of the body dimension, sign of dehydration, hyperthermia and distress
symptoms exhibited. The respiratory frequency and heart rate have been used for objective assessment
to relate work output and distress (Upadhyay and Madan, 1985). A better understanding of the
metabolic changes that take place during work may be obtained by blood analysis, but sophisticated
laboratory equipment is required and most analytical procedure for important biochemical are too
long and complicated to provide important correlates to work output in field conditions. There have
been many reports concerning the metabolic responses to work of bullocks and buffalo but the results
have not always been consistent, although some studies have been made of the relationship between
respiration rate, heart rate and blood biochemicals for meaningful correlates to work output under
different environmental conditions (Upadhyay and Madan 1985; Martin and Teleni 1989).
Physiological functions: methods adopted for DAP evaluation
Work intensity may be evaluated from physiological reactions happening during work. The simplest
and most extensively used method has been to determine the heart rate (HR) during or after work.
From heart rate not only the circulatory capacity has been evaluated but energy expenditure estimates
has also been made (Richards and Lawrence 1984: Lawrence and Pearson 1989). Oxygen transporting
capacity assessments are based on linear increase in heart rate with increasing oxygen uptake or
work load (Rometsch and Becker 1991). On the other hand it has been shown that heart rate changes
quite accurately reflect the physiological state during work in animals (Upadhyay and Madan 1986:
Rometsch and Becker 1991). Consequently, for field use, study of heart rate changes is direct, simple

and often the only method available. Evaluating the work load by measuring oxygen consumption is
reasonably accurate and has been used extensively in humans and equine and other large animals.
Nevertheless, the method has several drawbacks in practical field applications. The equipment for
collecting expired air needed for oxygen consumption measurement is rather clumsy and uncomfortable.
It impairs the animal’s freedom of movement and effect performance. Furthermore, additional factors
affecting performance like thermal heat and radiant heat cannot be evaluated by changes in oxygen
consumption.
A number of different variables measured during sub maximal work have also been used to
assess draught animal fitness or to predict the aerobic power (Brody 1945). Usually heart rate is the
variable chosen. The work capacity of the animal is limited by the oxygen-transport capacity of the
heart and related cardiorespiratory organs. Oxygen transport capacity has been related to the oxygen
pulse per kg body weight in horses (Kibler and Brody 1943) and in bovines (Upadhyay 1982).
The measurement of respiration rate and pulmonary functions provide information on the stress
experienced during work. Various methods are available to measure both frequency and volume in
large animals (Brody 1945, Findlay 1950). Some of these methods have been used in animal experiments
(Upadhyay and Madan 1985, Kartiarso et. al. 1987, Lawrence and Pearson 1989). Observation of
expired air at the nostrils of the animal over the fingers for a period to obtain RR has been used for
the field studies. Other methods, though suitable for laboratory experiments, make use of stethograph.
Chestplethymograph connected to a sensitive recording Spiro meter have also been used for RR
measurements in animals. Another method applied to animals working in the field makes use of a
thermistor sensor which is held in the middle of the nostril to sense the temperature of ingoing and
outgoing air (O’ Neill et. al. 1989).
Body temperature and work performance:
Rectal temperature of animal often gives an indication of the thermal state and it is conveniently
recorded in animals by means of a clinical thermometer inserted to a depth of about 8-12 cm. To
record rectal temperature with a clinical thermometer is difficult in animal working in the field; therefore
suitable devices are required for monitoring body temperature. Flexible probe containing either
thermistor or thermocouples with long lead wires may be conveniently attached for monitoring body
temperature.
Rate of adjustment to work and rest:
The rise in HR and levels attained has been related to work levels on the treadmill in author’s
laboratory. Increment in HR along with the other physiological reactions and behavioural manifestation
in cattle and buffalo also have been interpreted earlier in terms of fatigue (Table1).
Keeping in view, some of these simple physiological functions and the changes could be
interpreted and calculated in terms of physiological impact or fatigue assessment (Upadhyay and
Madan, 1985). The fatigue score as suggested is based on three physiological and five behavioral
parameters and is a subjective score on five point basis awarded to each function. In physiological

Table: Fatigue score card for draught animals (Upadhyay and Madan, 1985, Anim. Production 40, 11-16).
Score scale Total

1 2 3 4 5
Respiration rate +Ro + 15 Ro + 30 Ro + 45 Ro + 60 Ro + 75 5
(breaths/ min)
Heart rate + Ho + 10 Ho + 20 Ho + 30 Ho + 40 Ho + 50 5
(beats/ min)
Rectal +To + 0.5 To + 1.0 To + 1.5 To + 2.0 To + 2.5 5
temperature (°C)
Frothing First appearance Dribbling of Continuous Appearance of Full mouth 5
saliva starting dribbling froth on upper lip frothing
Leg uncoordination Strides uneven Occasional Movement of No coordination Unable to move 5
dragging of leg unco- in fore- and hind because of
feet ordinated and legs Uncoordination
frequent dragging
of feet
Excitement Composed Disturbed Nostrils dilated Movement of eye Furious and 5
and bad wall prominent trying to stop
temperament with excitement
Inhibition of Brisk Free movement Slow walking Very slow Stop walking 5
progressive
movement
Tongue protrusion Mouth closed Occasional Frequent appe- Continuous protr- Tongue fully 5
opening of arance of usion of tongue out
mouth tongue
+Ro, Ho, To represent initial respiration rate, heart rate and rectal temperature, respectively.
functions, increments in RR, HR and RT were considered over their initial values and any change was
interpreted accordingly and assigned a score in multiples of the change. The value so attained for
eight parameters was the basis for declaration of fatigue. If the value attained by an animal was 20 or
more out of 40, animal was declared fatigued.
In the end it could be concluded that Zebu bullocks are sustainable in Indian agriculture system
mainly due to their adaptation characters, and they need to be used, protected for transfer to future
generations due to their merits over either European or their crosses.
References:
Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and Growth. Reinhold Publishing, New York.
Engelhardt, W.V. 1977. Cardiovascular effects of exercise and training in horses. Advances in Veterinary
Science 21, 173-205.
Findlay, J.D. 1950. The effects of temperature, humidity, air movement and solar radiation on the behaviour and
physiology of cattle and other farm animals. Hannah Dairy Research Institute Bulletin No. 9.
Kartiarso, Martin, D. and Teleni, E. 1987. Nutrition study using a treadmill at James Cook University. DAP
project Bulletin 3, 11-15.

Kibler, H. H. and Brody, S. 1943. Growth and development with special reference to domestic animals. VII. An
index of muscular work capacity. University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment
Statement, Research Bulletin 367.
Lawrence, P. R. and Pearson, R. A. 1989. Measurement of energy expenditure in working animals: Methods of
different conditions. In: Hoffmann, D., Nari, J., Petheram, R. J., eds, Draught Animals in Rural Development.
ACIAR Proceedings, No. 27, 155-65.
Martin, D. and Telini, E. 1989. Fatigue in buffalo on different work loads. DAP Project Bulletin 9, 17-18.
O’ Neill, D., Hayton. S. and Sims, B. 1989. Measurement of draught animals performance. In: Hoffman, D.,
Nari, J., Petharam, R. J., eds, Draught Animals in Rural Development. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27, 264-
271.
Persson, S. 1967. On blood volume and working capacity in horses. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica,
Supplimentum 19.
Richards, J. I. and Lawrence, P. R. 1984. The estimation of energy expenditure from heart rate measurements
in working oxen and buffalo. Journal of Agriculture Science, Cambridge, 102, 711-717.
Rometsch, M. and Becker, K. 1991. Methodological experiment on suitability of heart rate as a parameter for
characterising the draught potential of oxen. Draught Animal News 14, 2-3.
Singh, S. P., Soni, B. K., Bhattacharyya, N.K. 1968a. Haematological changes evoked by exercise in working
bullocks. Indian Veterinary Journal 45, 212-216.
Upadhyay, R. C. 1984. Selection and training of bullocks for work. Livestock Advisor 9, 39-44.
Upadhyay, R. C. 1987. Factors limiting work capacity and fatigue assessment in draught animals. In; Srivastava,
N.S.L., Ojha, T.P.,eds, Utilization and Economics of Draught Animal Power. Bhopal, India, CIAE, 1-16.
Upadhyay, R. C. 1988. Draught buffalo- Research and Development. In: Nagarcenkar, R., ed., Buffalo production
and health. II World Buffalo Congress, New Delhi, India, ICAR, 101-119.
Upadhyay, R. C. 1989b. Draught bullock selection- Some consideration. Draught Animal News 10, 19-20.
Upadhyay, R.C. 1993. Work rest cycle for Draught animals. J. Rural Energy, 2, 58-67.
Upadhyay, R. C. and Madan, M.L. 1985. Studies on blood acid-base status and muscle metabolism in
working bullocks. Animal Production 40, 11-16.
Upadhyay, R. C. and Madan, M.L. 1986. Cardiac responses to work production under tropical conditions in
bovines. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 39, 388-393.
Upadhyay, R. C. and Madan, M.L. 1988. Effect of work stress during different season on some hematological
and biochemical constituents in bullocks. Indian Journal of Dairy Science 41, 29-35.
Upadhyay, R. C. and Rao, M.V.N. 1985. Responses of buffaloes to heavy working load under tropical conditions.
Livestock Production Science, 13, 199-203.
Upadhyay, R.C. 1989. Draught bullocks selection- some consideration. Draught Animal News, 10, 19-20.
Upadhyay, R.C. 1982. Work efficiency and associated physiological changes in crossbed and Haryana bullocks.
Ph. D. thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.
Upadhyay, R.C. 1992. An overview of methodology development for biological measurement for draught power.
In: Pryor, W. J. ed., Draught Animal Power in the Asian- Australian Region. ACIAR, Proceedings No. 46,
55- 65.
Upadhyay, R. C. 1987. Factors limiting work capacity and fatigue assessment in draught animals. In: Srivastava,
N.S.L., Ojha, T. P., eds, Utilization and Economics of Draught Animal Power. Bhopal, India, CIAE, 1-16.

ISAGB /26
BREEDING POLICY FOR CATTLE AND BUFFALOES IN SOUTHERN INDIA

M.G.GOVINDAIAH
Department of Animal Breeding, Genetics and Biostatistics,
Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bangalore - 560 024
Livestock production is a diversified and multifarious income generating activity of the resource
poor millions of rural households. It enables poor and landless farmers to earn income using common
property resources and crop by-products that would otherwise become waste but being used for
sustainable livestock production. Livestock products are an important source of nutrients. The
addition of milk and meat to the diet of human beings provide protein, calcium, vitamins and other
nutrients that are very much lacking in their usual diets from crop origin. Besides, livestock remain
the most important if not the sole form of non-human power available to poor farmers for upkeep of
small scale farming operations including as store value as well as insurance for people who have no
other financial resources.
Profile of South India

South India encompasses five states and three union territories. It is surrounded by Bay of
Bengal in the east, Indian Ocean in the south and Arabian Sea in the west. It has a long stretch of
coastal line. The region is characterized by extensive stretch of plateau land bounded by Western
Ghats and small stretch of Eastern Ghats. Western ghats are the hot spot of bio-diversity of flora and
fauna of the region. The vast stretch of midland lying between the ghats is popularly known as
Deccan plateau which is a seat of varied livestock farming systems giving birth to excellent draft
breeds of cattle, meat breeds of sheep and also the progenitor of present day poultry in the country.
Southern states and union territories represent about 19.72 % of total geographic area of the country
(32.87 lakh sq.km), yet these states support 21.90% of human population (10270 lakh in 2001),
19.26% of livestock (4853.85 lakh) and 40.71% of poultry population (3476 lakh) of the country in
1997. The South India comes under three well recognized agro-climatic zones of the country viz.,
Southern plateau and hills (sheep farming system), East coast plain and hills (buffalo farming systems)
and West Coast plain and ghats (cattle farming system). The climate in Southern India is typical of
tropical nature, which ensures the growth and sustenance of various species of farm livestock, wild
species of animals and birds too. At present these farm livestock are intricately associated with the
social, cultural and traditional values of the region to which they belong and serve as vital source for
food, fibre, draught power, manure and provide much needed self employment to small and marginal
farmers as well as weaker sections of the society.
Paper presented in the VIII National Conference on Animal Genetics and Breeding organized by
Indian Society for Animal Genetics and Breeding at Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom,
Mathura, UP from March, 8 - 10, 2005. The rainfall distribution is varied at large in the region. Nearly
70% of the region gets low to medium rainfall (400-1000 mm) while the remaining 30% area gets
moderate to high (1000 – 4199 mm) rainfall. The terrains are marked by undulating ravines, hills and

plains with sparse to dense vegetations. Evergreen forest in the Western Ghats present a panoramic
and enchanting natural view with provision of grazing habitats for all class of livestock on shift basis
while also harbouring wild animals and birds. The rivers of South India are seasonal, which overflow
during rainy season and are almost empty during summer season. Most of the rivers of South India
converge into Bay of Bengal while a few of them join the Arabian Sea. Consequently most of the areas
in the region are drought prone and often placing at stake the sustainability of livestock production
due to long stretches of dry periods. The frequent spell of drought in the region has transformed the
animals to adapt to vagaries of the adverse conditions under extensive systems of animals production.
The animals gradually lose body weight during the lean summer season and regain the weight once
the greens are plenty following a favourable rainy season. Hence, the inter-calving period in cattle
and buffalo is little bit prolonged in the local breeds in comparison to the crossbreds and exotics,
which do not prosper under such conditions and are to be maintained under favourable conditions of
stall-fed and controlled system of management and production. However, under the same conditions
the local animal species not only withstand these conditions, but also multiply, grow and produce
economically with low input and low output thus making them sustainable.
Livestock contribution to national economy

Animal husbandry contributes substantially to agrarian economy of the country. The contribution
of Agriculture and allied sectors to the gross value output - Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was 52.23
percent in 1950-51; it came down to 34.68% in 1980-81, 29.07% in 1990-91 and further declined to
22% during the year 2002-03. However, the contribution of livestock sector to agriculture component
of GDP as an allied sector was 18% in 1980-81, which rose to 20% in 2002-03 (National Accounts
Statistics, 2004). Further, the contribution of Animal Husbandry sector to GDP over the years is
found to be steadily increasing and stood at 7.08 % in 2002-03 with a total value output of Rs. 93361
crores to the national income and the market value of Indian Livestock was estimated at Rs.50000
crores during the year 2002-03. The performance of livestock clearly indicates that animal husbandry
is a vital allied sector of agriculture in contributing significantly to the national income in the form of
value output viz., milk, meat, egg, skin and hides, manure and draught animal power, food security
and household nutritional security as well as year round employment to the poorest of the poor,
marginal and small farmers in the rural and semi-urban areas of the Southern states and the country
as whole. Milk is the single largest agriculture commodity being produced over the years from the
animals maintained by the million of landless, marginal and small farmers and followed by paddy and
wheat commodities in the country, whose net value output was assessed at 67.53 % value output of
livestock sector and 16.52 % and 10.76 percent value output of agriculture during the year 2002-03.
At present animal husbandry in India is considered as a sleeping giant with its rich and vast animal
genetic resources which need to be encashed best for economic viability and derivation of livelihood.
In near future, India may become leader in animal husbandry activities and likely to emerge as a world
power in animal production. In this direction, India has already achieved the distinction of being the
world leader in milk production i.e.90 million metric tons against the world total milk production of 625
million metric tons in 2003-04.

Bovine Population Dynamics
Bovine population during the period from 1951 to 2002 in India is presented in the table 2. The
percent compound annual growth rate was 0.84% in cattle and 2.33% in buffaloes. Whereas, the
percent compound annual growth rate was 3.02% from the year 1951 to 2001 and 1.93 % from 1990-
2001 in human population. The bovine census prior to 1992 indicates only the species of animals in
their respective states and does not give the true picture of the native breeds in their home tract.
Further, the hybrid varieties / crossbreds developed in cattle and buffalo species over the years is
also included within these census figures. Hence there is constraint to delineate true trend of either
increase or decrease of indigenous livestock population. But there is a strong feeling among the
animal breeders, animal husbandry workers and the farmers that the indigenous population is on the
verge of decline over years at an alarming state in some of the species / breeds, which is also evident
from the survey reports of NBAGR, Karnal (Anon 2003) on few breeds of livestock including poultry
across the southern states and the country. The growth rate of bovine population in South India
including Union Territories was assessed between 15th and 16th Quinquennial livestock census, in
which indigenous cattle shown a negative trend of 13.96 per cent in Kerala to a positive trend of 10
per cent in Lakshadweep. In all other Southern states, a negative growth rate was prevalent ranging
from - 1.16 % in Andhra Pradesh to –13.96 in Kerala, while the crossbred population during the
corresponding census was very responsive with a positive growth rate of 2.25 percent in Kerala to
21.30 percent in Karnataka which exceeds the growth rate of 6.41 % at All India. These growth rates
emphasize the importance of crossbred being raised as dairy animals in all southern states. The
Deccan Plateau in whole has hardly 18.33 percent of country’s population, yet it is a major contributor
of milk production despite major thrust being given to crossbreeding of non-descript cattle with exotic
dairy breeds viz., Jersey and Holstein Friesian. The growth rate of buffalo population in general
assumed to be negative between 1992 and 1997 census ranging from (-) 2.39 percent in Goa to (-)
12.5 percent in Kerala, in which states major thrust is given to crossbreeding of cattle with limited
usage of buffalo as work animal in the paddy fields.
Cattle and Buffalo Genetic Resources
South India possesses a total of 9 cattle and 3 buffalo breeds. Almost all of them were evolved
over the millennia, not by intent or purpose, but entirely by natural selection. For that very reason
they are invaluable, because in their genomes perhaps lies the solution to many of the vexing problems
for man and animal. It is therefore essential in our own interest that the nation does everything within
its means to ensure conservation of its Animal Genetic Resources for the future generations.
Cattle and buffalo species represent generally large population but contain (i) a small percentage of
recognized indigenous breeds with specific breed characteristics and (ii) a very large proportion of
nondescript native animals, which do not conform to any specific breed characteristics in the native
ecology and constitute around 80% of total livestock population. The latter category of animals have
been found to utilize all available natural resources (pasture lands, barren and uncultivable waste
lands), crop residues and low quality grains to a greater extent in comparison to the recognized
indigenous breeds of livestock including poultry, but with low input and low output relationship.

South India is the home tract of world famous draft cattle breeds like Amrithmahal, Hallikar and
Ongole and other popular draft breeds of the country are Khillar, Kangayam, Umbalacherri, Bargur
and Deoni, and Krishnavalley as dual-purpose cattle breeds
Special attributes of South Indian Cattle and Buffalo Breeds
South Indian cattle and buffaloes breeds produce the specialty products that are known for their
excellent value addition and useful from the health point of view:
i. Milk of Amrithmahal cattle is used as local medicine in the treatment of gastric ulcers and
other ailments in the home tract.
ii. Bile salts from the gall bladder of Amrithmahal is very much prized for its unique ability to
cure gastric ailments. At times even aged Amrithmahal cattle would fetch thousands of
rupees in view of value addition to bile salts while other cattle are treated as unfit. A
prominent local say is that Amrithmahal cattle are worthy of thousands of rupees during
lifetime and equally valuable upon their death.
iii. Khoa produced from Dharwadi (Gowli) buffaloes is famous for preparation of desi sweets
like pheda, kunda and Karadantu preparation, which possess special taste and flavour
and have long shelf-life.
iv. Milk of Toda buffalo has high fat content and is known for its medicinal value and is specially
consumed by the tribal people in Ooty area.
v. Milk of Malnad Gidda cattle has low cholesterol content and is strongly recommended as
food of choice for diabetic and hypertension people.
Status of Cattle and Buffalo Production

Both cattle and buffalo constitute as mainstay of Indian Agriculture. From the point of their
productivity they are low yielders, but still account for over 75 percent of the total output value of the
livestock sector. Stock holding size of the farmers is tiny with a size of 1 to 2 milch animals, which are
held in widely dispersed smallholding across the length and breadth of the country. The same situation
exists in all Southern States and Union Territories. Therefore, reach of sophisticated technologies for
development of these animals is difficult and the task is enormous and complex in nature.
Milk Production
Milk production in India is crop residues based and is in the hands of millions of small holdings
(small and marginal farmers and landless agriculture workers) which are scattered across the nuke
and corner of the country and possessing one to two milch animals - cows and / or buffaloes per
holding. Almost same scenario is being prevalent in the Southern states. Southern states and union
territories contributed around 21 per cent of milk to the national milk gird with a contribution of 20.47
% being the lowest in 1995-96 to a highest of 21.97% in 2000-01. The year 2000-01 was the most
favourable year for agriculture production including dairy production in the Southern peninsular and
also in other parts of the country. This production trend has enabled the states to meet the per capita
availability of milk nearer to the national per capita availability of 280 gms recommended by the

nutritional committee, ICMR, Government of India in all states except union territories. The Southern
States including Union territories represent about 28.87 % network of DCS with 45.21 % of farmers
and rural procurement of 31.17 % of milk on All India basis. Of which Karnataka has the largest
network of DCS (8350) followed by Tamilnadu (8233) and Andhra Pradesh (5167) and Lakshadweep
has no DCS network. In general Southern states do not lag behind in the dairy production activities
when compared to national scene. Further, the average yield per animal and number of animals in
milk in southern states is given in table 8. The perusal of the table indicate that crossbreds produced
on an average of 5.6 kg/day followed by buffaloes 3.53 kg/day and the lowest was 2.30 kg/day in
indigenous non-descript cattle.
Initiation of Breeding Policy of Cattle and Buffaloes

In 1962, the breeding policy for cattle and buffaloes was formally finalized and approved by the
Government of India, which was adopted in to-to by the State Governments. The breeding policy
approved for cattle was (i) selective breeding of purebred indigenous breeds for milk or work and for
both in the dual purpose breeds, (ii) grading up of the non-descript Indian Cattle breeds with selected
Indian donor breeds for improving body size and milk / work output and (iii) crossbreeding of non-
descript cattle with European donor breeds (Jersey, Holstein Friesian, Red Dane and Brown Swiss)
for improving milk production. AI was implemented as the main breeding tool in both cattle and buffalo
breeding. The policy for crossbreeding was to use non-descript cattle as the foundation stock and
limiting the exotic inheritance to 50% in crossbred population for maintaining optimum production and
reproduction. Over the years, Red Dane and Brown Swiss have been withdrawn as donor exotic
breeds.
Buffalo Breeding Policy

The Government of India has pronounced official policy for breeding of buffaloes as (i) Selective
breeding of the purebreds of buffaloes in the respective home tract and states and (ii) Grading up of
the non-descript buffaloes with the Murrah / Surti. Buffalo breeding policy as well as breeding activities
received better attention from the farmers in comparison to cattle breeding policy in view of their
production potentialities as influenced by market pull.
Nature of Cattle and Buffalo Breeding in Rural areas

In general breeding of cattle takes place almost at random since both males and females in the
village herds are left out on run basis. As and when cows / heifers come to heat, the herd bull
normally mate at right time which keeps conception rate at high. This is common practice in almost 80
percent of breedable female population of rural areas. In the rest of the population organized efforts
of artificial breeding is carried out, wherein conception rate is low and less than 30 percent. Therefore
it is very difficult to predict and assess the genetic progress as a whole in the village herds.
Farmers however paid better attention in case of buffalo, with each village maintaining a good
buffalo breeding bull, in the name of Goddess, while some of the elite farmers also maintained better
quality breeding bull rendering natural service on payment basis. In this situation, there is possibility
of assessing genetic improvement to some extent. Breeding policies of cattle and buffalo as approved
by the Government are mostly confined to areas where the artificial insemination network reaches or

to some extent where breeding bulls for natural service are distributed especially in tribal and hilly
areas. Under these breeding programmes hardly 20 percent of breedable population being bred by
using quality semen of elite bulls.
Approaches in Breeding and Improvement of Bovines

Genetic improvement of cattle and buffaloes depends on genetic variation and effective methods
of breeding for exploiting this variation. Genetic diversity constitutes a buffer against changes in the
environment and is a key in selection and breeding for adaptability and production on wide range of
environments. Traditional breeding programmes based on performance recording and crossbreeding
have led to substantial improvements in production during the past few decades but stability and
sustainability of production appears to be at stake. Further, there is deterioration in genetic architecture
of indigenous germplasm due to continued crossbreeding and unidirectional selection programme.
This needs immediate check and also restoration of production through adoption of modern
biotechnology breeding technologies. In the context of practical animal breeding and genetic
improvement of livestock species, molecular genetic approach appears to be the turning point. It
takes a lead role in ushering revolution in breeding efforts and techniques for sustainable genetic
improvement of the livestock species within the country.
National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding

The Government of India in 1998 has formulated a National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding
(NPCBB) as per the recommendations of the steering committee group of the National Livestock
Policy Perspective (1996). At present NPCBB is launched all over the country and is well focused on
action plan, with time frame and targets for (i) maximizing the returns on investments already made in
the animal breeding infrastructure, (ii) bringing all the breedable female among cattle and buffaloes
within the organized breeding programme, (iii) taking a vastly enhanced and improved AI service to
the door-step of the farmers, (iv) reaching out to the vast majority of the small holders to improve their
productivity and to enhance their incomes and (v) ensuring that genetically superior progeny are
produced by the system, generation after generation. Under the leadership and initiative of the
Government of India, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Ministry of Agriculture, the
Project involved active participation of Governments of the participating states in country, the state
Department of AH in these states, the State Co-operative Milk Federations along with their constituent
Milk Unions, Voluntary Agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations, the ICAR, the NDDB and Private
Sector Dairy / Input Companies – all involved with breeding and development of cattle and buffaloes.
Keeping in view of this NPCBB, all state governments were directed by the Government of India for
creating autonomous Livestock Development Boards / Agencies at the state level with in the State
Department of Animal Husbandry to carry out the objects and programmes of the NPCBB in particular.
The infrastructures were made available to carry out the Cattle and Buffalo breeding activities effectively
at all stages in all states and are enlisted.
Tamil Nadu has the largest network of veterinary institutions (5645) followed by Andhra Pradesh
(4982) and Karnataka (3238) for taking up veterinary health services, disease control measures and
also veterinary aid to the needy animals at times.

Andhra Pradesh is leading in establishment of bull mothers farms, semen production centers,
frozen semen bank and network of AI for facilitating the breeding activities followed by Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka In addition to above infrastructural facilities, the Department of Animal Husbandry
and Dairying, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India has created a Central Monitoring Unit in
2004 under the NPCBB. This body has come out with a minimum standards protocol for production of
frozen semen, while minimum standards for production of embryos and ET technology is under active
consideration and approval. The minimum pedigree standard for indigenous bulls in AI programme
and procurement of exotic bulls for production of frozen semen are enlisted. The Livestock Development
Board / Agency created in each state has been directed to adopt these standards more scrupulously
and adhering to all minimum standards in operation of cattle and buffalo breeding programmes.
Current Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Policy in Southern States

Keeping in view of the objects and policies of National Project on Cattle and Buffalo Breeding,
the respective livestock development boards / agencies with in the Department of AH & VS and in
association with National Institutes / Universities, Breeders Societies and NGOs have drawn a detailed
breeding policy on cattle and buffalo breeding in order to cope up with the diversity of agro-ecological
settings and socio-economic resource endowments of the producers in order to take up location
specific breeding, propagation and conservation of cattle and buffalo in the respective breeding
tracts. We should ensure implementation, stability and sustainability of cattle and buffalo breeding
programme at grassroot level on war footing and also containing potentially adverse impacts on the
natural resource base and environment. There is also need to promote the district and breed wise
specific breeding programme through participatory mode involving linkages between different
stakeholders, farmers, state and national research institutes, universities, NGOs, livestock development
boards / agencies and state department of AH & VS in all breeding network and conservation
programmes on cattle and buffaloes.
I. Breeding Policy in Andhra Pradesh

Animal Husbandry, Dairy Development and Fisheries (A.III) Department, Government of Andhra
Pradesh has issued an order for implementing Breeding Policies of Cattle and Buffalo vide
No.G.O.MS.No.9 dt.27th January 2005 as per the recommendation of the Expert Committee constituted
by the Andhra Pradesh Livestock Development Agency and as being approved and communicated
by the Director, AH & VS vide letter No.ROC.No.28816/1/J2/2002 dated: 02.11.2004. The current
breeding policy implemented is in conformity with the guidelines of National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding
Policy of Government of India. The recommendations were as follows:
1) Upgrading the non-descript as well as graded buffaloes with Murrah breed, 2) Promotion of
indigenous breeds like Ongole and Deoni in their breeding tracts, 3) Cross breeding of non-descript
local cattle with exotic breeds like Jersey and HF, 4) Inter-Se mating of crossbred cattle with crossbred
semen ensuring exotic blood level of about 50%.
Keeping in view of diverse ecological conditions of the state, the Expert Committee further specified
and recommended the breeding policy for cattle and buffaloes by grouping the districts as mentioned
here under:

II. Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Policy in Karnataka
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services (AH&VS) Department, Government of Karnataka

has issued an order for implementing Breeding Policies of Cattle and Buffalo No.AAH 165 AHP 79,
Bangalore dt.25th July 1980. The objectives are as follows:
(i) to produce economically producing milch cattle in large numbers, (ii) to combine productivity
and adoptability including draftability to meet the local requirements, (iii) Conservation and improvement
of indigenous germplasm, (iv) Genetic improvement of the buffalo population for increased milk
production.
III. Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Policy in Tamil Nadu
The existing cattle and buffalo breeding policies in Tamil Nadu are as follows:
1. Selective pure breeding of indigenous breeds in the respective breeding tract, 2. Jersey is a
breed of choice for crossbreeding of non-descript cattle in all districts of Tamil Nadu in the plain areas
of all districts except Ooty, Kodaikanal and Kanyakumari, 3. Holstein Friesian is a breed of choice for
breeding of non-descript cattle in the hilly areas of Ooty, Kodaikanal and Kanyakumari, 4. Murrah is
the breed of choice for upgrading of local buffaloes and also graded buffaloes through out the state.
Surti breed is not introduced in this state, 5. Half bred HF and Half bred jersey bulls semen is extensively
used for inseminating crossbred cows and heifers of HF and jersey crossbred population respectively.
IV. Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Policy in Kerala
The existing cattle and buffalo breeding policies in Kerala are as follows:
1. Kerala state has the distinction of evolving a synthetic new breed called Sunandini which is a
combination basically of Kerala non-descript cow, the Brown Swiss and the Jersey breeds, developed
initially under the Indo-Swiss project, Kerala and later introduced Holstein Friesian one of the donor
breed. At present Sunandini is a composite breed having inheritance of local Kerala non-descript
cow, Jersey, Brown Swiss and HF. 2. Jersey and HF are predominately used as a donor breed for
breeding of local non-descript cows. 3. Sunandini bulls semen is extensively used on Sunandini
females cows / heifers through AI breeding for rapid multiplication of desired genetic material. 4. Surti
is used as a breed of choice for upgrading non-descript local buffaloes. 5. Selective breeding of
Vechur cattle is practiced in its home tract.
Activities and Actions Plans for effective implementation of Breeding Policies
(i) Implementation of crash programmes for the breeding and conservation of native cattle and
buffalo breeds, which are in a state of declining trend / critical stage or near extinction. (ii) Identification
of indigenous livestock breeds that are well suited for the current production systems and involvement
of farmers and breed societies through participatory approach form base for breeding, improvement
and conservation. (iii) Identification of multiple uses for indigenous cattle and buffaloes so as to
sustain interest in the farmers to maintain them. (iv) Constitution of an independent agency to monitor
and report periodically on population size, characteristics, performance and genetic, conservation

programmes, breeding programmes and status of common property resources in India. (v)
Determination of the characteristics of livestock currently required by landless, marginal and small
farmers in the different agro-climatic zones. (vi) Developing the indigenous cattle breeds in these
zones through selective breeding programmes and make them available to meet the draught, milk or
dual purpose needs of the farmers. (vii) Identification of breed specific genetic markers (including
those for draught ability) to help in the selection of elite indigenous cattle to be used in breeding
programmes. (viii) Adoption of embryo reproductive biotechnologies (such as Embryo Transfer) only
for producing elite bulls and bull mothers. (ix) Identification of genetic markers in indigenous breeds
for disease resistance and patent unique disease resistant genes for commercial exploitation. (x)
Determination of genetic distance of livestock breeds using micro-satellite DNA marker and where
appropriate, create large gene pools for effective selection by mixing breeds with genetic closeness.
(xi) Undertake improvement programmes for indigenous herds that are available in large numbers.

ISAGB /27
LIVESTOCK CENSUS IN INDIA

R.S.KHATRI, J.P.GOYAL AND H.V.L.BATHLA
I.A.S.R.I., New Delhi
Introduction
Animal Husbandry and livestock is highly potential sector of Indian economy, especially of rural
economy. The potential of crop production requires upon huge investment and favourable weather
and meteorological conditions. The Animal Husbandry and Livestock Sector is comparatively more
stable and requires lesser investment. It has great potential and its contribution to Indian economy,
especially Agriculture Sector, has been constantly increasing over the years. Further, livestock and
poultry have proved to be life savior in many distress conditions, particularly in case of drought etc.
for the rural poor. This also provides subsidiary occupation in rural and semi urban areas and more
so for people living in drought prone, hilly, tribal and other backward areas where crop production on
its own is not able to sustain them fully. Realizing this and the growth potential of this sector, greater
attention is being paid to raise investment in this sector. In order to know the latest status of livestock,
it was felt necessary to conduct livestock census in India.
Livestock Census is a complete count of number of Livestock, Poultry, Fisheries and also
agriculture implements as per pre-defined reference point of time. Essentially it provides Animal
Husbandry Statistics to serve as a base for Planning and monitoring developments in the field of
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sectors. Areas and aspects requiring priority can be ascertained
for permanent upliftment of the countries economy. All related information like Veterinary Services
back up, breeding programme, requirements of feed and medicines etc .can be worked out for future
plan strategy, therefore, it serves as a basis to assess the progress of different developmental
programmes in the Animal Husbandry sector for a given period.
History of Livestock Census
The Indian Livestock census is an exercise conducted every fifth year in the entire country. The
first Livestock Census was carried out from December1919 to April 1920.It was under the British
Indian Government that a systematic record of the periodical conduct of Livestock Census was initiated
from this year. In this first Census only some provinces and 28 primary state constituting 29 % to that
area participated. Subsequently percentage of participants increased and the Census has conducted
simultaneously in a short period of time frame to ensure accurate and reliable results. The second
livestock census conducted in 1924-25 was more or less on similar lines. Thereafter, the scope and
coverage was expanded in each census with refinement in concepts and definitions. After
independence, the first official livestock census was conducted in 1951 with the initiation of the first
five-year plan and subsequently, it was carried out every fifth year. It was decided to carry out the
enumeration of animals with reference to a fixed date as adopted by the Human Census. Unlike
Human Census, which is conducted decennially, the livestock census is conducted quinquennially.

With the completion of last livestock census in 2003, seventeen (17) censuses have been completed
in the country. In 1982, for the first time, data on crossbred and indigenous cattle, sheep and pigs
were collected separately. The data on dogs were also introduced in 1982. In the last census conducted
in 2003, the concept of breeds in cattle and buffaloes has been introduced. Perhaps, India is the only
country, which has been taking up this gigantic task of conducting livestock census regularly for the
last fifty years on quinquennial basis.
Importance of Livestock Database and Gaps in Livestock Census
A reliable database for livestock statistics plays an important role in formulation of various livestock
development programmes in the country. The basic statistics on livestock include the population
(number) of livestock in terms of breed, sex, age composition, distribution of livestock by size of land
holdings, output of different livestock products and by-products, marketing of economics of livestock
products, infrastructure facilities in form of various farms in states, veterinary hospitals, artificial
insemination centres, etc., incidence of livestock diseases, feed and fodder statistics, consumption
pattern of livestock products, import and export of livestock and related products, etc. Collection of
such statistics on regular basis helps in assessing and evaluating the success and impact of various
developmental programmes implemented in the livestock sector, constraints in their implementation,
if any and their continuous monitoring.
Livestock census only provides the information on number of livestock, poultry, agriculture
implements and machinery and also the implements and machinery used in fishing activities but other
informations mentioned above and are important for assessing the development programmes are
missing. The only alternative is to collect such informations through sample surveys on regular basis.
Latest Livestock Census
The 17th Livestock Census was conducted with reference date as 15th October 2003. All the
States and Union Territories have conducted this census. One of the achievements of the 17th Livestock
Census is that the conduct of census by the State of Bihar after 1982. The reference date was
adhered to by almost of the States/UTs but some of the states could not conduct the census on the
reference date because of several reasons, viz. inaccessibility, floods, elections and other unavoidable
administrative reasons etc. As animal husbandry is a State subject, the ultimate responsibility to
conduct the census, field supervision, compilation of data as per tabulation plan, etc. rests with the
State Governments/Union Territories administration. The Government of India coordinates the work
of the States/UTs and provides necessary guidance in ensuring uniformity in the collection and
compilation of data.
In the beginning of 2003, the scheme was transferred from Directorate of Economics and Statistics
(DES) to the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAH&D), Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India as per the decision of the Planning Commission and Ministry of Finance,
Government of India. The Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying, Ministry of Agriculture at the
centre was entrusted to act as the controlling agency for the work of the 17th Livestock Census for the
first time under the centrally sponsored scheme. One should use the comparative results of All India

data of 2003 Census with that of 1997 Census with caution as the projected figures of some states in
1997 may differ from the actual field level reality. Especially in case of Bihar, which has not conducted
the livestock census since 1982, the field level reality may be different from the projected figures.
Type of Data Collected under Livestock Census
The livestock census has four parts - Livestock, Poultry, Agriculture Implements & Machinery
and Fishery statistics. These four components comprise the information listed below.
(I) Livestock: Cattle: Breed, age, sex and classification wise

Buffaloes: Breed, age, sex and classification wise
Yalks: Breed and age-wise
Mithuns: Breed and age-wise
Sheep: Breed and age-wise
Goats: Sex, age and classification wise
Horses & Ponies: Age and sex-wise
Mules: Age-wise
Donkeys: Sex and age-wise
Camels: Sex and age-wise
Pigs: Breed, sex and age-wise
Dogs: Sex-wise separately for domestic & others
Rabbits: Breed and sex-wise
(II) Poultry: Fowls: Desi and improved cocks and hens & chickens below 5 months
Ducks: Desi and improved Ducks, drakes & ducklings below 6 months
Turkeys: Sex-wise
(III) Agriculture Implements and Machinery:

1. Manually operated
2. Animal operated
3. Plant protection equipments
4. Irrigation equipments
5. Tractors and other power operated implements
6. Equipments for livestock and poultry
7. Horticultural tools
(IV) Fishery Statistics:

1. No. of family members engaged in fishing activities and type of activities.

2. No. of members engaged in actual operation of fishing and other occupations in fishing
activities.
3. No. of fishing crafts (mechanized boats), viz., trawlers, gill netters liners, seiners of different
horse powers.
4. Beach landing crafts (traditional) both motorized and unmotorized.
5. No. of fishing gears.
These four components involve huge amount of data, which is collected in census. Livestock
contains 82 data items with 50 totals, poultry 17 items with 9 totals, agricultural implements 57 items
and fishery statistics 96 data items with 7 totals. This data so collected when transferred on computers
occupy 20 million cells. From each component All India summary tables are prepared with rural and
urban break-up and All India summary table is also prepared containing state-wise write-up and
comparison with previous census and finally the report is released.
Current Livestock Population and World Ranking
Numerically, the livestock wealth of the country is highly impressive. According to livestock
census of 2003, India has 187 million cattle, 96 million buffaloes, 441 million poultry, 62 million sheep,
120 million goats and about 14 million pigs besides other livestock like horses and ponies, mules,
donkeys, camels, etc. The latest livestock census 2003 showed about 8% decrease in cattle population
during the last decade. Buffaloes, sheep, goats and poultry showed an increasing trend of about
15%, 22%, 4% and 3% respectively. World’s livestock population indicates that India ranks first in
cattle and buffaloes, second in goats, third in sheep, fifth in camels and sixth in poultry. As far as
production is concerned, India ranks 1st in milk and fifth in egg production. With such a vast livestock
population, it is expected that this sector must have good contribution in national income. The gross
value of output from the livestock sector is about 26% of the total value of output from agriculture
sector. Its contribution to GDP ranges only between 5-6%. The reason for low contribution may be
poor genetic potential of our livestock. Similarly though India ranks first in milk production, yet per
capita availability is much below the nutritional standard.

ISAGB /28
ROLE OF CLONING AND TRANSGENESIS IN ANIMAL BREEDING

K. P. AGRAWAL
National Coordinator (NATP)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
KAB-II, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012
Livestock in India is characterized by very large numbers, across all species. In 1993, it had
192.65 million cattle, 78.55 million buffaloes, 117 million goats, 44.40 million sheep, 10.50 million pigs
and 410 million poultry birds. The contribution of livestock to the economy of the country does not
commensurate with their enormous numbers. For instance, cattle milk yield is about half of the world
average of 2070 kg/animal/annum and just 12-15 percent of the yield in USA, Canada and Israel.
Productivity of species other than dairy and poultry has been stagnating at an extremely low level.
Poor genetic potential, feed and fodder deficiency, poor management, adverse climatic conditions
and lack of use of modern technologies are the probable reasons for low productivity of animals.
Other factor responsible is lack of forces of selection as a result of which the poor yielders do not get
out of the population and hence contribute offsprings from generation to generation.
Advances in animal reproductive biotechnology during the past few decades have been
phenomenal. Farm animal reproduction has entered into an era of a new biotechnology revolution
which includes artificial insemination, induction and synchronization of oestrus, superovulation, embryo
transfer, cryo-preservation, embryo resource development, sexing, chimera production, cloning,
transgenesis, gene transfer, embryo stem cell/somatic cell technology, recombinant DNA technology
etc. The technologies like cloning and transgenesis which have immense potential to revolutionize
animal breeding has been discussed in present communication.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Prior to the development of molecular genetics, the selective breeding was a common practice
among farmers for the enhancement of chosen traits, e.g., milk production, growth, prolificacy etc. In
primitive cloning experiments using embryos of sea urchin and Salamander in 1894 and 1914
respectively, it was shown that nuclei of early cleavage stages were equivalent to the zygote. Four
decades later Briggs and King in 1952 developed the technique of nuclear transplantation using
amphibian eggs and showed that nuclei from embryonic cells were able to support development. The
studies of Briggs and King relating to tolipotency of blastula nuclei have been extended to later
developmental stages in the leopard frog, and the technique has been extended to a number of other
organisms including mammals. The first chimeric mouse by combining the cells of two different embryos
of different strains at 8-cell stage of development exhibiting characteristics of each strain was produced
in 1974. The mutual contributions of developmental biology and genetic engineering permitted rapid
development of the techniques for the creation of transgenic animals. DNA microinjection, resulted in
production of first transgenic mouse in 1981 was followed in other species such as rats, rabbits,
sheep, goats, cow, pigs, birds and fish. Two other techniques, retrovirus-mediated gene transfer and

embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer were developed subsequently. Since 1981, when the
term transgenic was first used by J. W. Gordon and R. H. Ruddle, there has been rapid development
in the use of genetically engineered animals.
A fairly large stir was caused in the popular media when a group in Scotland associated with the
Roslin Institute and PPL Therapeutics announced that a lamb (Dolly) born in July,1996 had been
cloned from a single cell taken from her mother’s udder. In this process, the somatic cell from the
udder was fused with an enucleated unfertilized egg cell. The fused cell was made to divide and
develop into a normal embryo. This was then implanted into a surrogate mother and allowed to
develop into a healthy lamb. This was the first ever mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell.
Cloned twin calves were born on July 5,1998 in Ishikawa Prefectural Livestock Research Center,
Oshimizu, Japan, two years after Dolly. Calves were produced by fusing somatic cells taken from an
adult cow with unfertilized eggs. After the success of Dolly, the same group in Scotland in July, 2000
fused the single, diploid cell originating from the adult sheep which was genetically altered (introducing
a human gene coding for blood clotting factor IX) with denucleated egg cell. The fused cell was made
to divide and to develop into an embryo, which was implanted into a surrogate mother. The resulting
lamb, Polly, contains the human gene in every cell of her body. The method resulting in Polly was
seen as a major improvement over the technology of the early nineties that led to the first transgenic
bovine creature, Herman, carrying the human lactoferrin gene (lactoferrin is an important component
in breast milk).In Herman, genes were injected into newly fertilized eggs, and only in rare cases did
the gene stably integrate and lead to a transformed animal. Many more animal clones have been
generated in the mean time. For example, cloned cows appeared in 1999 and now there are cloned
pigs that have been modified to reduce transplant rejection of pig organs in humans. Transgenic
sheep and goats have been produced that express foreign proteins in their milk. Transgenic clnickens
are now able to synthesize human proteins in the white of the eggs. In July 2000, researchers from the
team that produced Dolly reported success in producing transgenic lambs in which the transgene had
been inserted at a specific site in the genome and functioned well.
Ancient literature in India depicts examples of supernatural births, transplantation of human

foetus from one women to another and also mentions of particular animals associated with many of
the gods and goddesses. The birth of Mahavira, The Jain Tirthankara, is related to the transfer of
embryo. The birth of Balarama and Karan of Mahabharata fame and Machanjeneya (son of Hanuman)
of Ramayana and many others point towards possibility of artificial insemination and transplantation
of embryo. Many of the gods and goddesses have particular animals associated with them and often
expressed as their mounts (e.g. the lion and Durga, the elephant (Airaawat) and Indra, the bull and
Shiva, the owl and Laksmi, etc.) are genetically produced. The white elephant, Airaawat which has
four tusks and is the vehicle of Indra. The Garuda, a bird deity with the head and wings of an eagle is
the vehicle of Lord Vishnu. Kaamdhenu, the sacred cow of gods, who can fulfil all desires and wishes
is considered the mother of all cows. The serpent god, Sheshanaaga, upon whom Lord Vishnu sleeps
over the bed of its coils during intervals of creation. Ucchaiahrava is the god born from the churning
of the ocean, and is seen as the prototype of the whole race of horses. Nandi is the white bull and

represents strength and virility and is used as a means of transport for Lord Shiva. The different
centers in India namely, NII Delhi, IISc Bangalore, JNU New Delhi, CCMB Hyderabad, TANUVAS Chennai
etc. are undertaking research on transgensis.
METHODOLOGIES
PRODUCTION OF CLONES: A clone is a group of genetically identical individuals. Clones can be

produced by 1) embryo splitting, 2) blastomere separation, 3) dissociating and reaggregating
blastomeres and 4) nuclear transfer. Identical youngones have been produced using approach 1 to
2 but production of more than 3 clones is difficult due to low cell numbers at the blastocyst stage. It is
possible to produce up to 5 (quintuplets) identical progeny from a single embryo by dissociating and
reaggregating early cleaving embryos in sheep. Fourth approach is through transfer of embryonic
cell nuclei. In this approach, the single blastomere of preimplantation embryo is fused with the zygote
whose pronucleus has been removed. The number of clones produced, however, is limited to less
than ten. The other approach is the somatic cell nuclear transfer. A large number of clones have
been produced after nuclear transfer of various somatic cells from mammary gland, cumulus, oviduct,
skin, ear, muscle, liver, tail, sertoli cells etc.
Embryo Splitting : This is a simple and elegant technology which involves cutting early preimplantation
embryos using fine glass or metal blades. Embryos usually at the 16-32 cells stage are split into two,
four or eight equal pieces. Now each ball of cells is transferred into an evacuated zona pellucida and
then either cultured in vitro for a short period or directly transferred into synchronous recipients. Live
genetically identical offsprings are produced following these procedures in mouse, rabbit, sheep,
goat, cattle etc. Each of the embryos produced in this way is a perfect clone of the parent embryo
having identical cytoplasmic and nuclear inheritance. It has not so far been possible to produce more
than three identical offsprings with this technology. Thus the potential of split embryos to produce
clones is limited. Even attempts to culture split embryos for some time and subsequently to resplit
them have met with poor success due to development of the split embryos into embryoid bodies
without proper ICM. Preblastocyst stage embryos are better for splitting due the fact that differentiation
of cell lines is not yet fully established. Success of this technology is better in small ruminants. In vivo
produced embryos perform better in comparison to in vitro produced embryos.
Nuclear Transfer: It has become possible in 1986 to reprogram individual embryonic blastomeres of
sheep by fusing them to enucleated secondary oocytes and produce offsprings from such embryos.
This initial success in cloning mammals has sparked tremendous interest in both scientific and
commercial sectors. Successful production of cloned offspring using similar methods was reported for
almost all species of laboratory and domestic mammals. Unlike embryo splitting, nuclear transfer (NT)
technology could generate unlimited number of identical embryos from any selected parent embryo.
Thus the potential of this technology for production of identical multiples is enormous and infinite.
Success level of nuclear transplantation technique depends on many factors: 1) the embryonic stage
for obtaining nuclei for transplantation, 2) the source of cytoplasm used as recipient for embryonic
nuclei, 3) activation of the oocytes at electrofusion, 4) enucleation procedure used and 5) the interaction
between nucleus and cytoplasm.

PRODUCTION OF TRANSGENIC ANIMALS: The three principal methods used for the creation of
transgenic animals are DNA microinjection, embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer and retrovirus-
mediated gene transfer. The steps of transgenic animal production are identification of genes of
desired characters, construction of gene construct, laboratory production of zygotes/embryos at
pronuclear stage, nuclear/gene transfer and culture of zygote/embryo after gene transfer and
assessment of DNA incorporation using dot blot hybridization techniques. Mice because of their small
size, low maintenance cost, short generation time and their fairly well defined genetics, have become
the main species used in the field of transgenics in comparison to that for larger vertebrates. Methods
for transfer of genes into the genome of cattle, sheep, swine, rabbits and rats are similar to those for
mice. The principal differences, however are: 1) the eggs and recipient animals are more expansive,
2) zona pellucida is difficult to penetrate and 3) eggs of cattle and swine must be centrifuged to clear
the cytoplasm.
DNA Microinjection: The method is most widely used for producing transgenic mice. The method
involves the direct microinjection of a chosen gene construct (a single gene or a combination of
genes) from another member of the same species or from a different species, into pronucleus of a
fertilized ovum. It is one of the first methods that proved to be effective in mammals. Micromanipulators
on a specially equipped microscope are used for this purpose. A glass pipette drawn or pulled to a
fine point is used to immobilize the embryo on one side. On the opposite side, the foreign DNA (cloned
gene) with a second finely drawn injection needle is injected into either of two pronuclei of the embryo.
After the injection, the embryos are transferred back into the pseudopregnant recipient females or
foster mothers. This method is presently the most efficient for generating transgenic animal lines.
About 1 to 4 percent of the injected embryos result in transgenic offsprings. A major disadvantage of
this method is lack of applicability to a wide variety of species.
Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer: The method involves microinjection of embryonic
stem (ES) cells derived from the inner cell mass of blastocyst-stage embryos (about 7 days
postfertilization) into embryos to produce “hybrid” embryos of two or more distinct cell types (chimeric
animals). Once isolated, ES cells may be grown in the lab for many generations to produce an unlimited
number of identical cells capable of developing into fully formed adults. These cells may then be
altered genetically before being used to produce embryos. When these transformed cells participate
in the formation of sperm and eggs, the offspring that are produced will be transgenic. The method is
very promising for producing transgenic mice. Studies are under way to develop ES cell lines for other
livestock species such as swine, cattle, and sheep.
Retrovirus-mediated gene transfer: In this method, gene transfer is mediated by means of a

carrier or vector, generally a virus or a plasmid. Retroviruses are commonly used vectors to transfer
genetic material into the cell. Offspring derived from this method are chimeric, i.e., not all cells carry
the retrovirus. Transgenesis is possible only if the retrovirus integrates into some of the germ cells.
Co-injection of disstruptive sperm head and exogenous DNA : This is very recent and a practical
technique for obtaining a transgenic embryo. As a significant improvement over previous methods,
this technique allows greater control of a desired transgenic outcome and promises to be a reproducible

method of multi-species transgenesis. The method comprises two fundamental steps: 1) co-injecting
exogenous DNA and a membrane disstruptive sperm head into an unfertilized oocyte, and 2) facilitating
the development of this fertilized oocyte to develop into a transgenic embryo.Transgenic mice have
been produced following the addition of DNA to mouse spermatozoa that are subsequently used to
fertilize eggs in-vitro. The technique can be used in any animal species with high accuracy, high
efficiency and unparalled ease of use. However, these results could not be repeated.
APPLICATION
CLONING : Ability to produce genetically identical animals has far reaching benefits both in biomedical
research and commercial animal production, viz: 1) cloning for medical purposes, 2) reviving
endangered or extinct species, 3) reproducing deceased animals and 4) cloning humans.
Cloning for Medical purposes: Cloning for medical purposes has the potential to benefit large
numbers of people. A number of studies on human diseases are done on transgenic animal models,
such as mice. Cloning technologies reduce the time needed to make transgenic animal models for
several studies. Other applications of cloning is to create genetically defined human stem cells for
research and medical purposes, viz: repair of damaged or disease organs and tissues. An important
application of cloning in medicine is farming for drug production. Cloning is the faster way to produce
large herds of genetically engineered animals.
Reviving Endangered or Extinct Species: Endangered or extinct species can be cloned by using
DNA from well preserved tissue samples.
Reproducing deceased animals : It applies more to precious animals including family pets who
had met a sudden death / accident.
Cloning Humans : Cloning humans is important to help infertile couples to have children and to
replace a deceased child.
TRANSGENESIS: Transgenic animals are of particular interest in relation to growth, production traits,
reproduction and disease resistance. The production of pharmaceutical proteins and neutraceuticals
(genetically engineered whole milk) promises immediate application. A variety of blood-born clotting
and anticlotting products (tissue plasmogen activator, Factors VII, IX and X, Protein C, Antithrombin III
and fibrinogen) have been manufactured in the mammary glands of transgenic bioreactors that includes
goats, pigs and sheep. Other products from transgenic bioreactors include human hemoglobin (pigs),
human á-anti trypsin (sheep), human lactoferrin and human lactalbumin (bovine), á-glucosidase,
antibodies for anticancer agents, collagen for rheumatoid arthritis and cystic fabrosis treatment and
serum albumin to assist with control of blood pressure and as burn treatments. Cattle are difficult
species to use for production of transgenic products because of limitations of zygotes availability. The
species being monotocous in nature also limits the number of embryos that can be transferred to a
surrogate mother to carry to term. Transgenic technology has wide ranging application in livestock
production
Development of new strains of animals: New strains include leaner, more feed-efficient, faster-

growing swine containing additional copies of the growth hormone gene, and mice containing the
regulatory elements of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) genome. The latter are used as a
noninfectious animal model for the study of AIDS. Other application in biomedical science includes
cancer research, immunology, developmental biology, gene expression and regulation and models
for human genetic diseases such as muscular dystrophy, Lou Gehring’s disease and sickle cell anaemia.
Potential applications for transgenic animals also include manipulation of milk composition, growth,
disease resistance, reproductive performance, rumen microbiology and production of pharmaceutical
proteins.
Development of Transgenic Models: Due to a greater specificity of the transgenic models, the
number of animals required for several studies in animals and human can be drastically reduced. The
technology has made it possible to use cattle, swine, sheep and goats as processing units to
manufacture proteins or as organ donors. Transgenic animal models are more precise in comparison
to traditional animal models, for example the oncomouse with its increased susceptibility to tumor
development enables results to be obtained within a shorter time-frame, thus reducing the course of
tumor development in experimentally affected animals.
Transgenic Animals: Transgenic sheep or pig can produce milk with a large percentage of human
blood-clotting factor. This protein can be isolated from the milk, purified, and marketed. Similarly,
transgenic rabbits have been created that produce human interleukin-2, which is a protein stimulating
the proliferation of T-lymphocytes; the latter play an important role in fighting selected cancers. Other
human proteins that have been expressed in transgenic animals include: anti-thrombin III (to treat
intravascular coagulation), collagen (to treat burns and bone fractures), fibrinogen (used for burns
and after surgery), human fertility hormones, human hemoglobin, human serum albumin (for surgery,
trauma, and burns), lactoferrin (found in mother milk), tissue plasminogen activator (dissolves blood
clots and used in heart attack patients effectively) and particular monoclonal antibodies (including
one that is effective against a particular colon cancer). Animals mostly used for this purpose are pigs,
cows, sheep, and goats. The amount of milk needed to meet out national need of these pharmaceuticals
are really very reasonable. Assuming the animals produce 1 g of the protein per liter milk and one has
a purification efficiency of 30% (that is, 30% of the protein is recovered in the pure sample), then a pig
can produce 75 g of protein per year, a goat 100 g, a sheep 125 g, and a cow 3 kg. As the need of
blood-clotting factor IX is 2 kg / yr, one cow per country can do the job. For other proteins the demand
is larger (for example, for tissue plasminogen activator it is 75 kg per year and for human serum
albumin it is about 1,000 kg / yr). Hence a limited number of animals is all one now needs to meet the
national demand for pharmaceutical proteins that used to be astronomically expensive. Transgenic
chickens are now able to synthesize human proteins in the “white” of the eggs. Transgenic mice have
provided the tools for exploring many biological questions for example, normal mice cannot be infected
with polio virus. They lack the cell-surface molecule that, in humans, serves as the receptor for the
virus. So normal mice cannot serve as an inexpensive, easily-manipulated model for studying the
disease. However, transgenic mice expressing the human gene for the polio virus receptor can be
infected by polio virus and even develop paralysis and other pathological changes characteristic of
the disease in humans.

RISKS / IMPLICATIONS
CLONING: When we hear of cloning successes, we learn about only the few attempts that worked.
We don’t mention many cloning experiments that failed. Even in successful clones, we have not
studied the problems that tend to arise later, during the animal’s development to adulthood.
High failure rate: The cloning success rate ranges from 0.1 percent to 3 percent, which means that
for every 1000 trials, only one to 30 clones are produced. The reasons for such a poor success are:
1) the enuclated egg and the transferred nucleus may not be compatible, 2) an egg with a newly
transformed nucleus may not develop properly, 3) implantation of the embryo into the surrogate
mother might fail and 4) pregnancy itself might fail.
Problems during later development: Cloned animals that do survive tend to be much bigger at
birth than their natural counterparts. Scientists call this “Large Offspring Syndrome” (LOS). Clones
with LOS have abnormally large organs. This may lead to breathing, blood flow and other problems.
Other problems besides LOS are kidney and brain malformations and impaired immune systems.
Abnormal gene expression patterns: In cloning, the transferred nucleus does not have the same
programme as in natural embryo. Complete reprogramming is needed for normal or near-normal
development.
Telometric differences: As cells divide, their chromosomes get shorter. This is because the DNA
sequences at both ends of a chromosome, called telomeres, shrink in length every time the DNA is
copied. The older the animal is, the shorter its telomeres many times. Dolly, the sheep’s chromosomes
had shorter telomere lengths than normal.
TRANSGENESIS: The animals referred to as identical however, are only “genetically” identical. The
youngone born after nuclear transfer will be influenced by the recipient, “egg”, the recipient cow and
the environment in which it lives after birth. In some characteristics, such as appearance, the animals
will be strikingly similar but not exactly alike, where as in other, such as milk yield they can be markedly
influenced by the environment and show considerable differences. A great reduction in genetic variation
by the production of calves from too few mothers could be dangerous. Performance could be reduced
because of inbreeding and disease could spread because of common susceptibility. But those risks
would apply only if a vary large number of identicals were to be derived from very few individuals.
Cattle are difficult species to use for production of transgenic products because of limited availability
of zygotes. The species being monotocous, also limits the number of embryos that can be transferred
to a surrogate mother to carry to term.
The initial enthusiasm about the great possibilities could not be sustained due to a number of
problems that are encountered with this technology. Most important among them is the poor and
unpredictable survival of nuclear transfer (NT) embryos. In one calculation it was shown that less than
three out of a total of 100 NT embryos result in the birth of live offspring. Thus the success rate is
rather low and is particularly not different from embryo splitting. Many of the offsprings born from NT
embryos are abnormal. In addition cytoplasmic inheritance which is unique for each oocyte used in

NT, makes offspring produced by this technology differ from one another significantly although more
alike in comparison to full sibs. Further, the investment both in terms of financial resources needed for
equipment and animals and skilled man power are also prohibitive for implementing this technology.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS IN FUTURE
With technological revolution in biological science, it would be possible to dispense with agricultural
animals during first half of 21st century. We could fulfil our food needs using plants, fossile fuels,
minerals, air, water and tissue culture technique. But such a course of action would not be feasible
due to social, ecological and economic considerations in India. But certainly ratio of plant, animal and
synthetic organic products is bound to change, probably to less animal and more synthetic. There
are already dramatic changes in few commodities i.e. switch over from wool to synthetic fibers.
There is possibility to make substantial amounts of milk and meat products by cells in tissue
culture. The main components of meat are actin and myosin proteins and water. Proteins can be
made in tissue culture, seasoned with fats and flavours, and sold without bones, tough connective
tissue and blood vessels etc. Cheese, the main ingredients of which are caseins and water, is already
being synthesized industrially. Sodium caseinate is considered an industrial chemical, and artificial
cheeses are made from it, particularly for use in pizza. Production and demand of Soy milk and its
products is increasing over years. The demand will further increase in time to come. No doubt,
animal products will be replaced partially with plant and synthetic organic products in coming decades.
Expected increase in population @ 1- 1 ½ percent per annum will make up for loss of markets to
animal products. Net effect probably will be little change in the total consumption of animal products.
Sustained economic growth and increases in per capita income are expected to boost livestock
product demand substantially. Demand for milk will increase by a factor of 10 to about 497 million mt
by 2020. Demand for eggs and poultry meat will increase by a factor of 7 to 7.21 million mt and 1.35
million mt respectively. While demand for mutton will increase by a factor of 8, reaching 2.5 million mt.
If the Indian farmers are to capture the demand led growth opportunities, policy changes are necessary
to foster efficiency and productivity growth at the farm and processor levels. Animal agriculture will
change over in next few decades to cope up with the demand.
Demand for agricultural animals are changing with time and space. There have been drastic
changes in agricultural operations and also in feeding habits during last 2-3 decades. With
mechanization of agriculture, the demand for draft power is reduced. Feeding habits are gradually
changing from vegetarianism to non-vegetarianism and choice is for the lean meat. Human population
explosion and shortage of feed and fodder available to farm animals are other reasons for changes in
characteristics of farm animals of 21st century. Possible characteristics of farm animals in future are
given below.
1. Robust animals with higher growth.
2. Animals resistant to diseases and stress.
3. Animals producing high protein milk, low fat meat, and poultry producing low cholesterol
eggs.

4. Animals capable of producing appreciable quantities of specialized pharmaceutical products,

including drugs, hormones, enzymes and growth factors.
5. New species/hybrids, viz: Zebra with feathers, even in a striped pattern, animals with extra
or fewer limbs, chicken without wings will come into use.
6. Animals with increased appetite to get more production relative to maintenance costs.
7. Animals of reduced size. Smaller animals cost less to maintain and are more efficient.
8. Animals with changes in metabolic pattern. Milking a cow at 1 ½ years of age and continue
for 5 years without the annual cycle of reproduction including dry periods.
9. Animals with changes in biologic characteristics for example, circumventing seasonal
breeding, changing gestation length, early puberty / maturity, improving fertility, production
of males that produce only X-bearing sperm and chickens that produce Z- or W-chromosome
bearing eggs are other possibility in future.
10. With development of successful in-vitro oogenesis and spermatogenesis, the need to keep
animals for breeding purposes will be eliminated.
11. Animal germplasm in frozen/freeze-dried form will be available from super market.
It is expected that by 2050, genetically engineered animals for rapid growth, lean carcasses,
high milk production, improved reproduction performances and increased disease and stress resistance
will be commercially available. Demand for transgenic animals capable of producing appreciable
quantities of specialized pharmacentical products, including drugs, hormones, enzymes and growth
factors will increase over years.
SUMMARY
Livestock in India is characterized by large numbers and low productivity, across all species. In
1993, it had 193 million cattle, 79 million buffaloes, 117 million goats, 44 million sheep, 11 million pigs
and 410 million poultry birds. Inspite of large livestock population, the contribution of livestock to the
economy of the country does not commensurate with their enormous numbers.
The technique of artificial insemination has been used to improve the genetic potential of livestock
by using semen from proven males. During the last 2 decades, farm animal reproduction has entered
into an era of new technology revolution which includes embryo transfer, in-vitro fertilization, embryo
sexing, chimera production, cloning, transgenesis, embryo stem cell/somatic cell technology, re-
combinent DNA technology etc. The technologies like cloning and transgenesis which have immense
potential to revolutionize animal breeding has been discussed in present communication.
Characteristics of farm animals in future have also been discussed.

National Conferance On Animal Genetics & Breeding

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VIIIth Natioanl Conference on Animal Genetics and Breeding, 8-10 March, 2005

CENTRAL INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH ON GOATS

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 212 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Central Institute for Research on Goats

SWISS AGENCY FOR DEVELOPMENT AND COOPERATION SDC

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 213 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 214 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 215 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF INDIAN CATTLE BREEDS

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 1 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Category Population in thousands Percent Percent Increase/

Crossbred 15215 20099 22631 32.1 12.6

Indigenous 189369 178782 164751 -5.6 -7.85

Total 204584 198881 187382 -2.8 -5.78

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 2 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Table: Origin, distribution and present status of Indian cattle breeds

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 3 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

15 Krishna Valley Draft Solapur, Sangli and Satara NA

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 4 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Evaluation and Cataloguing of Animal Genetic Resources:

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 5 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

20 Ponwar Pilot study Completed

Breeding policy for genetic improvement of cattle:

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 6 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

l Crossbreeding should be implemented only in potential areas having availability of quality

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 7 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

Present genetic improvement programme for cattle and buffalo in India:

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 8 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

4. Promoting use of registered quality bulls for breeding.

5. Increased use of indigenous breeds for grading up non descript stock.

6. Promoting breed organizations.

7. Improving quality and coverage of AI through mobile AI services.

Conservation of Cattle Genetic Resources:

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 9 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

80 385 257 193 154 129

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 10 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 11 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

other resources. Crossbreeding should be implemented only in potential areas having

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 12 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

LIVESTOCK INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDIA AN APPROACH

The animal evaluation is a continuous process in Livestock Breeding Programmes. In rural

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 13 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

obtained over generations.

In numerous presentations at National Symposium on “Domestic Animal Diversity: Status,

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 14 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

l This reduces the genetic gain over a time period.

Sr.No. Place Number of AI required Number of Actual Percent loss in

Electronic Identification System

Our country lags behind in keeping the animal inventory system by

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 15 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

The Simputer (picture from http://www.simputer.org)

Table 2: Number of records available from two organized farms

Breed/ Period Sires Dams Lactation Growth

Sahiwal, UP 1955-2001 67 882 4400 —

Barbari Goat farm 1983-2004 280 1044 3028 3626 (up to 9m

Animal Identification and Data recording System:

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 16 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

National Electronic ID Classification System:

Table 3: Identification System being followed by Different Department.

Sl. No. Department Classification System

CIRG: Silver Jubilee Celeberations 17 NATIONAL LIVESTOCK BREEDING POLICY

National Network Plan and Infrasturcture

LIVESTOCK INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDIA AN APPROACH

INDIGENOUS CATTLE MILCH BREEDS THEIR POTENTIAL AND IMPROVEMENT