Strengthening Value Chain in Wheat and B

Compendium
Model Training Course (MTC)
STRENGTHENING VALUE CHAIN IN WHEAT AND BARLEY FOR DOUBLING FARMERS INCOME
September 18-25, 2018
Course Director : Sendhil R

Course Coordinators : Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh and Amit Kumar Sharma
Sponsor : Directorate of Extension, DAC&FW, GoI
Compilation and Editing
Sendhil R
Anuj Kumar
Amit Kumar Sharma
Poonam Jasrotia
Om Prakash Gupta
Rajpal Meena
Satyavir Singh
Gyanendra Pratap Singh
ICAR-INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WHEAT AND BARLEY RESEARCH

Karnal-132001, Haryana
Citation
Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Amit Kumar Sharma, Poonam Jasrotia, Om Prakash Gupta, Raj Pal
Meena, Satyavir Singh and Gyanendra Pratap Singh (2018). Strengthening Value Chain in
Wheat and Barley for Doubling Farmers Income. Directorate of Extension, Department of
Agriculture Cooperation & Farmers Welfare and ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley
Research. pp 1-144.
ISBN
978-93-5351-932-2
Publication
September, 2018
Patron
Director, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal
Disclaimer
The views expressed in the chapters are the sole responsibility of the respective authors. The
editors bear no responsibility with regard to source and authenticity of the contents.
Foreword
Value chain consists of stakeholders and their collective actions including input and support
services for production, marketing and distribution of the product till it reaches the final
consumer under enabling environment. In the recent years, value chain is gaining
momentum particularly in the context of doubling income of farmers by 2022. Value chain
analysis is important in understanding the farmer practices in production methods,
commodity linkage to markets, and critical constraints that limit productivity and farm
efficiency. The role of extension/development functionaries in realizing the potential of a
commodity in order to strengthen the value chain deserves a special mention. In order to
equip them with the latest technological interventions and innovations, the present training
was conceptualised at the ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, the premier
organization under the aegis of Indian Council of Agricultural Research which serves
multitude of farmers.
It gives me immense pleasure to host the eight days Model Training Course (MTC) on
“Strengthening Value Chain in Wheat and Barley for Doubling Farmers Income” from
September 18-25, 2018 for various field level functionaries at ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal. The
focused programme will definitely facilitate an excellent opportunity to the participants to
understand the basics and update their professional skills. Further, it also helps to leverage
examples pertaining to their discipline through exposure visits for better understanding and
translate information to address the farmers’ problem. I congratulate the Course Director,
Coordinators, Organising Committee Members and Resource Persons who have come
forward to lead the discussions and share their experiences. I also thank the Directorate of
Extension; Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare; Government of
India for sponsoring the MTC. I heartily welcome all the participants and hope the MTC will
be of immense importance and practical utility with your active participation. Let me extend
my sincere thanks to all and wish the eight days course a grand success.
Date : 18.09.2018 (GP Singh)

Director
Place : Karnal ICAR-IIWBR
List of Chapters
S.N. Topic Page
1. Value Chain in Wheat and Barley: Scope and Opportunities 1

Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Amit Kumar Sharma and GP Singh
2. Varietal Cafeteria for Diverse Wheat Producing Zones and its Role in Enhancing the Crop Productivity 7
Ravish Chatrath, CN Mishra and Satish Kumar
3. Conservation Agriculture Practices for Wheat based Cropping Systems 12

Ramesh Kumar Sharma, RS Chhokar, SC Gill and Ankita Jha
4. Micro Irrigation System: Importance and Economic Benefits to Farmers 21

Raj Pal Meena
5. Major Weeds of Wheat and their Management 28

Chhokar RS, RK Sharma, SC Gill and RK Singh
6. Nutrients Management in Wheat 35

Subhash Chander Gill, RS Chhokar, RK Sharma, Raj Pal Meena and SC Tripathi
7. Identification and Integrated Management of Wheat Diseases 42

Sudheer Kumar, PL Kashyap and Poonam Jasrotia
8. Insect Pests of Rice-Wheat System and their Management 46

Poonam Jasrotia, Ankur Rana, PL Kashyap, Sudheer Kumar and GP Singh
9. Promising Genotypes for Different end-use Products and their Quality Requirements 54
Sewa Ram, Sneh Narwal, OP Gupta, Vanita Pandey and GP Singh
10. Production and Consumption Trends of Wheat Based Products in India 59

Om Prakash Gupta, Vanita Pandey, Sneh Narwal, Sewa Ram and GP Singh
11. AgriNutri Smart Villages (A2N): An Approach to Fight Malnutrition 64

Sangeetha V, P Singh, Satyapriya, V Lenin, P Venkatesh, S Paul, S Barua, Muralikrishnan, Sitaram and S Singh
S.N. Topic Page
12. Varietal Cafeteria in Barley, Package of Practices and their Role in Enhancing the Crop Productivity 68
Kharub AS, Vishnu Kumar, Dinesh Kumar, Anil Khippal and Chuni Lal
13. Potential and Prospects of Malt Barley Cultivation in India 73

Dinesh Kumar, Vishnu Kumar, Anil Khippal, Chuni Lal and AS Kharub
14. Registration and Protection of Farmers’ Varieties under PPV&FRA 78

Arun Gupta and Charan Singh
15. Participatory Seed Production in Wheat and Barley for Enhancing Farm Income 83
Sharma AK, SK Singh, R Sendhil and Raj Kumar
16. Salt Affected Soils in India: Problems, Status of Crop Production and Remedial Measures 92
Raju R
17. Diversification of Enterprises: A Supplementary Source of Farm Income 98

Tripathi SC
18. Integrated Farming System: A Way to Enhance the Farmers Income 102
Ponnusamy K, Kousalya Devi and S. Ashokkumar
19. Participatory Technology Development: Evidence from Farmer’s Field 108

Anil Khippal, Dinesh Kumar, Chuni Lal, Satyavir Singh, AS Kharub, Mamurtha HM and Poonam Jasrotia
20. Modern Extension Strategies to Disseminate Technological Innovations and Interventions at Farmers Field 115
Anuj Kumar, Sendhil R and Satyavir Singh
21. Sources, Role of Weather Information and Advisories to Manage Risks and Uncertainties in Agriculture 124
Ankita Jha, Rajeev Ranjan, Raj Pal Meena, RK Sharma and RS Chhokar
22. Role of e-NAM in Realizing Remunerative Price to Farmers 128

Subash SP, Aditya KS, Pavithra S and P Venkatesh
23. Development Schemes in Agriculture for Enhancing Food Production and Income Security 134
Vikrant Singh
Strengthening Value Chain in Wheat and Barley for Doubling Farmers Income
1. Value Chain in Wheat and Barley: Scope and Opportunities

Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Amit Kumar Sharma and GP Singh
ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal – 132001 (Haryana)
Value Chain: Conceptual Clarification

Agriculture is the mainstay of Indian economy occupying the centre stage in promoting
inclusive growth, enhancing the livelihood of farmers and national food security. In the recent
years, value chain analysis is gaining momentum especially in the context of enhancing the
income of value chain actors. Value chain consists of stakeholders and their collective
actions including input and support services for production, marketing and distribution of the
product till it reaches the final consumer under enabling environment. Theoretically, it is a full
range of activities required to bring a product or service from conception, through the
different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the
input of various producer services), delivery to final consumers and final disposal after use
as given by Kaplinsky and Morris (2000) though it was pioneered by Michael Porter (1985) in
his book on ‘Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance’. Value
chain is often misunderstood as ‘value addition’ which obviously is a part of it. Three types of
value addition exist in general viz., form, time and space. Form oriented value addition is
associated with the change in the form of a raw material (due to production and/or
processing). Time oriented value addition is related with availing at another period of time
produce produced at a period of time (due to storage). Space oriented value addition is
related with availing at another location product produced in one location (due to transport).
Value chain on the other hand, is a full range of

activities and services required to bring a product or
service from its conception to sale in its final market.
It encompass input suppliers, producers, processors
and buyers supported by a range of technical,
business and financial service providers. Value
addition is a part of value chain and should be
viewed as the product progresses from input supply
to production to consumption. Value chain is a
channel through which finance (revenues, credit, and
working capital) moves from consumers to
Value Addition vis-à-vis Value Chain producers; technologies are disseminated among
producers, traders, processors and transporters; and
information on demand are transmitted from consumers to producers/ processors/ service
providers. Value chain analysis is important in understanding the farmer practices in
production methods, commodity linkage to markets, and critical constraints that limit
productivity and farm efficiency. Hence, the role of extension/development functionaries in
realizing the potential of a commodity in order to strengthen the value chain deserves a
special mention.
1 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research
Wheat and Barley Value Chain

An economic unit of analysis of a particular commodity (eg., Wheat, Barley) or a group of
related commodities (eg., Cereals) that encompasses a meaningful grouping of economic
activities that are linked vertically by market relationships. The emphasis is on the
relationship between networks of input suppliers, producers, traders, processors, and
distributors under enabling environment like research institutions, policies etc. Typically it
includes the linkage between input supply, production, assembly, transport, storage,
processing, wholesaling, retailing, and utilization, with exportation included as a major stage
for products destined for international markets. Value chain includes different components
which are mutually inclusive to one another.
Support Services: Services that play supporting role to enhance the operation of the
different stages in the value chain and the chain as a whole. The following are some of them.
 Infrastructural services (market place development, roads and transportation,
communication, energy supply, water supply)
 Production and storage services (input supply, genetic and production hardware from
research, farm machinery services and supply, extension services, weather forecast,
storage infrastructure)
 Marketing and business skills (market information, market intelligence, technical and
business training, facilitation of linkages of producers with buyers, organization and
support for collective marketing)
 Financial services (credit, saving, risk insurance)
 Policy and regulatory services (property rights, market and trade regulations,
investment incentives, legal services, taxation)
Value Chain Leader: An organization with major stake in the value chain playing a crucial
role in the functioning, performance and development of the value chain. For instance,
ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research is a value chain leader with respect to
wheat and barley. Value chain leaders are especially critical in the development of new and
emerging value chains. A leader could be a private business which intends to make profit or
a public agency which intends to promote the development of the value chain.
Core process and actors in wheat and barley value chain
Value Chain Mapping: It is the pictorial representation of value chain structure containing
the maximum amount of information on a particular commodity. In mapping, first the core
process has to be identified and mapped followed by core actors or stakeholders involved in
and then their core functions carried out in order to strengthen or promote the existing value
chain. The value chain mapping can be bit complex when furnished with more information.
Core process and functions of core actors in wheat and barley value chain

Scope of Wheat Value Chain: Wheat is an integral part of food and nutritional security as
well as a critical staff of life and a staple food for a majority i.e., around 2.5 billion poor
consumers earning less than US$ 2 per day apart from around 30 million farm families
producing the cereal. It is the second most important food crop with growing demand
especially in south India. A galore of literature report that there is increasing rural
consumption per capita and the commodity is fully under government intervention being a
food security crop. Hence strengthening the existing value chain in wheat has lot of
opportunities.
Opportunities for Strengthening Wheat Value Chain

 Varietal cafeteria for diverse wheat producing zones
 Conservation agriculture practices
 Integrated management of wheat diseases
 Diverse end products and their role in supplementing nutritional security
 Technological interventions and cluster FLDs at farmer’s field
 Integrated management of weeds
 Modern extension strategies to disseminate technological interventions
 Participatory technology demonstrations
 Integrated management of insect pests
 Micro irrigation system
 Participatory seed production
 Advisories to manage risks and uncertainties
 Management of problem soils
 Insurance as a adaptation strategy
 Nutri-smart villages and bio-fortification
 e-NAM in realizing remunerative price to farmers
Scope of Barley Value Chain: Barley, a competing crop for wheat is a part of nutritional
security owing to its growing demand for malt barley. Its consumption rate also witnessed an
increasing trend owing to health conscious nature among consumers. Interestingly, unlike
wheat, market based price mechanism dominates for the industrial use commodity. Hence
strengthening the existing value chain in barley has lot of opportunities.
Opportunities for Strengthening Barley Value Chain

 Varietal cafeteria for diverse barley producing zones
 Integrated plant protection management
 Diverse end products and their role in supplementing nutritional security
 Technological interventions and cluster FLDs at farmer’s field
 Public private partnership (contract farming)
 Potential and prospects of malt barley
 Modern extension strategies to disseminate technological interventions

Conclusions
Overall, understanding and analysing the existing value chain helps to find out the weak and
strong linkage between the stakeholders and process. It will suggest where to intervene by
identifying the leverage points in order to improve the overall performance. Strengthening of
existing value chain needs a holistic multi-stakeholder process and synergy between
stakeholders - the need of the hour - wherein it helps to analyse the social and economic
impacts. Further, value chain analysis helps to prioritize research and enhances the income
of stakeholders involved in the basic structure. Hence it is highly relevant to the vision of the
Hon’ble Prime Minister to double the farmers’ income by 2022.
Bibliography
Kaplinky R (2000). Globalization and un- equalization: What can be learn from value chain
analysis? Journal of Development Studies, 37(2), pp. 117-146.
Kumar A, Randhir Singh, Satyavir Singh, Sendhil, R., Ramesh Chand and J. K. Pandey
(2017). Adoption of resource conservation technologies and its impact on wheat
cultivation in Haryana. Indian Journal of Extension Education. 53(1): 45-54
Kumar A, Randhir Singh, Satyavir Singh, Sendhil, R., Ramesh Chand and JK Pandey
(2017). Adoption of resource conservation technologies for sustainable production:
Evidence of potential impact from Haryana. Indian Journal of Economics and
Development. 14(1a), 77-82.
Kumar A, Satyavir Singh, Sendhil R and Pandey (2017). Adoption and impact of resource
conservation technologies in wheat production – Evidence from Haryana for
upscaling, Wheat and Barley Newsletter 11(1): 22.
Kumar A, Singh R, Singh S, Sendhil R, Chand R and JK Pandey (2017). Impact of resource
conservation technologies in Haryana. Journal of Community Mobilization and
Sustainable Development, 12(2), 257-264.
Proctor and Digal (2008). Opportunities for small-scale producers’ inclusion in dynamic
markets in developing countries and transition economies: A synthesis of findings
from eight country level chain-wide learning workshops.
Sendhil R, Ankita Jha, Anuj Kumar and Satyavir Singh (2018). Extent of vulnerability in
wheat producing agro-ecologies of India: Tracking from indicators of cross-section
and multi-dimension data, Ecological Indicators, 89C, pp. 771-780.
Sendhil R, Ankita Jha, Anuj Kumar and Satyavir Singh. 2017. Tracking wheat yield
sensitivity to weather variability across Indian transect for climate smart farming.
ICAR Extramural Project Report, ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal. pp 1-40.
Sendhil R, Ankita Jha, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh and AS Kharub (2017). Status of
vulnerability in wheat and barley producing states of India, Journal of Wheat
Research, 9(1): 60-63.

Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Ankita Jha, Sunil Kumar and Ankit Kumar (2017).
Perception of farmers on climate change and yield sensitivity in wheat, Wheat and
Barley Newsletter 11(1): 22-23.
Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Chatrath R and GP Singh (2017). Framework for
Doubling the Income of Wheat Producers' by 2022: Trends, Pathway and Drivers.
Indian Journal of Economics and Development, 13 (2a), 1-8.
Sendhil R, Balaji SJ, Ramasundaram P, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, R Chatrath and GP
Singh (2018). Doubling Farmers Income by 2022: Trends, Challenges, Pathway and
Strategies. Research Bulletin No: 40, ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley
Research, Karnal. pp 1-54.
Sendhil R, Ramasundaram P, SJ Balaji (2017). Transforming Indian agriculture: is doubling

farmers’ income by 2022 in the realm of reality?. Current Science, 113(5), 848-850.
Sendhil R, Shweta B, Mahida D, Das J, Sinha M, Das A and Kumareswaran T (2018).

Regional market integration and sustainable development: The nexus and policy
implications. Indian Journal of Economics and Development, 14(1a): 198-204
Singh GP, Sendhil R and R Chatrath (2017). Doubling Farmers Income in North-Eastern
Region of India by 2022: A Roadmap for Wheat Producers. Chapter in the Souvenir
released during the 56th All India Wheat & Barley Research Workers’ Meet held at
BHU, Varanasi from August 25-28, 2017.
Singh GP, Sendhil R., Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh and S. C. Tripathi. 2018. Doubling
farmers’ income by 2022: pathway and strategies for wheat producers. Indian
Farming 68 (01): 24-26; January 2018.
Surendra S, R Chand, R Sendhil, R Singh (2017). Tracking the performance of Indian

agriculture, Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 87 (12):1619–1626.
Vermeulen S, Woodhill J, Proctor F and Delnoye R (2008). Chain-wide learning for inclusive
agrifood market development: A guide to multi-stakeholder processes for linking
small-scale producers with modern markets. International Institute for Environment &
Development, London and Wageningen University, Netherlands.

2. Varietal Cafeteria for Diverse Wheat Producing Zones and

its Role in Enhancing the Crop Productivity
Ravish Chatrath, CN Mishra and Satish Kumar
Introduction
Wheat cultivation in India has a long history and dates back to 2000BC as wheat grains have
been found in the Mohenjodaro (about 2000BC) excavations and were identified as
belonging to Triticum aestivum sub-species sphaerococcum. These grains were
characterized by spherical shape and dwarf plant stature. The wheat farmers preserved the
enormous variability in the form of land races that were blends comprising of variable grain
and morphological traits
Wheat Improvement in Different Phases

Pre-Green Revolution Era
At Pusa (Bihar), the research carried out by Sir Albert Howard resulted in isolation of some
famous lines like Pusa4 and Pusa12 besides Pusa 3,6,10 and others. In Layallpur(Punjab)
Mr. D Milne isolated 25 agricultural types notably Type9, Type 9D and Selection 8A. Mr.
Leak in Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) selected C13A and Sir Geoffery Evans in Madhya Pradesh
isolated A090 and A085 etc. In Nagpur and Niphad (Bombay state) varieties like 202, Motia,
Jay (durums) and Mondya 417-5 (vulgare) were isolated.
Later, hybridization work involving selected lines was started at different wheat breeding
centres mainly with a view to improve yield and grain quality and resulted in promising
strains like NP52, NP80-5, NP100, NP111, NP114 and NP165 by IARI, C518 and C591 by
Punjab, A068, A113 and A115 by Madhya Pradesh and Vijay, Niphad4 and Niphad 8 etc by
Bombay state. After shifting of IARI from Pusa to New Delhi and with the basic knowledge
generated by Prof. KC Mehta on cereal rusts during thirties wheat improvement in India
entered the stage of rust resistance breeding. This phase under the leadership of Dr BP Pal,
led to the evolution of important NP 700 series of wheat such as NP710, NP718, NP720,
NP761, NP770, NP783, NP785, NP790, NP798 and others.
In 1947 work on the wheat improvement was expanded both at IARI as well as at other state
centres. During this period IARI evolved bread wheat varieties of NP800 series (notably
NP809, NP818, NP830, NP832, NP835, NP839, NP846, NP860, and NP 876) durums of
NP400 series (notable NP400, NP404, NP406 and NP412) and dicoccums of NP200 series
(NP200 and NP 202). During this period state agriculture departments also produced some
very promising wheat varieties like C228, C250, C273, C281, C286, C303 and C306 in
Punjab; K64, K65 and K68 in Uttar Pradesh; Hyb 11, Hyb 38 and Hyb 65 in Madhya
Pradesh; RS9-1 and RS31-1 in Rajasthan and Kenphad25 and NI 747-19 in Maharashtra.

Green Revolution Era (1965 onwards)

Realizing the importance of breeding short, stiffed strawed and disease resistance wheats to
be grown under high fertility conditions of India, Dr. MS Swaminathan in collaboration with
Dr. NE Borlaug initiated a programme for utilizing Norin dwarfing genes at IARI in 1962.
Dr. Borlaug visited India during March 1963 and on the basis of his observations regarding
growing conditions he noted that had good scope in India. He selected large number of
material from his breeding programme and sent to IARI in Nov. 1963. 613 advance breeding
lines from Dr Borlaug were tested at selected centres (Delhi, Ludhiana, Kanpur, Pantnagar,
and Pusa) during 1963-64 and all centres of coordinated project during 1964-65 and 1965-
66. Lerma Rojo64A and Sonora 64 were approved by CVRC for cultivation in irrigated wheat
area of the country. The GoI also decided to further import of 18000 tonnes seeds of these
varieties to popularize the dwarf wheat varieties on large scale among farmers.
Recently Released Varieties for Different Zones

The wheat production of the country has increased from 10.4 mt in 1965-66 to 98.4 mt
during the year 2016-17 and the increase in wheat production has been attributed to the
development of high yielding varieties along with production and protections technologies.
The wheat productivity has increased from 827kg/ha to 3216kg/ha during this period. The
coordination system of wheat has provided the farmers of countries a range of varieties for
different production conditions. It is also desired that the farmers to grow the recent varieties
that are high yielding and resistant to diseases. It helps in increasing the profit to the farmers
with the same level of input.
Varietal development is one of the major mandates of All India Coordinated Research
Project on Wheat and Barley. Since its inception a total of 448 wheat varieties have been
released for the various agro-ecological regions of the country. Among these 448 notified
wheat varieties, 378 are bread wheat, 59 durum and 4 triticale varieties. The wheat varieties
recommended for different productions conditions in all the zones that were released from
2015-18 is presented in the Table1. In the past five years, ten wheat varieties were released
for North Western Plains Zone, eleven for Peninsular Zone, seven for NEPZ, five for Central
Zone and two for Northern Hills Zone.
Table 1: Notified Bread wheat varieties released by CVRC during last five years (2014-2018)
SN Zone Variety name Developed by Production condition Year
I Northern Hills Zone
1 HS 562 IARI RS SHIMLA Timely Sown Rainfed/Irrigated 2016
2 Pusa Kiran (HS 542) IARI RS SHIMLA Early Sown Rainfed 2015
II North Western Plains Zone
1 DBW173 IIWBR, Karnal Irrigated Late Sown 2018
2 WB02 IIWBR, Karnal Irrigated Timely Sown 2017
3 PBW723 (Unnat PBW343) PAU Ludhiana Irrigated Timely Sown 2017
4 HPBW01 PAU Ludhiana Irrigated Timely Sown 2017
5 PBW660 PAU Ludhiana Rainfed Timely Sown 2016
6 WH 1142 HISAR Restricted Irrigation Timely Sown 2015
7 DBW 90 DWR, KARNAL Irrigated Late Sown 2014
8 WH 1124 HISAR Irrigated Late Sown 2014
9 HD3086 (Pusa Gautami) IARI-New Delhi Irrigated Timely Sown 2014
10 DBW 88 IIWBR KARNAL Irrigated Timely Sown 2014

III North Eastern Plains Zone

1 K1317 CSA Kanpur Rainfed Timely Sown 2018
2 HI1612 IARI RS Indore Restricted Irrigation Timely Sown 2018
3 HD3171 IARI, Delhi Rainfed Timely Sown 2017
4 HD 3118 (Pusa Vatsala) IARI, Delhi Irrigated Late Sown 2015
5 DBW 107 IIWBR, KARNAL Irrigated Late Sown 2015
6 Narendra Wheat 5054 NDUAT,FAIZABAD Irrigated Timely Sown 2014
7 K 1006 CSA, KANPUR Irrigated Timely Sown 2014
IV Central Zone
1 HI8759 (D) IARI, Indore Irrigated Timely Sown 2017
2 Raj 4238 Durgapura Irrigated Late Sown 2016
3 HD 4728 (Pusa Malwi)(D) IARI, Delhi Irrigated Timely Sown 2016
4 HI 8737 (P ANMOL)(D) IARI, Indore Irrigated Timely Sown 2015
5 DBW 110 IIWBR, KARNAL Restricted Irrigation Timely Sown 2015
V Peninsular Zone
1 DBW168 IIWBR, Karnal Irrigated Timely Sown 2018
2 UAS 375 UAS Dharwad Rainfed Timely Sown 2018
3 MACS4028 (D) ARI Pune Rainfed Timely Sown 2018
4 HI8777 (D) IARI, Indore Rainfed, timely sown 2018
5 MACS349 (D) ARI Pune Irrigated Timely Sown 2017
6 HI1605 IARI RS Indore Restricted Irrigation Timely Sown 2017
7 DBW 93 IIWBR, KARNAL Restricted Irrigation Timely Sown 2015
8 UAS 347 UAS Dharwad Rainfed Timely Sown 2015
9 UAS 446 (D) UAS Dharwad Rainfed Timely Sown 2015
10 WHD 948 (D) HAU, Hisar Irrigated Timely Sown 2014
11 MACS 6478 ARI, Pune Irrigated Timely Sown 2014
Recent Wheat Varieties for NWPZ

The North Western Plains Zone (NWPZ) comprising Punjab, Rajasthan (excluding Kota and
Udaipur divisions), Western Uttar Pradesh (except Jhansi division), Jammu and Kathua
districts of Jammu and Kashmir, Paonta valley and Una district of HP and the Terai region of
Uttarakhand is the most productive zone of the country. The wheat is cultivated in an area of
about 12 million hectares in the zone and shares about ~55% of the total wheat production
in the country. The wheat crop is cultivated primarily under the timely sown irrigated, late
sown irrigated and timely sown restricted irrigated conditions.
In the recent years wheat varieties like HD3086, DBW88, Unnat PBW343 (PBW723), WB02
and HPBW01 were released for irrigated timely sown conditions. Varieties WB02 and
HPBW01 is also possessing the better zinc content. For late sown conditions DBW173,
DBW90 and WH1124 have been released and are being recommended for cultivations in
the zone. For restricted irrigation WH1142 and for rainfed PBBW660 has been released in
the zone.
Irrigated Timely Sown Conditions

HD 3086 (Pusa Gautami): A high yielding with an average yield of 5.46 t/ha and potential
yield of 7.1 t/ha was released for cultivation under timely sown irrigated conditions of North
Western Plains Zone. It is resistant to yellow and brown rusts. This thermo tolerant variety
has high protein content (12.5%), sedimentation value (37 ml), Glu-1 Score (10/10) and
extraction rate (70.5%). The variety is also suitable for bread making.

WB 2: The genotype WB 2 is having an average yield of 51.6 q/ha. WB 2 is having high grain
Zn (42.0ppm) content and also possesses adequate Fe (40.0ppm) content. This genotype is
also having good quality characteristics like high grain protein content (12.4%), high
sedimentation value of 56.0. This genotype is highly resistant to prevalent yellow rust
pathotypes 78S84 and 46S119 and leaf rust pathotype 104-2.
HPW 01 (PBW Zn 01): This genotype is having average yield 51.7 q/ha and potential yield
of 64.8 q/ha. This is a Zn rich variety and also resistant to yellow and brown rust and is
recommended for irrigated timely sown conditions.
PBW 723 (Unnat PBW 343): This variety has the average yield of 49.2 q/ha and potential
yield of 63.2 q/ha. It is recommended for irrigated timely sown conditions of the zone. This
variety is the improved version of the land mark variety PBW343 and highly resistant to
yellow rust and brown rust.
DBW 88: DBW 88 possesses better quality parameters as indicated by grain appearance
(score 6.0), chapati score (7.66), protein content (13.8%) and perfect 10/10 Glu-1 score. It
meets all desirable components of better bread making qualities that makes it favourable for
industrial purposes.
Irrigated Late Sown Conditions

DBW 173: This is the most recent variety released in 2018 for late sown conditions of the
North Western Plans Zone and has average yield of 47.2 q/ha with the potential of 57.0 q/ha.
It is resistant to yellow and brown rusts under natural and artificial epiphytotic conditions. It
has high protein content (12.5%) and protein quality (perfect Glu score of 10/10). This variety
has shown tolerance to heat with better HSI. The average height is 90 cm and maturity period
is 122 days.
DBW 90: It is an early maturing genotype having mean heading (84 DAS), maturity (121
DAS), plant height (91cm) and average yield of 42.7 q/ha whereas it is having a potential
yield of 66.6 q/ha. DBW 90 showed resistance to prevalent races of both yellow and brown
rusts under natural and artificial epiphytotic conditions. A low heat sensitivity index of 1.23
reported for DBW 90 indicating its better adaptation to heat stress. It has desirable chapati
(7.60), bread (loaf volume 561 cc) and biscuit making (7.71) quality. The genotype also
possesses high nutritional quality attributes with high Fe (42.0 ppm) & Zn (40.8 ppm).
WH 1124: The variety is recommended for irrigated late sown conditions of the zone.
WH124 has average yield of 42.7 q/ha and potential yield of 56.1 q/ha It is resistant to yellow
and brown and rust diseases.

Restricted Irrigated Conditions

WH 1142: This variety has been recommended for restricted irrigated conditions of the zone.
The average yield of the variety is 48.1 q/ha and the potential yield is 62.5 q/ha
Rainfed Conditions
PBW 660: It is recommended for rainfed timely sown conditions of the zone. The variety has
average yield of 35.3 q/ha and potential yield of 49.3 q/ha. It has better chapatti making
quality.
In India the wheat is grown in about 30 million hectares and number of varieties has
developed by the different research institutes. The breeders have given number of options to
the farmers in terms of varietal use for different production conditions. It is desired that the
recent varieties released for a particular conditions may be used by the farmers with
appropriate crop production technologies to harvest the full potential of the cultivar.

3. Conservation Agriculture Practices for Wheat based

Cropping Systems
Ramesh Kumar Sharma, RS Chhokar, SC Gill and Ankita Jha
The symbol of agriculture, till recently, was the plough which was used for tillage of land to
grow crops. The tillage of soil in the past was associated with the increased fertility due to
faster mineralisation of soil nutrients. This process in the long term leads to reduction of soil
organic matter which not only provides nutrients, but, more than anything else, is also a
crucial element for stabilization of soil structure. Therefore, most soils degrade under
intensive arable agriculture over time. This structural degradation of the soils results in the
formation of crusts and compactions which not only leads to soil erosion but also adversely
affects the crop performance. The mechanization of tillage operations, permitting for higher
working depths and speeds by using certain tractor operated implements like ploughs, disk
harrows, tine and rotary cultivators have been particularly detrimental to soil structure. The
soil degradation resulting from tillage has forced to look for alternatives and to reverse this
process. The natural option to this menace was to reduce the soil tillage. This led to
movements promoting conservation- or even zero-tillage, particularly in southern Brazil, in
North America, in New Zealand and Australia. Although the benefits of no till farming were
clearly enumerated in the book, “Ploughman’s Folly” by EH Faulkner during 1945, over the
past three decades the technologies were perfected and adapted for nearly all farm sizes,
growing conditions, soil and crop types and climatic zones.
In India, the indiscriminate use, or rather misuse, of natural resources especially water has
led to groundwater pollution as well as depletion of groundwater resources. Depleting soil
organic carbon status, decreasing soil fertility and reduced factor productivity due to
intensive tillage are other issues of concern. These evidences indicate the weakening of
natural resource base. If we continue to exploit the natural resources at the current level,
productivity and sustainability is bound to suffer. Therefore, to achieve sustainable higher
productivity, efforts must be focussed on reversing the trend in natural resource degradation
by adopting efficient resource conservation agriculture practices.
Laser Land Levelling

It is a pre-requisite for enhancing the benefits of the resource conservation practices.
Generally, fields are not properly levelled leading to poor performance of the crop, because,
part of area suffers due to water stress and part due to excess of water. After laser levelling
the field, it has been observed that yield enhances from 10 to 25 per cent. The higher yields
are due to proper crop stand, uniform water distribution, crop growth and uniform maturity. In
addition to higher yield, the savings of water, a scarce resource, is from 35-45 per cent due
to higher application efficiency, increased nutrient use efficiency by 15-25 per cent, reduces
weed problem and increases the cultivable area by 3 to 6 per cent due to reduction in area
required for bunds and channel.

Resource Conservation Technologies in Wheat

Zero Tillage
This is a resource conservation technology in which wheat is directly seeded into the
undisturbed soil after rice harvesting using a specially designed machine. In this seed and
fertiliser is placed into narrow slits created by the knife type furrow openers of zero tillage
ferti-seed drill. This technology provides an opportunity to reduce the cost of cultivation by
about ` 3000 per hectare thereby increasing the profit margin of the farmers. In addition, it
helps in saving 3-5% water as slightly less water is applied during irrigation compared to
conventional tillage. As the soil is not tilled, in long run it helps improve the soil health by
bulding up the soil organic carbon.
Reduced/Minimum Tillage
The impact of zero tillage is that most of the farmers have shifted from intensive tillage
undertaking 6 to 12 tractor operations to reduced tillage involving 2 to 3 operations with
various farm implements. Reduced tillage has advantage over conventional tillage as it
saves on tillage cost with similar crop productivity. Reduced tillage has no apparent
advantage over ZT but farmers are sometime forced to undertake 2 to 3 tractor operations
due to the following reasons;
 It is a problem of mindset as some farmer thinks that fields does not look tidy in the initial
stages.
 Early transplanting or using early maturing varieties of rice vacates the fields by 1st week
of October whereas sowing of wheat is generally done from 1st week of November. In
such fields standing stubble of rice become loose which creates problem in smooth
running of ZT machine.
 Some broad leaved weeds like Rumex spp. germinate in the month of October after
harvest of rice. Under such situations spray of Glyphosate is recommended in Zero tillage
sowing of wheat. But it costs higher than 1-2 ploughing & also due to lack of proper spray
technique some weeds are left after spray. Therefore, farmers prefer 1-2 tillage instead of
spraying.
 The field becomes uneven due to formation of tracks in wet soil after combine harvesting.
This happens either due to late irrigation or if rains occurs toward the end of rice season
as it happened during 2004. Under such situations, it becomes necessary to level those
patches with 1 or 2 harrowing.
Rotary Tillage
The machine is a combination of rotavator, seed-cum fertiliser drill and a light planker-cum-
driving wheel at the back. The machine uses a nine-row standard seed-cum-fertiliser drill, in
addition to a rotary tiller, which tills the soil, rather completely pulverises the top 8 to 10 cm,
before placing seeds and fertilisers. The machine has 7 gangs of six blades each and can be
operated by a tractor of about 40 hp or more in dry/optimum moisture condition or about 30
hp or more for puddling of rice fields. The rotary-till drill can be used in manually harvested
rice field at optimum soil moisture conditions for directly seeding wheat and fertiliser
placement in a single tractor operation. This saves time and energy with 7 to 10 per cent
higher yield compared to conventional field preparation. In addition, it helps in advancing the
sowing in case the wheat seeding is getting delayed beyond 25th November. In combine
harvested rice fields the machine can be used after removal or partial burning of the loose
paddy straw. The field preparation by rotary tillage is better than conventional as the soil is
completely pulverised. Incorporation of green manure crops, weeds and crop residues can
also be accomplished in a single operation. As the seeding is done simultaneously, the soil
moisture is conserved leading to better crop stand in addition to savings on energy, time and
labour requirement making this technology more economic and eco-friendly. The machine
was initially aimed to sow wheat directly after paddy harvesting. Subsequently, it was also
tried for puddling of rice field since the rotary tillers are known to be excellent puddlers. Seed
hoppers and seed placing units can be detached from the frame fixed on the rotary unit and
the rotary unit alone can be used for puddling. A single operation after ponding of water was
found sufficient for puddling followed by rice transplanting after 1 to 3 days depending upon
soil type.
Bed Planting
This is a water saving technology, which saves 30-40% water for growing wheat depending
upon the soil type. In addition to water saving, this technology also saves nitrogen by about
25% due to higher nitrogen use efficiency. In this technology after preparation of land all
three activities named bed formation, placement of fertilizer and sowing of wheat are done in
single operation. Crop cultivars are known to vary significantly in their performance on
raised beds. It is suitable for seed production also because of bolder grain and easier
rouging. It reduces the herbicide dependence due to mechanical weed control with the same
bed planter fitted with inter culture tines with simultaneous placement of fertiliser. In
situations where sowing can be delayed due to pre-sowing irrigation dry seeding can be
done on raised beds followed by irrigation immediately after seeding. Irrigation can also be
given at grain filling stage, which is generally avoided by the farmers for fear of crop lodging.
However, greater incidence of powdery mildew and termite has been observed when the
wheat grown on beds.
Surface Seeding
This is a technology, which does not require any field preparation and sowing of wheat is
done in standing rice crop a few days before or immediately after rice harvesting. There are
areas in the eastern part of Indo-Gangetic plains where land remains wet after rice
harvesting for a long time and field preparation for sowing second crop is not possible. Under
such conditions surface seeding provides an opportunity to take wheat crop in rabi season.
Even in areas where field preparation is possible wheat sowing is delayed leading to very
low yields. So by adopting surface seeding one can harvest higher yields. In this technology
dry or soaked seed is broadcasted over the wet soil. To prevent bird damage the seed is
invariably coated with cow dung. For proper and uniform crop stand drum seeders can also
be usefully employed after rice harvesting. Nowadays, farmers are practicing the surface
seeding successfully not only in wheat but also in other upland crops like pea, gram, lentil
etc.
Eco-friendly Tillage Options

These alternate tillage technologies are also environmental friendly compared to traditional
broadcast sown wheat. The carbon dioxide emission due to burning of fuel (assuming 2.6 kg
CO2 production/ litre of diesel burnt) during field preparation was 208.00 kg/ha in
conventional farmers’ practice and was only 15.60 kg/ha in zero tillage and 36.92 kg/ha in
rotary tillage. Even conventional field preparation followed by drill or bed planter sowing on
FIRBS results in reduction of carbon dioxide emission by 18-19% compared to broadcast
sown wheat. This corresponding reduction in CO2 emission comes to 82.25 and 92.50% for
rotary and zero tillage, respectively.
Resource Conservation Technologies in Rice

Direct Dry Seeded and Unpuddled Transplanted Rice
Direct seeding has advantages of faster and easier planting, reduced labour and less
drudgery with earlier crop maturity by 7-10 days, more efficient water use and higher
tolerance of water deficit, less methane emission and often higher profit in areas with an
assured water supply. Thus the area under direct seeded rice has been increasing as
farmers in Asia seek higher productivity and profitability to offset increasing costs and
scarcity of farm labour. Weed control is a major issue in direct seeded rice and to overcome
this problem, intensive efforts are being made by the agricultural scientists. In some soils,
spray of micronutrient like Zn and iron may be needed to remove their deficiency. Direct
seeding of rice using zero till drill, rotary till drill, drum seeder as well as broadcasting under
various field preparation or puddling options was tried at DWR research farm. Seeding depth
was kept at 2-3 cm while using drill for seeding. For comparison purposes transplanting was
also done under conventional puddling as well as under zero tillage and after field
preparation with rotary tiller. The rice variety used was IR 64. Direct seeding was done in the
first week of June on the same day when nursery was sown for transplanting. For weed
control Sofit @ 1500 ml/ha was applied after four days of direct seeding followed by one
weeding at around 35 days after seeding.
Among the direct seeding options, the yield recorded was highest where rice was seeded
using rotary till drill followed by broadcasting sprouted rice seed after field preparation by
rotary tillage and lowest when broadcasted under zero tillage. The mean yield in rotary
tillage was significantly higher compared to zero tillage. Direct drilling by zero till drill and
rotary till drill was at par and as good as transplanting under zero tillage or after field
preparation by rotary tillage and was significantly higher than drum seeding or broadcasting
under zero tillage. Among transplanting and direct seeding options, highest yield was
recorded in machine transplanting, which was significantly better than broadcasting and
drum seeder but statistically at par with other transplanting or seeding options. The yield was
marginally higher in conventionally puddled conditions compared to transplanting without
tillage, after field preparation by rotary tillage or direct drilling by zero or rotary till drill.

Direct Wet Seeded Rice

In this system sprouted seeds are broadcasted or placed with drum seeder under puddled or
unpuddled conditions. Wet direct seeded rice also reduces labour costs and effective
herbicides for weed control have helped making this technology more popular. Seed rate in
drum seeded rice varies from 50-75 kg/ha whereas in broadcasting method of seeding 20-30
kg/ha is sufficient. In wet seeded rice puddling can be avoided without any adverse effect on
rice yield. The observations at farmers field showed that mortality of sprouted seeds are
higher under puddled compared to unpuddled conditions.
Leaf Colour Chart

Leaf colour is a fairly good indicator of the nitrogen status of plant. Nitrogen use can be
optimised by matching its supply to the crop demand as observed through change in the leaf
chlorophyll content and leaf colour. The leaf colour chart developed by International Rice
Research Institute, Philippines can help the farmers because the leaf colour intensity relates
to leaf nitrogen status in rice plant. The monitoring of leaf colour using leaf colour chart helps
in the determination of right time of nitrogen application. Use of leaf colour chart is simple,
easy and cheap under all situations. The studies indicate that nitrogen can be saved from 10
to 15 percent using the leaf colour chart.
GreenSeeker for Need based Nitrogen Application

The improvement over leaf colour chart is the remote sensing based GreenSeeker which is
quantitative where the leaf colour is qualitative method. In case of leaf colour chart colour of
the few leaves is taken and used for nitrogen scheduling whereas GreenSeeker scans a
large area and the NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetation Index) recorded integrates both
colour and the extent of ground cover or in other words the health of the crop. The nitrogen
application using GreenSeeker NDVI helps save about 20% nitrogen in both wheat and rice
crops without any yield penalty.
Conservation Agriculture
It is a zero tillage plus technology wherein, in addition to zero tillage, crop residue is left over
the soil surface covering more than 30% of the surface. The surface residue load of more
than 4 t/ha helps in water conservation, reducing weed infestation, moderating soil
temperatures and in long run build up soil organic matter, a direct indicator of soil health.
Leaving crop residue at the soil surface helps in saving 1-2 irrigations leading to water
savings.
Conservation agriculture is much more than just reducing the mechanical tillage. In a soil
that is not tilled for many years, the crop residues remain on the soil surface and produce a
layer of mulch. This layer protects the soil from the physical impact of rain and wind,
conserves soil moisture, moderates soil temperature and harbours a number of organisms,
from larger insects down to soil borne fungi and bacteria. These organisms help convert the
crop residues into humus and contribute to the physical stabilization of the soil structure and
buffering of water and nutrients. Most tillage operations targeted at loosening the soil lead to
mineralization and reduction of soil organic matter, a substrate for soil life. Thus, agriculture
with reduced mechanical tillage is only possible when soil organisms are taking over the task
of tilling the soil. This, however, leads to other implications regarding the use of chemical
farm inputs. In a system with reduced mechanical tillage based on mulch cover and
biological tillage, alternatives have to be developed to control pests and weeds. Therefore,
“Integrated Pest Management” becomes mandatory. One important element to achieve this
is crop rotation, interrupting the infection chain between subsequent crops. Synthetic
chemical, particularly herbicides, are inevitable during initial years but have to be used with
care to reduce the negative impacts on soil life. A new balance between pests and beneficial
organisms, crops and weeds, gets established and the farmer learns to manage the cropping
system with reduced use of synthetic pesticides and mineral fertilizer compared to
"conventional" farming.
Hence, “Conservation Agriculture” (CA) involves a complete change in the crop production
system, although the entry point is reduction of mechanical soil tillage. It involves
modifications in the machinery, which means more mechanisation, maintenance of surface
residues providing at least 30% soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, adjustment, if required,
in the cropping system, minimum and need based use of chemicals.
Why seeding into crop residues?

Burning of crop residues and ploughing of soil is mainly considered necessary phytosanitary
measures controlling pests, diseases and weeds. Leaving crop residues on the soil surface
seems to be a much better option than incorporation or burning as it reduces soil erosion
and soil water evaporation, avoids short-term nutrient tie up, and suppresses weeds.
Moreover, the slower decomposition also helps build up soil organic carbon. Tillage is
mainly practised to prepare seedbed and to control already germinated weeds. But the
tillage is also responsible for stimulation of the weed germination and emergence of many
weeds by brief exposure to light. Crop residues may influence the weed seed reserve in the
soil directly or indirectly and also the efficiency of soil-applied herbicides. Moreover,
incorporated plant residues may release the allelochemicals, which can be toxic to weeds.
Residue retention on the soil surface in combination with no till system may also significantly
contribute to the suppression of weeds. No till system reduce the weed emergence by
avoiding exposure to light as well as offering mechanical impedance. Residue retention also
influences soil temperature and soil moisture, which in turn may increase or decrease the
weed germination depending on type of weed flora, soil conditions, type of crop residue and
quantity. At lower residue level, weed flora may be higher than the residue free conditions
but at higher levels definitely the weed will be reduced considerably.
What is not CA?

Zero-tillage: Zero tillage as stand alone is not Conservation Agriculture but is an important
component of CA. Tillage is avoided in CA by placing the seed with appropriate direct drills
by maintaining a soil cover. This also improves soil structure, facilitates direct planting and
uses biological tillage. Nevertheless, zero tillage can be transition step towards CA.
Conservation tillage: It is a practice to open the soil surface to increase rain water
infiltration and reduce erosion. However, it still depends on tillage as the soil structure-
forming element.
Direct planting/seeding: This is only a technique that refers to seeding/planting without

preparing a proper seedbed. The same equipment is used in Conservation Agriculture.
However, the term direct seeding can also be used for implements, which combine primary
and secondary tillage and seeding in one machine/tractor operation like the rotary till drills.
Organic farming: Although it is based on natural processes, Conservation Agriculture is not

a synonym of organic farming. CA does not prohibit the use of chemical inputs. For example,
herbicides are important component of Conservation Agriculture, particularly in the transition
phase. However, in view of the importance of soil life, farm chemicals, including fertilizer, are
carefully applied and over the years, quantities applied tend to decline. In some cases,
organic farming can be practised within the CA framework.
Is CA compatible with IPM?

Conservation Agriculture is not only compatible but also actually works on IPM principles.
CA, like IPM, enhances biological processes. It expands the IPM practices from crop and
pest management to land husbandry. Without the use of IPM practices the build up of soil
biota for the biological tillage would not be possible.
What is the role of Animal Husbandry in CA?

By recycling of nutrients, livestock production can be fully integrated into conservation
agriculture. This reduces the environmental problems caused by concentrated intensive
livestock production. Integration of livestock into agricultural production enables the farmer to
introduce forage crops into the crop rotation thereby reducing pest problems. Forage crops
can often be used as dual-purpose fodder and soil cover crops. However, in arid areas
having low biomass production, the conflict between use of organic matter to feed the
animals or to cover the soil is still to be resolved.
What are the downsides of CA?

During the transition phase, CA may require application of herbicides in case of heavy weed
infestation and certain soil borne pests or pathogens might create new problems due to the
change in biological equilibrium. Once the CA environment stabilizes, it tends to be more
sustainable than conventional agriculture.
Benefits of CA
Conservation Agriculture attracts different people for different reasons.
Farmers
 Reduction in labour, time, farm power and thereby the production cost
 Longer lifetime & less repair of tractors due to fewer passes and lower fuel consumption
 More stable yields, particularly in dry years

 Better trafficability in the field

 Gradually increasing yields with decreasing inputs
 Increased profit, in some cases from the beginning, in all cases after a few years.
Communities/Environment/Watershed
 More constant water flows in rivers, re-emergence of dried wells
 Cleaner water due to less erosion
 Less flooding due to increased water infiltration rate
 Less impact of extreme climatic situations (hurricanes, drought etc.)
 Lower cost for road and waterway maintenance
 Better food security
At global level
 Carbon sequestration (greenhouse effect): the global potential of CA in carbon
sequestration could equal the human made increase in CO2 in the atmosphere.
 Less leaching of soil nutrients or chemicals into the ground water
 Less pollution of the water
 Practically no erosion (erosion is less than soil build up)
 Recharge of aquifers through better infiltration
 Lower fuel consumption for agriculture
What are the issues?

Despite its advantages, CA has spread relatively slowly for a number of reasons. Firstly,
there is greater pressure to adopt in tropical, rather than temperate climates. Over the past
20 years the establishment of local knowledge base has ensured its spread. Converting to
Conservation Agriculture needs higher management skills, the first years might be very
difficult and might need moral support and perhaps even financial support to invest into new
machinery like zero-tillage or the CA planters. As it requires a complete change of
understanding, the scientific and technical sectors must focus on CA as the necessary
technologies are often unavailable.
Is Conservation Agriculture Real?

CA is being practised on more than 155 million ha, mostly in South and North America and
its adoption is also growing exponentially on small to large farms in Europe as well as Asia.
New Machines for CA: The Double disc coulters and Punch planter/Star wheel are the
machines being used in South and North America as well as in Europe, where large tractors
and heavy machines are being used. The performance of smaller versions of these
machines was not satisfactory in Asia. In India, two machines namely Turbo Happy seeder
and Rotary Disk Drill (RDD) are developed/ improvised at PAU Ludhiana and IIWBR
(erstwhile DWR) Karnal, respectively for seeding into surface retained residues after
combine harvesting. Both these machines are based on the rotary till mechanism.

Conclusions
In India, at the moment, majority of the work on CA is done under rice-wheat cropping
system but it can be easily extended to other wheat based systems also, may be with
greater benefits. The conservation agriculture helps reduce or rather reverse the natural
resource degradation by improving soil health and reducing ground water and environmental
pollution. The soil moisture conservation and soil temperature moderation can help to a large
extent in overcoming the adverse effects of climate change and the benefits are summarised
hereunder:
 It provides a truly sustainable production system by not only conserving but also
improving the natural resources and increasing the variety of soil biota, fauna and flora
in agricultural production systems without sacrificing yields.
 No till fields act as a sink for CO2 and conservation farming on a global scale could
contribute immensely to control air pollution in general and the global warming in
particular. Farmers applying this technique could eventually qualify for carbon credits.
 Among farming operations, soil tillage is the single most energy consuming and thus,
the air-polluting practice. By no tilling, farmers can save between 30 and 90% of time,
labour and fossil fuels as compared to conventional cropping thus reducing the air
polluting gases.
 Soils under conservation agriculture have very high water infiltration rates leading to
reduced surface runoff and thus significant reduction in soil erosion. This improves the
quality of surface water by reducing pollution from soil erosion, simultaneously
enhancing the groundwater resources. In many areas it has been observed that the
natural springs that had disappeared long time ago started to flow again after some
years of conservation farming. The potential benefit of large scale adoption of
conservation farming on global water balance is yet to be fully recognized.
 The system depends on biological processes to work and thus enhances the
biodiversity in an agricultural system on a micro- as well as macro level including flora
and fauna.
 Conservation agriculture is by no means a low output agriculture and allows yields
comparable with modern intensive agriculture but on a sustainable basis. Yields tend to
increase over the years with decreased year-to-year yield variations.
 For farmers, conservation farming is generally attractive because it reduces the
production costs by savings on energy, time, maintenance costs on machinery and
labour, especially during peak times like planting.
 Disadvantages in the short term might be initially high costs of specialized planting
equipment and the completely new dynamics of a conservation farming systems,
requiring high management skills and a learning process by the farmer. Long term
experience with conservation farming all over the world has shown that conservation
farming present not more or less but different problems to a farmer, none of them to be
irresolvable.

4. Micro Irrigation System: Importance and Economic

Benefits to Farmers
Raj Pal Meena
ICAR – Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal – 132001 (Haryana)
Wheat area in India is about 30 mha of which 97 per cent is irrigated, and requires about 128
million cubic meters of water per year (16% of global water use in wheat). Different
researchers have estimated that; to produce about one kilogram of wheat grain in India, the
amount of water required is about 1500 litres (FAO, 2012). Similarly, to produce a kilogram
of rice requires 3000-5000 litres of water. The amount of water used for irrigation is very
high, while the available water is decreasing rapidly. In this situation, it is necessary to save
as much water as possible for the future generations. Attempting to save water by adopting
the latest irrigation techniques is an important step towards this direction .The amount of
water used for irrigation can be substantially reduced by using new techniques and irrigation
methods; which is the ultimate requirement of today and tomorrow.
Experiments conducted at ICAR-Indian Wheat and Barley Research Institute, Karnal

revealed that at least 25 per cent of water used in wheat can be saved in areas having
similar conditions like Karnal. In general, most of the farmers in North Western India irrigate
their fields of about half to one
acre size by using flood
irrigation method wherein, more
than 1000 litres of water is
being utilised to produce one
kilogram of wheat grain.
Compared to flood irrigation
method, water can be saved by
irrigating the field via check
basin method which involves making of four plots in each acre (here; one kg of grains use
about 850 litres of water) and this saving can be further enhanced by employing micro
irrigation methods (in which one kg of grains can be produced using only about 600 litres of
water). Similarly, for producing one kilogram of rice under direct seeded paddy cultivation,
more than 3,000 litres of water is required, whereas, the same amount of paddy can be
obtained with about 2300 litres water through micro irrigation methods. Therefore, at least
25-30 per cent water can be saved by adopting modern system of irrigation in rice-wheat
cropping system. Surface irrigation methods are used in more than 80 percent of the
irrigated lands in the world, but water use efficiency of surface irrigation is around 40 per
cent. In contrast, micro irrigation system; especially drip irrigation method prevents water
losses through leaching, seepage, evaporation etc. and improves water use efficiency to
70-90 per cent. Hence, adoption of modern irrigation techniques is very important for saving
water, increasing the water use efficiency and ultimately bringing more area under irrigated
conditions.

What is Micro Irrigation?

Systems of pressurized irrigation; sprinkler or drip, can improve water use efficiency and
contribute substantially to improved food production. These devices replenish the water
consumed by crops and also provide water to soil so as to make it congenial for agricultural
activities. The goal of micro irrigation is to supply each plant with just the right amount of
water it needs. Micro irrigation technology can support farmers to adapt to climate change by
making more efficient use of water. This is particularly appropriate where there is limited
water for agricultural use. The micro irrigation system uses less water with respect to surface
irrigation methods and uniformly applies water to the crops. The risk of soil erosion can be
minimized as micro irrigation system limits soil disturbance, which can otherwise occur using
surface methods of irrigation. There are several types of micro irrigation i.e drip, sprinkler,
mist, fog, rain guns etc., but in cereals like wheat, barley, rice, maize etc., drip and sprinkler
irrigation systems are commonly recommended.
What is Drip Irrigation?

Drip irrigation system is an advanced irrigation technology which saves water as well as
nutrients .The drip irrigation method is the most effective way of directly applying water, and
nutrients together in the root zone. This not only saves water but also increases the nutrient
use efficiency and the yield of crop. In this method, water droplets along with dissolved
nutrients are transported directly to the roots of the plant or tree, so that the root of the plant
gradually absorbs water and nutrients (fertigation). Fertigation is the delivery of
nutrients/micronutrients in exact quantity as per the crop demand and is directly supplied to
root zone along with irrigation water through drip system. This is an advanced and beneficial
system suited to countries/regions where availability of water is a limitation.
Fertilizer use efficiency is enhanced multi-folds in case of fertigation as compared to

conventional broadcasting or drilling. In addition, loss of fertilizer in the environment is also
reduced leading to avoidance of environmental pollution. Fertigation technology does not
require any additional human labour for applying fertilizer in crops/fields.
Involvement of human labour in fertigation is negligible which in turn adds to reduced

drudgery among farmers ultimately contributing to the Happiness Index among the farming
community. This technique increases the efficiency of water and labour as well as fertilizer
use efficiency. This is a successful technique in areas where water availability is low and in
which a permanent or temporary dripper line is placed near the roots of plant/tree. Under
today's scenario, every country, state, district, region is confronting with this problem of lack
of water availability and so, water needs to be conserved as much as possible. Maximum
water is being used in agriculture and hence maximum saving can also be made here only.
Drip irrigation technology holds an important place in this campaign; so the farmers must be
motivated to adopt this technology on a larger scale.
Equipments Used in Drip Irrigation
 Pump: A pump with adequate pressure is required for water supply. Its capacity is
dependent on water sources, area of the field etc.
 Filter unit: Water filtration system, so that there is no hindrance in the activities of
drip system. It contains water and sand filters (to separate the sand or any
suspended material).
 Fertigation unit: For the provision of fertigation (application of fertilizers with

irrigation water).
 Pressure gauge: For monitoring water pressure in the drip system
 Meter: It indicates the flow rate of water in drip system
 Main pipeline: It supplies water in laterals. Main pipeline made of PVC or HDPE and
could be buried in 1.5-2.0 feet deep trenches and covered with soil so that
agricultural activities such as sowing and other intercultural operations can be easily
done. Covering protects the pipeline from direct intense sun light, low temperature
and other external damages.
 Laterals: The thinner tubes which supply water to drippers are called laterals. These
tubes are spread along the crop rows. In case of field crops like wheat and rice,
laterals are placed in such a way that they supply water to two rows on either side i.e
each lateral is placed after every two rows of the crop. These laterals can be
removed and stored in bundles after crop maturity and before harvesting the crop.
The other option can be burying these laterals at a depth of 25-30 cm which helps to
improve life of the drip lines.
 Drippers: These are the openings which supply water to the root zone of crops in the
form of droplets. These drippers are spaced 30 cm apart in case of field crops
whereas, in plantation crops these can be spread based on the plant to plant
spacing. Drippers deliver water at the rate of 2.4 litres per hour and can be adjusted
according to crop demand and weather variations.

Advantages of Drip Irrigation System

 Large quantity of water can be saved and this can be used to irrigate additional crop
area. Minimum of 25% water saving can be realized by using this technique.
 Water is distributed equally throughout the crop field even where the land is undulated
and not leveled leading to improved productivity and saving of leveling cost.
 Drip irrigation can be followed in all conditions of crop cultivation such as crops grown in
field, shade nets, green houses, orchards as well as in different soil types.
 As there is limited wetting i.e only the root zone in drip irrigated fields hence, less weed
infestation and disease incidence is observed.
 Fertilizers and micronutrients use efficiency is higher in drip than flood irrigation.
 No soil erosion is observed as there is no surface flow of water on land.
 Less labor cost in drip irrigation as compared to conventional method of irrigation.
 Uniform and precise delivery of micronutrients in the root zone of the crop is ensured
using drip irrigation system along with irrigation water.
What is Sprinkler Irrigation?

Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of applying irrigation in which
water falls on crop similar to rainfall. Water is distributed
(sprayed into the air) through a system of pipes and sprinklers
usually by pumping. An automatic sprinkler valve controls the
flow of water from the mainline to each lateral line. Lateral line
pipes carry water from the automatic valves to
the sprinkler heads. Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for
small to large areas and are suitable for use on all types of
soil. In the present time, variety of sprinkler systems ranging
from simple hand-move to large self-propelled systems are
available and being used worldwide.
A sprinkler irrigation system typically consists of:

 Pump: A pump unit which takes water from the source and provides pressure for
delivery into the pipe system. The capacity of pump must be enough to supply water
at an adequate pressure so that the water is applied at required rate and volume to the
crop.
 Filter unit: Water filtration system, so that there is no hindrance in the activities of
sprinkler system. It contains water and sand filters (to separate the sand or any
suspended material).
 Fertigation unit: For the provision of fertigation (application of fertilizers along with
irrigation water).
 Pressure gauge: To monitor water pressure in the sprinkler system
 Meter: It indicates flow rate of water in sprinkler system
 Main pipes and secondary pipes: Pipe lines which deliver water from the pump to
the laterals. In some cases these pipelines are permanently installed on the soil
surface or buried below ground. In other cases they are temporary, and can be moved
from field to field.
 Laterals: Laterals deliver water from the pipes to the sprinklers. They can be
permanent but more often they are portable and made of aluminium alloy or plastic so
that they can be moved easily
 Sprinklers: Sprinklers are water-emitting devices which convert the water jet into
droplets. The distribution of sprinklers should be arranged in a way so as to wet the
crop canopy or soil surface as evenly as possible.
Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation System

 The main advantage of the sprinkler irrigation technology is enhanced water use
efficiency. Sprinkler systems eliminate water conveyance channels, thereby reducing
water loss. Water is also distributed more evenly across crops thereby avoiding
wastage.
 The sprinkler irrigation system is suited for most row/field/tree crops that are grown
closely together, such as cereals, pulses, sugarcane, groundnut, cotton, vegetable and
fruit orchards.
 The sprinkler irrigation system is suited to all types of soil and topography.
 No expenditure on field leveling.
 Soluble fertilizers can be applied through the system enabling easy and even
application.
 Sprinkler irrigation can reduce the risk of ‘crop freezing’ under colder temperatures.
More frequent and intense frosts are impacting crops as a result of climate change.
During night, the motion of the sprinklers and the application of rain-like water droplets
can reduce the stress on crops caused by a sharp decrease in temperature.
 Drudgery reduction device, hence sprinkler irrigation system is helpful in enhancing the
“index of happiness” for farmers.

Disadvantages of the Sprinkler Systems

The main disadvantages associated with the sprinkler systems are related to climatic
conditions. Even moderate winds can seriously reduce the effectiveness of sprinkler systems
by altering the distribution pattern of the water droplets. Likewise, when operating under
high temperatures, water can evaporate at a faster rate; reducing the effectiveness of the
irrigation system.
Cost of Micro Irrigation System

The cost incurred on installing a drip irrigation system largely depends on the type of crop to
be irrigated for example, field crops (rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane etc.), orchards (mango,
pomegranate, lemon, guava etc.) or vegetables (chilli, tomato etc.). The row spacing
between two crop lines and distance of source of water from the field also contributes to the
cost. On an average; `1.25 lakh is required to establish drip irrigation in one hectare area.
Subsidy on installation of Micro Irrigation System

In India, financial help (subsidy) on installation of drip irrigation system is available through
both central and state government schemes. Depending on the area available with the
farmer, the amount of financial help granted varies. Since the schemes and amount of
financial help provided varies in different states of India, the exact information on this in a
particular area may be obtained from the nearest office of State Department of
Agriculture/Horticulture/ Project Director of ATMA, district soil conservation officer etc.

Small and marginal farmers coming under Drought Prone Area Programme/Desert
Development Programme can avail upto 45% and 35% of total cost of installation of drip
irrigation system, respectively. Crops with wider row spacing are provided with `23500 to
`58400 per hectare while crops with closer row spacing get `85400 to `100000 per hectare.
The benefits of financial help can be availed on individual/group (five farmers) basis.

5. Major Weeds of Wheat and their Management

Chhokar RS, RK Sharma, SC Gill and RK Singh
Weed infestation is one of the main factors limiting crop productivity. For realizing full genetic
yield potential of the crop, the proper weed control is one of the essential ingredients. Weeds
not only reduce the yield but also make the harvesting operation difficult. Therefore for
sustaining food grain production and to feed ever-increasing population weed management
is very essential. The average losses caused by weeds in wheat are about 25 to 30% but
losses depend on weed species and density; time of emergence; wheat cultivar; planting
density; soil and environmental factor. In extreme cases losses caused by weeds can be up
to complete crop failure. The cases of complete crop failure were quite common after the
development of isoproturon resistance in P. minor (early nineties), when the farmers
harvested their immature wheat crops as fodder. The critical period of weed control in wheat
is 30-45 days after sowing and crop should be kept weed free during this period.
Weed Flora and Weed Flora Shift

Weed flora of wheat differs from area to area and field to field depending on environmental
conditions, irrigation, fertilizer use, soil type, weed control practices and cropping sequences.
The predominant weeds associated with wheat crop are Phalaris minor Retz., Avena
ludoviciana Dur., Lolium temulentum, , Poa annua L , Polypogon monspliences Desf.,
Chenopodium album L., Vicia sativa L., Lathyrus aphaca L., Circium arvense L., Melilotus
alba Lamk, Coronopus didymus L., Rumex dentatus, Anagallis arvensis L., Argemone
mexicana L., Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav., Carthamus oxycantha Beib, Convolvulus arvensis
L., Cannabis sativa L., Euphorbia helioscopia L., Fumaria parviflora Lamk., Malva parviflora,
Medicago denticulata Willd, Polygonum plebejum R. Br., Spergula arvensis L.
Yellow thistle (Carthamus oxycantha Beib) was main weed before green revolution but
increased irrigation and tillage along with increased cropping intensity have almost
eliminated this weed. Similarly, wild oat has been eliminated from heavy soils where rice is
grown. Although, Maize-wheat rotation allows its gradual build up. Among grassy weeds,
Phalaris minor Retz. and among broad-leaved weeds Rumex dentatus L. and Medicago
denticulata are of major concern in irrigated wheat under rice-wheat system in India. Since,
R-W system provides favourable conditions to these weeds. P. minor is major problem in
heavy soil soils, whereas, wild oat is more prevalent in light textured soil. Both P. minor and
Rumex dentatus are highly competitive weeds and can cause drastic yield reduction under
heavy infestation.
Weed Control Measures

The various weed management practices can be grouped into three broad categories
namely cultural and preventive; physical or mechanical; and chemical weed control. These
practices are discussed in the subsequent sections.


Preventive and Cultural Measures

Cultural practices such as time and method of sowing, crop density and geometry, crop
varieties, dose, method and time of fertilizer application, time and method of irrigation have
pronounced effect on weed-crop interference.
Some of the practices are:

 Use clean wheat seed free from weed seeds.
 Uproot weeds before seed setting
 Keep bunds and channels weed free
 Date of sowing should be adjusted in such a manner that it is unfavourable for the
weed seed germination without hampering the crop yield. Early sown wheat (Last week
of Oct.) reduces P. minor infestation compared to late sown.
 Crop rotation is a very effective cultural practice in breaking the association of
problematic weeds like P. minor in wheat. Intensification of Rice-wheat system by
including short duration veg pea or potato followed by late wheat effectively controlled
the weeds without herbicide application. Also, inclusion of berseem or oats for fodder
once in three year reduced the weed infestation.
 Adopting planting pattern like closer row spacing or criss-cross sowing increases the
smothering effect of the crop on weeds through better early canopy coverage.
Increasing seed rate of wheat to 150 kg/ha reduces the losses caused by weeds.
 Crop cultivars vary in their growing habit, which can substantially affect crop- weed
balance. Fast growing or early canopy forming and spreading types during early stages
are less susceptible to weed competition. Taller wheat genotypes are more
competitive.
 Fertilizer should be placed 2-3 cm below the seed. By altering the time and method of
fertilizer application, competitive advantage can be shifted in favor of wheat crop. The
initial crop growth will be better if fertilizer is made more available to crop instead of
weeds. Sowing of wheat on Furrow Irrigated Ridge-till Bed-planting System (FIRBS)
reduces weed competition.
 Stale seed bed/ Dab system: Stimulate weed emergence by giving light irrigation then
follow weed control either with non-selective herbicides like glyphosate or cultivation
before sowing of wheat crop. It is a very effective method but it delays the sowing

operation. In this system heavy pre-seeding irrigation is given so that weeds get
optimum time and moisture for emergence. By delaying the sowing after field
preparation heavy planking can be done to uproot the emerged weed seedlings and
wheat sowed by drilling in moist layer. The use of non-selective herbicide is of
particular importance in zero tillage (ZT) sown crop.
 Soil moisture affects the weed control efficiency through its effect on herbicide efficacy
and weed germination and growth. Moisture should be modified in such a manner that
it favour crop not weeds.
 Zero tillage offer a way to manage P. minor. The less Phalaris minor problem under
zero tillage system was due to less soil disturbance as a result P. minor seeds present
in lower soil layer fail to germinate. Besides lower P. minor problem ZT also helps in
reducing the cost of cultivation by `2500 to `3000/ha. Therefore, ZT is a cost effective
and sustainable weed management system but continues use of ZT invites problem
from other weeds such as Rumex spp. and Malva parviflora.
Mechanical Control
It involves the removal of weeds by various tools and implements including hand weeding
and uprooting. Manual weeding though effective but it involves considerable amount of man-
power and time. Due to costly and scarce labour its feasibility is very less. Mechanical
weeding is also difficult, where weeds resemble morphologically to crop eg. P. minor and
Avena ludoviciana before flowering in wheat. Also, mechanical weed control becomes
difficult in broadcast sown wheat. However, mechanical control can be practiced effectively
when wheat is sown on FIRBS or in lines under flat bed system. Further the efficiency of
mechanical weed control is increased in FIRB system when two rows are taken. Weeding
with the help of adjustable hand cultivator or wheel hoe can be done in line sown wheat
crop.
Chemical Weed Control

Chemical weed control is preferred because of less labour involvement and no mechanical
damage to the crop that happens during manual weeding. Moreover, the control is more
effective as the weeds even within the rows are killed, which invariably escape, because of
morphological similarity to wheat, during mechanical control.
a. Pre-emergence
As pre-emergence pendimethalin can be applied @ 1000-1500 g a.i/ha at 0-3 days after
sowing in 400-500 litres of water/ha. Pre emergence application can also be done with
tractor mounted sprayer. Care should also be taken to have fine tilth and good soil moisture
for better performance of pendimethalin.
b. Post-emergence
Post-emergence herbicides are mainly applied 7-10 days after first irrigation. Some of the
major post emergent wheat herbicides are sulfosulfuron, clodinafop, pinoxaden, fenoxaprop,
Atlantis (mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron), isoproturon, 2,4-D, metsulfuron and carfentrazone.
The optimum dose of herbicides and their effectiveness against broad target group are given
in tabular form.
Table 1: Chemical weed control in wheat
Dose
Weed Control
g a.i. /ha Time of application
Herbicide
(Product dose g DAS
Grasses Broadleaf
or ml/ha)
Pinoxaden 50 Post -30-35 DAS 
Post -30-35 DAS
Clodinafop 60 
Post -30-35 DAS
Fenoxaprop- ethyl 100-120 
Post -30-35 DAS
Sulfosulfuron 25  
Post -30-35 DAS
Sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron 30+2  
Post -30-35 DAS
Sulfosulfuron + Carfentrazone 25+20  
Post -30-35 DAS
12+2.4
Mesosulfuron+Iodosulfuron (Atlantis 3.6WDG)  
(400)
Post -30-35 DAS
Isoproturon 750-1000  
Post -30-35 DAS
Metsulfuron 4 
Post -30-35 DAS
Metsulfuron+ Carfentrazone 5+20 
Post -30-35 DAS

Carfentrazone 20 
Post -30-35 DAS

2,4-D-E 500 
Pendimethalin 1000-1500 Pre-em- 0-3 DAS  
Pre-emergence
Flumioxazin 125  
0-3 DAS
Pre- to early post

Pyroxasulfone 127.5  
0-20 DAS
300-400 Pre- to early post

Flufenacet 
0-20 DAS
Table 2: Herbicides for control of multiple herbicide resistant Phalaris minor

Dose Weed Control
G a.i. /ha Time of application
Herbicide
(Product dose in g or DAS
Grasses Broadleaf
ml/ha)
Flumioxazin 125 Pre-emergence
 
(Max 50 SC) (250) 0-3 DAS
Pendimethalin 1500 Pre-emergence
 
(Stomp 30 EC, Dhantop 30 EC) (5000) 0-3 DAS
Pre- to early post
Pyroxasulfone 127.5
emergence  
(PIH 485-85% WDG) (150)
0-20 DAS
 For control of broad-leaved weeds, metsulfuron @ 4.0 g/ha or carfentrazone @ 20 g/ha

or 2,4-D @ 500 g/ha should be applied. Pre-emergence pendimethalin (1000 g/ha) is
also quite effective in controlling broad-leaved weeds. Ready or tank mixapplication of
metsulfuron + carfentrazone, 2,4-D + carfentrazone or Halauxifen + florasulam or
pyroxsulam provide the control of diverse broad leaved weed flora.

 For the control of complex weed flora combination of herbicides should be applied.
Sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron and isoproturon with 2,4-D or metsulfuron can be used as
tank mixture. Grass herbicides (clodinafop, fenoxaprop, and pinoxaden) should not be
tank mixed with either 2,4-D or metsulfuron and to avoid antagonism the grass and
broad-leaved herbicides should be applied sequentially at a gap of 3-5 days. Clodinafop
and fenoxaprop have incompatibility with broadleaf herbicides particularly 2,4-D and
metsulfuron resulting in decreased control of grassy weeds (P. minor) and requires
sequential application for efficient weed control. Some of the ready mix combinations like
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron (Total), mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron (Atlantis), clodinafop +
metribuzin (Sagun 11-21 and ACM 9) and sulfosulfuron + carfentrtazone are effective to
control diverse grassy and broadleaf weeds in wheat. Sulfosulfuron has longer soil
persistence and affects succeeding sensitive crops like sorghum, maize, and cotton
when planted soon after wheat harvest. In resistance affected area clodinafop +
metribuzin or pinoxaden + metribuzin are largely usedby the farmers but higher amount
of metribuzin due to improper application method as well some sensitive wheat cultivars
like PBW 550 and Raj 3765 had some injury.
 In north western plains heavy infestation of P. minor sometimes causes complete crop
failure, where it has also evolved herbicide resistance.P minor has evolved multiple
herbicides resistance (MHR) against isoproturon, clodinafop and sulfosulfuron in
northern western plains. Herbicides effective for the control of MHR populations of
Phalaris minor are Pendimethalin, Flumioxazin, Pyroxasulfone, Flufenacet and
metribuzin. For effective and economical management, early wheat sowing under zero
tillage should be combined with above-mentioned post-emergence herbicides.
 Early sown wheat (Last week of Oct.) had less P minor population compared to late
sown.
 ZT wheat production could be an important tool for controlling herbicide -resistant weeds
like Phalaris minor, which appeared to decrease. However, other annual weeds -like wild
oats, Rumex dentatus, Malva parviflora, Medicago spp - have the potential to increase
under ZT. Hence, ZT does require different strategies for pre-seeding weed control. In
zero tillage systems; the absence of tillage as a means of weed control must be
compensated for by an increase in herbicide use and cultural weed control strategies.In
fields heavily infested with perennial or annual weeds, spray0.5-0.75% Glyphosate
(Roundup or Glycel 41 % SL 12.2-18.3 ml/lit of water) 1-2 days before sowing.
Herbicides found effective against resistance biotypes of Phalaris minor were sulfosulfuron,
clodinafop, fenoxaprop, and pinoxaden. Sulfosulfuron is effective against both grassy and
non-grassy weeds whereas, clodinafop, fenoxaprop, and pinoxaden are specific to grasses.
For the control of complex weed flora combination of herbicides are needed. Sulfosulfuron
can be tank mixed with metsulfuron. While, as grass herbicides (clodinafop, fenoxaprop, and
pinoxaden) should not be mixed with metsulfuron and 2,4-D because they are not
compatible. To avoid antagonism the grass and broad-leaved herbicides should be applied
sequentially.
Residual effect of wheat herbicides on succeeding crops

Sulfonyl urea herbicides have long persistency and as a result it may affect the sensitive
succeeding crops. Sulfosulfuron and chlorsulfuron applied in wheat was found to have its
residual effect on succeeding maize and sorghum crops. These are herbicides for rice-wheat
system and should not be used in crop sequences where cotton, sorghum and maize are to
follow wheat. Therefore selection of herbicides for a crop should be in a system perspective.
Herbicide Resistance
Littleseed canary grass (P minor) is the most serious weed of wheat in rice-wheat sequence
and has evolved multiple herbicide resistance. The multiple resistance problems at few
locations are so severe causing huge grain yield reductions. If the problem of resistance is
not tackled, it may lead to serious consequences leading to decrease in wheat production in
rice-wheat sequence. Herbicide resistance management strategies:
 Crop rotation
 Herbicide rotation
 Herbicide mixtures (Synergistic and compatible)
 Avoid under dosing of herbicides
Wheat based Intercropping System

Wheat is generally grown with mustard and under such system clodinafop, fenoxaprop,
isoproturon and pendimethalin can be used depending on the type of weed flora. Whereas in
situation where wheat is intercropped with sugarcane in bed planted system, broad-
spectrum weed can be controlled with combination of sulfosulfuron with metsulfuron.
Isoproturon can also be used in areas having no resistance problem.
Integrated Weed Management

Integrated weed management is the best approach in which all suitable methods of weed
control are used in a compatible manner to reduce weed population and maintain them at
levels below the threshold causing economic injury. Plant density, time of sowing, variety,
seed rate, spacing, tillage practices, quantity and time of fertilizer and irrigation water are
some of important factors, which influence the weed-crop competition. Regulation of these
factors should be such that they give the competitive edge to crop over weeds. The
integration of these factors with chemical measure is advisable to avoid the ill effects caused
by the sole dependence on the herbicides. Some of the negative impacts of sole
dependence on herbicides are herbicide resistance, weed flora shift and soil and
environmental pollution.

6. Nutrients Management in Wheat

Subhash Chander Gill, RS Chhokar, RK Sharma, Raj Pal Meena and SC Tripathi
India is the second largest wheat producer country (99.7 mt) in the world first being the
China and having the highest area (29.58 mha) under wheat cultivation. Geographically the
total area under wheat cultivation in India have been divided into six zones viz. Northern Hill
Zone (NHZ), North Western Plains Zone (NWPZ), North Eastern Plains Zone (NEPZ),
Central Zone (CZ) and Southern Hill Zone (SHZ). The major production contributor is NWPZ
followed by NEPZ. The productivity of North Eastern Plains Zone is low compared NWPZ
and hence, need for improvement by adopting improved production technologies. The major
improved production technologies are: use of improved high yielding wheat cultivars,
optimum sowing time, seed rate, spacing, depth of sowing, balanced use of chemical
fertilizers and organic manures, irrigation, weed management, use of conservation
agriculture technologies, crop protection measures, timely harvesting, threshing and
marketing. Out of these production technologies, nutrient management plays a pivotal role in
achieving the optimum productivity of wheat.
As the fertility of soil started to decline with the passage of time due to continuous cultivation
of crops, human beings begun the use of animals manure and adopted shifting cultivation as
means to restore and sustain the productivity of the lands. keeping the fields fallow or
growing of legumes or use of animals well-rotten dung as manure were the only means to
sustain soil fertility up to the end of 18th century but with the advent of manufacturing of
single super phosphate (SSP) by Lawes and Gilbert in the middle of nineteenth century in
England and synthesis of Ammonia by German Chemist Fritz Haber in 1918 brought about
new dawn in the era of soil fertility. This led to the use of chemical fertilizers for improving
soil fertility and achieving higher productivity.
Balanced Use of Chemical Fertilizers: The use of chemical fertilizers, though proved a
boon for achieving higher crop productivity and food security to starving human population
through out the world but soon it was realized that continuous use of high doses of chemical
fertilizers alone created an imbalance in soil fertility and plant nutrient supply system on one
hand and started to cause pollution on the other hand. To overcome this problem a new
approach was conceived for maintaining the soil fertility and improving the productivity of
crops to achieve food security and human nutrition for ever increasing human population.
This new approach was termed as Integrated Nutrient Management.
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM): It is an approach that seeks to both increase

agricultural production and safeguard the environment for future generations. It is a strategy
that incorporates both organic and inorganic plant nutrients to attain higher crop productivity,
prevent soil degradation, and thereby helping to sustain future food supply needs. It relies on
nutrient application and conservation, new technologies to increase nutrient availability to
plants, and the dissemination of knowledge between farmers and researchers.
The concept of Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) takes into consideration the nutrient
cycle involving soils, crops and live stock, nutrient deficiencies, organic recycling,
conjunctive use of organic manures and mineral fertilizers and biological nitrogen fixing
potential. The primary goal of integrated nutrient management (INM) is to combine old and
new methods of nutrient management into ecologically sound and economically viable
farming systems that utilize available organic and inorganic sources of nutrients in a
judicious and efficient way. Integrated nutrient management optimizes all aspects of nutrient
cycling. It attempts to achieve tight nutrient cycling with synchrony between nutrient demand
by the crop and nutrient release in the soil, while minimizing losses through leaching, runoff,
volatilization and immobilization.
The term Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply System (IPNS) is also synonymously used for
integrated nutrient management. The basic concept underlying IPNS is the maintenance or
adjustment of soil fertility/productivity and of optimum plant nutrient supply for sustaining the
desired level of crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible
sources of plant nutrients including locally available ones in an integrated manner while
ensuring environmental quality. In practical term, a system of crop nutrition in which plant
nutrient needs are met through a pre-planned integrated use of mineral fertilizers; organic
manures/fertilizers (e.g. green manures, recyclable wastes, crop residues, FYM etc); and
bio-fertilizers. The appropriate combination of different sources of nutrients varies according
to the system of land use and ecological, social and economic conditions at the local level.
Some of the components of INM are:
Chemical Fertilizers: The total production of Nitrogenous and Phosphate fertilizers was
only 0.36 mt in 1965-66. Considerable efforts were made to popularize the fertilizers use
during this era but tall and less fertilizer responsive varieties of rice and wheat were the
major constraints. They could take only 30-40 kg N/ha and at higher doses of fertilizers they
lodged. Single crop in a year and regular application of Farm Yard Manures (FYM) by
majority of farmers at that time further added to less response of applied doses of N, P and
K fertilizers during this period Import of short statured (dwarf), fertilizer responsive wheat
varieties from Mexico and development of high yielding dwarf varieties of rice by IRRI led to
green revolution era set in. New agronomic package of practices for these varieties was
developed in which one of the major recommendations was application of higher doses of
balanced NPK fertilizers. It has been observed that increase in food grain production in India
due to fertilizers has been 50-60%. Thus, in realization of high yield potential of HYV’s,
fertilizers have played a key role.
Imbalance use of N, P and K fertilizers is also posing great threat to soil fertility in India. The
ratio of N, P and K fertilizers consumption is 5:2:1 in India on average basis but it is too wide
in Northern states i.e. 16:5:1. The other major problem associated with chemical fertilizers is
their use efficiency which is quite low in Nitrogenous, Phosphatic and micronutrients. Only
less than one third of applied nutrients are taken up by the crops and rest are either lost in
the environment or fixed in the soil.

Table 1: Chemical fertilizer nutrients recommended for wheat

Name of Constituent Source of
S.No. Fertilizer Recommendation
Nutrient in Plant Nutrient
1 Carbon 38-40 % Air ---
2 Hydrogen 5-6 % Water ---
3 Oxygen 52-54 % Water ---
4 Nitrogen 1.5- 2.0 % Soil 150 kg N/ha through DAP, NPK and urea fertilizers.
Apply 1/3rd N as basal, 1/3rd N at first irrigation and
1/3rd N at second irrigation
5 Phosphorus 0.1- 0.5 % Soil 60 kg P2O5 /ha through DAP, MAP, SSP or NPK
fertilizers. Full dose as basal (at sowing)
6 Potassium 1.0-1.5 % Soil 40 kg K2O/ha through MOP or Sulphate of Potash
fertilizers. Full dose as basal (at sowing)
7 Calcium 0.09 % Soil As per need through gypsum or lime
8 Magnesium 0.18 % Soil As per need through Magnesium Sulphate
9 Sulphur 0.20 % Soil 10 kg Sulphur/ha through gypsum or sulphur
containing granule fertilizers. Full dose as basal if
gypsum is applied or at first irrigation if sulphur
containing granule fertilizers are used
10 Zinc 20-40 ppm Soil 25 kg Zinc Sulphate/ha. Full dose as basal or spray
0.5% Zinc Sulphate with 3.0% urea solution at 35 and
55 Days After Sowing (DAS)
11 Iron 30-50 ppm Soil 25 kg Ferrous Sulphate/ha. Full dose as basal or spray
0.5% Ferrous Sulphate with 3.0% urea solution at 35
and 55 (DAS)
12 Manganese 10-20 ppm Soil 10 kg Manganese Sulphate/ha. Full dose as basal or
spray 0.5% Manganese Sulphate with 3.0% urea
solution at 35 and 55 (DAS)
13 Copper 15-20 ppm Soil 4 kg Copper Sulphate/ha. Full dose as basal or spray
0.1% Copper Sulphate with 3.0% urea solution at 35
and 55 (DAS)
14 Boron 5-10 ppm Soil 10 kg Borax/ha. Full dose as basal or spray 0.5%
Borax with 3.0% urea solution at 35 and 55 (DAS)
15 Molybdenum 0.5-1.0 ppm Soil 0.4 – 1.0 kg Sodium Molybdate/ha. Full dose as basal
or spray 0.1-0.3% Borax with 3.0% urea solution at 35
and 55 (DAS)
16 Chlorine < 0.5 ppm Soil Deficiency under field conditions not reported
17 Nickel Traces Soil Deficiency under field conditions not reported
Micronutrients Management: Due to continuous practice of cereal-cereal crop rotation,

micro nutrient deficiencies are being reported. To rectify these deficiencies application of
micronutrients fertilizers are recommended. For Zn deficiency, apply 25 kg of ZnSO 4/ha as
basal dose i.e. at the time of sowing. If the deficiency is reported during the growing period,
then apply 0.5 % ZnSO4 (500g ZnSO4 + 250g unslaked lime or 3.0 kg urea in 100 litres of
water) spray at 35 DAS and 55 DAS. For Fe deficiency, apply 25 kg of FeSO4/ha as basal
dose i.e. at the time of sowing. If the deficiency is reported during the growing period, then
apply 0.5 % FeSO4 (500g FeSO4 + 250g unslaked lime or 3 kg urea in 100 litres of water)
spray at 35 DAS and 55 DAS. Similarly copper and manganese can also be applied through
CuSO4 and MnSO4, respectively, with same dose if their deficiency is reported. While
spraying micronutrients, care should be taken that proper neutralizing may be done through
unslaked lime or urea to avoid leaf tip burning effect. For Boron deficiency, apply borax at 10
kg/ha as basal dose i.e. at the time of sowing. If the deficiency is reported during the growing
period, then apply 0.2 % borax (200g borax + 250g unslaked lime or 3.0 kg urea in 100 litres
of water) spray at 35 DAS and 55 DAS. Fertilizers should be applied on soil test basis
conserving the critical limits given in Table 2.
Table 2: Rating chart for soil test values of available nutrients

S.No. Property/ Element Low Medium High
1 Organic Carbon, % <0.40 0.40-0.75 >0.75
2 pH <6.5 6.5-8.7 >8.7
3 Electrical Conductivity, dS/m <0.8 0.8-2.5 >2.5
4 Available Nitrogen, mg/kg <140 140-280 >280
5 Available Phosphorus, mg/ kg (as P) <5 5-12.5 >12.5
6 Available Potassium, mg/kg (as K) <60 60-140 >140
7 Available Sulphur, mg/kg <10 10-20 >20
8 Available Zinc, mg/kg <1.0 1.0-3.0 >3.0
9 Available Iron (Fe), mg/kg <4.5 4.5-9.0. >9.0
10 Available Manganese (Mn), mg/kg <1.0 1.0-2.0 >2.0
11 Available Copper (Cu), mg/kg <0.2 0.2-1.0 >1.0
12 Available Boron (B), mg/kg 0.5 0.5-1.0 >1.0
13 Available Molybdenum (Mo), mg/kg 0.01 0.01-0.05 >0.05
Organic Manures: The annual potential of organic sources in the country generated through
human beings, animals and crop residues is about 17 mt of N, P2O5 and K2O. The major
share is of animal dung which has a potential of 7 mt of N, P2O5 and K2O. This dung is used
to make organic manures like FYM, vermin-compost, etc. These organic sources constitute
an important component of nutrient management system. Various studies showed that
application of 12 to 15 t FYM/ ha along with recommended doses of fertilizers resulted in
higher wheat productivity and sustainable soil fertility. This increase in crop productivity may
be due to many components present in the organic manures and their effects on soil
physical and biological properties and partly to synergism.
Green Manures: Green manures (GM) constitute a valuable potential source of N & organic
matter. Sesbania aculeata is a versatile flood tolerant green manure and highly adapted to
varying soil and climatic conditions. Crotalaria juncea and Tephrosia purpurea are important
drought tolerant legumes. The amount of N accumulated in 45-60 days old GM crops can
reach up to more than 200 kg/ha; generally it is around 100 kg/ha which corresponds to the
average amount of mineral fertilizer N applied to most of agricultural crops in Asia.
Integrated use of green manure and chemical fertilizers can save 50-75 % of N fertilizers.
Green manuring also increase the availability of several other plant nutrients through its
favourable effects on chemical, physical and biological properties of soil.
Bio Fertilizers: Azotobactor, Azospirillum, Blue Green Algae and Azolla fern are important
bio fertilizers for rice and Azotobactor and, Azospirillum for wheat. They can save 20-30 kg
N/ha in rice and 10-20 kg N/ha in wheat.
Crop Residues: It has been estimated that only one-third of the residues potential is
available for utilization in agricultural production and of the nutrients taken up by the cereal
crops about 25% of N and P, 50% of S and 75% of K is retained in the residues making
them valuable nutrient sources. The major disadvantage with incorporation of cereal straw
having wider C:N ratio, is the immobilization of inorganic N and crop growth may be
adversely affected due to deficiency of N. Residue characteristics, soil type and
management practices affect the decomposition of applied crop residues in soil. Under
optimum temperature and moisture conditions, the period of immobilization can last as long
as 4 to 6 weeks.

Other Non-conventional Sources: Other non-conventional sources include agro- industrial

waste products such as pressmud, oil cakes, distillery waste water, paper mill sludge, dairy
waste water and coir waste. Among these sources pressmud is very important and it is a
potential source of organic manure produced by sugarcane industries. It contains 1-2.5 % N,
0.25-0.6 % P and 0.40-0.85 % K on dry weight basis. Pressmud obtained from sulphitation is
acidic in nature and can be applied on alkaline soils, whereas pressmud obtained from
carbonation process contains lime which is useful for acidic soils. It has been reported that
fertilizer N equivalent of 15 t pressmud /ha was 52 kg N /ha in rice. In a long term experiment
in Ludhiana, application of 200 kg N/ha through pressmud in wheat substituted for 50 kg
N/ha during the first three years and up to 100 kg N/ha in the later years of the study.
Pressmud application also showed significant residual effect on the succeeding crops and
physical properties of soil.
Although organics are essential components of any viable INM strategy, bulk of the nutrients
supplies will have to come from the chemical fertilizers in the irrigated agriculture for high
crop productivity because of pressure on the land. On hungry and thirsty soils of the dry
lands, organics including crop residues and FYM shall have to play a major role because of
their beneficial effects in terms of improving soil structure, conserving soil moisture through
enhanced aggregation and mulching and moderating the extremities in soil temperature. Bio
chemical processes of mineralization, mobilization and transformation and transport of
nutrients are the added advantages associated with them.
Points to Remember
 Split application of N fertilizers three times (1/3+1/3+1/3) should be followed in sandy

and loam soils and 2 times (1/3+2/3) in case of clayey soils.
 Urea should not be mixed with seed because when urea dissolves it produces
ammonia gas which is harmful for germinating seeds. It also increases the pH of a
place which adversely affects the crop establishment.
 Fertilizer should always be placed 3 to 5 cm below the seeds at time of sowing to avoid
fixation of nutrients especially P and K.
 It is necessary to see which the previous crop was and how much organic matter was
applied for adjusting the dose of chemical fertilizers. If the previous crop was legume or
the land was fallow then 25 % of N doses should be reduced and if the previous crop
was maize, cotton or pearl millet (Bajra) it should be increased by 25%.
 Dry FYM contains 0.5 to 0.8% N so nitrogen doses should be adjusted to its
application.
 Nitrogen application during pre-sowing irrigation is more useful when the last crop is
harvested just before wheat sowing and crop residues are left in the field, otherwise
when residue decomposes the crop becomes yellowish because part of nitrogen being
utilized by microbes.
 At the initial stages of plant growth, it is essential to have optimum N for full growth and
at this time roots of the plant cannot extract soil nutrients. N application at the time of
sowing also helps in absorbing more phosphorus.
 In case of dry regions half of the recommended doses of fertilizers should be used and
Nitrate N is better than Ammonium N in these areas because of fewer losses due to
leaching and volatilization.
 Spraying of Urea on the standing crop is good in case of limited irrigation.
 Don’t broadcast urea on a foggy day and if temperature is high broadcast after 3 PM.
 If phosphorus is given in green manure crop then it can be avoided in wheat crop.
 In potato-wheat crop sequence if organic manures were applied, then reduce the
phosphorus dose by 25–50 % wheat.
 In December and January months, leaves become yellowish because cold is more and
fog as well as cloud appearance reduces sunlight availability for soil and plant which
reduces the soil temperature resulting in low microbial activity and hence nutrient
availability for the plant.
 Fertilizers should be applied on soil test basis as per Table 3 given below:
Table 3: Soil test values and fertilizer recommendations

OC % Required N Available P Required P Available K Required K
<0.2 160 <10 80 <100 60
0.2-0.4 140 11-20 60 101-150 50
0.41-0.60 120 21-30 45 151-200 40
0.61-0.80 90 31-40 30 201-250 30
0.81-1.00 75 41-55 15 251-300 20
>1.00 60 >55 10 >300 00
Recommended dose of fertilizers of wheat growing zones

Growing
Name of Zone Sowing Fertilizer doses (kg/ha)
conditions
Northern Hill Irrigated Timely (First 120:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
Zone fortnight of nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as basal
Nov.) and the remaining 2/3rd nitrogen as 1/3rd at first
irrigation and 1/3rd at second irrigation.
Late (Last 90:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
week of Nov.) nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as basal
and the remaining 2/3rd nitrogen as 1/3rd at first
Rainfed 60:30:20 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply full
nitrogen, phosphorus and potash as basal.
North Western Irrigated Timely (First Apply 150:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. One
Plain Zone fortnight of third nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash to be
Nov.) applied as basal dose and the remaining 2/3rd
nitrogen as 1/3rd at first irrigation and 1/3rd at
second irrigation.
Late (second 120:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
week of Dec.) nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as basal
North Eastern Irrigated Timely (third Apply 150:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. One
Plain Zone week of Nov.) third nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash to be
applied as basal dose and the remaining 2/3rd
nitrogen as 1/3rd at first irrigation and 1/3rd at
second irrigation.
Late (Second 120:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
Growing
Name of Zone Sowing Fertilizer doses (kg/ha)
conditions
Central Zone Irrigated Timely (First 120:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha /ha. Apply
fortnight of 1/3rd nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as
Nov.) basal and the remaining 2/3rd nitrogen as 1/3rd at
first irrigation and 1/3rd at second irrigation.
Late (First 90:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
Peninsular Zone Irrigated Timely (First 120:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
fortnight of nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as basal
Nov.) and the remaining 2/3rd nitrogen as 1/3rd at first
Late (Last 90:60:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O /ha. Apply 1/3rd
week of Nov.) nitrogen, full phosphorus and potash as basal
 Mode of fertilizer: Granules of urea, SSP, DAP and MOP

 Mode of application of fertilizers (standard methods): Basal and top dressing as
mentioned in the table above
 Fertilizer use efficiency: The NPK use efficiency varies between 50-60% depending
on the soil type.

7. Identification and Integrated Management of Wheat

Diseases
Sudheer Kumar, PL Kashyap and Poonam Jasrotia
Wheat is the second most important staple food crop of India after rice. During the rabi
2017- 18, the weather remained congenial for the wheat and India harvested good crop with
the production of about 99.70 million tonnes from 29.58 million hectares with productivity of
3.37 q/ha (4th estimate 2018). The major share of wheat production in the national pool is
mainly contributed by Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana states. The other wheat growing
states are Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, northern part of Karnataka and
Maharashtra. There are many abiotic and biotic constraints in India like salinity, terminal heat
stress, erratic rainfall, resource poor farmers, small and marginal land holdings, disease and
insect pests etc. which are responsible for lower productivity. These challenges will probably
be further compounded by reduced water availability, increased temperature due to global
warming, and new races of pathogens and insect pests.
Among these production constraints, the biotic stresses can cause severe yield losses under
favourable conditions. Besides, these different diseases adversely affect the quality of grains
thus farmers cannot fetch good market price. These losses can be avoided by adopting
timely and effective disease management practices. This will contribute towards doubling the
farmer’s income. The important diseases having significant influence on wheat production
are discussed as follows:
Stripe or Yellow Rust

The disease is caused by Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici. It is important in major wheat
growing areas of North Western Plains Zone (NWPZ) and Northern Hills Zone (NHZ).
Generally, disease appears in the month of January and February but sometimes its
appearance is also reported in December. Stripe rust appears as a mass of yellow to orange
urediniospores erupting from pustules arranged in long, narrow stripes on leaves (usually
between veins), leaf sheaths, glumes and awns on susceptible plants. These spores come
out as orange dust on fingers and clothing of individuals on touching infected leaves.
Disease starts with small patches or foci of infected and further spreads rapidly under
congenial weather.
Leaf or Brown Rust

The disease is caused by Puccinia triticina and mainly prevalent in Central Zone (CZ),
Peninsular Zone (PZ) and Southern Hills Zone (SHZ). It usually appears as small, circular to
oval pustules with orange to light brown dusty spores on upper surface of leaves and on leaf
sheaths in cases of heavy infection. The pustules are mainly confined to the upper surface
and irregularly distributed on the leaves.

Stem Rust or Black Rust

Disease is caused by Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici and like leaf rust mainly observed in
Central Zone (CZ), Peninsular Zone (PZ) and Southern Hills Zone (SHZ). Disease can be
identified as large orange-brown pustules oval or elongated in shape on stems and
sometimes both sides of leaves and leaf sheaths. On rupture of pustules releases a powdery
mass of brick red coloured uredospores.
Management of rusts
 Grow the varieties recommended for the zone.
 To avoid large scale spread, grow diverse stripe rust tolerant varieties
 Use balanced and recommended quantity of fertilisers – avoid high dose of nitrogen.
 Keep strict watch on appearance of the disease and immediate spraying of affected
areas with recommended fungicides, viz., Propiconazole @ 0.1 % to avoid its further
spread from initial infection loci.
Karnal Bunt
Karnal bunt caused by Tilletia indica mainly occurs in parts of Northern Plains, especially in
Punjab, Haryana, foot hills of J&K and HP, tarai area of Uttrakhand, and in lesser severity in
Rajasthan, Bihar and UP. However the area and severity of Karnal bunt is increasing, now it
is appearing in parts of M.P. The disease severity is more in the years when frequent rains
during the ear head emergence. Karnal bunt is extremely difficult to diagnose in the field
because few kernels in an ear head get infected, and thus infected plants are not as readily
identifiable. The disease can normally be noticed after threshing, the grains are either
partially affected or in severe cases the whole grain is converted into black powder of bunt
spores. The disease is seed and soil bore and infection to ear heads is air borne thus seed
treatment become ineffective.
Management
 Use of certified/disease free seed to check the introduction of disease in new areas.
 Follow crop rotation and avoid growing wheat for 2-3 years in highly infected fields.
 Zero tillage helps in reducing Karnal bunt incidence.
 To minimize losses grow resistant/tolerant varieties in disease prone areas
 In Karnal bunt prone areas, spray Propiconazole @ 0.1% at the time of 50%
flowering and if rains the spray can be repeated after 15 days.
Spot Blotch
Spot blotch caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker (teleomorph: Cochliobolus
sativus) is a disease of warm and humid areas especially in North Eastern Plains Zone
(NEPZ). The disease affects all foliar parts of plant and initial lesions are characterized by
small, dark brown spots varying 1 to 2 mm long without chlorotic margin, on disease
progress spots merge and cover larger areas and finally lead to premature drying of the
infected. If spikelets are affected, it can result in shrivelled grain and black point, a dark
staining of the embryo end of the seed.

Management
 For effective management of the diseases, cultivation of recommended (resistant)
varieties, like HD 2985, HI 1563, DBW 39, CBW 38, NW 1014, NW 2036, K 9107,
HD 2733 (resistant to LB), DBW 14, HD 2888, K0307, DBW39 and HUW 468 should
be encouraged.
Powdery Mildew
Disease is caused by Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici and mainly present in the cooler and hilly
region; foot hills and plains of North - Western India and the Southern hills (Nilgiris). Now
occasionally its occurrence in high severity is observed in NPEZ especially in Punjab,
Haryana, and Uttaranchal. The disease appears as superficial greyish small patches of white
cottony growth on leaves, sheath, stem, and even on ear head. The patches may appear on
both surfaces of the leaves. The white cottony growth can cover the whole leaf and other
aerial parts of the plant. The white patches turn into brownish to dull tan colour late in the
season due to formation of cleistothecia.
Management
 Use recommended quantity of seed - avoid excessively dense stands.
 For the control of powdery mildew in disease prone areas, need-based spray of
Propiconazole @ 0.1% can be given at appearance of disease and can be repeated
after 15 days if needed.
Loose Smut
It is caused by Ustilago segetum f.sp. tritici and found in all the wheat growing areas of India.
In the diseased plants, most of the spikelets are converted in black powdery mass of spores.
The spore mass is covered with a delicate silvery membrane of host origin which usually
ruptures before the complete emergence of ears from the sheath exposing dark, olive brown
powdery mass of spores in place of normal spikelets. The smutted spike emerged from the
boot leaf a few days earlier than those of healthy plants.
Management
 Use disease free seed.
 Rouge out and destroy the infected tillers.
 Seed treatment with Carboxin 75 WP @ 2.5 gm/kg seed or Carbendazim 50 WP @
2.5 gm/kg seed or Tebuconazole 2DS @ 1.25 gm/kg seed.
Flag Smut
It is caused by Urocystis agropyri and poses problems in isolated fields in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and some other parts of NWPZ. Black narrow elongated blisters appears on leaf
between the veins and on ruptured expose black spore balls and splitting leaf to ribbons.
Black streaks may also occur on the stem, which is stunted and dwarfed at the internodes.
Infected wheat plants are thus stunted and spindly, often bearing more tillers than healthy
plants, which gives them a grass-like appearance.
The inflorescence is stunted, distorted, and frequently sterile, the rachis bearing black
streaks at maturity. Spike development usually stops before the head emerges from the leaf
whorl, so that infected plants do not produce seeds.
Management
 Use disease free seed.
2.5 gm/kg seed or Tebuconazole 2DS @ 1.25 gm/kg.
Fusarium Head Blight or Head Scab

It is caused by Fusarium spp., mainly Fusarium graminearum. The disease is favoured by
humid and subhumid climate, although currently fusarium head blight is a disease of minor
importance in India and prevailed in some packets of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Initial
symptoms are initially characterized as small, water soaked spots at the base or middle of
glumes, rachis or on the first floret to flower and gradually spreads within the earhead which
can be visualised as premature ‘whitening’ or ‘bleaching’ of ear head. In warm and moist
condition the pathogen sporulate as white, pinky-salmon mass on infected glumes and the
spikelets. As disease progress, the pathogen colonizes on the developing grain, which turn
into typically shrunken, shrivelled, rough surfaced, discoloured soft-gray, chalky white to
light-brown. Such light weighted, infected kernels are commonly called ‘tombstones’.
Management
 Use certified and disease free seed.
2.5 gm/kg seed or Tebuconazole 2DS @ 1.25 gm/kg.
 Use resistant wheat varieties.
Integrated Disease Management in Wheat

 Use certified and clean seed to avoid seed borne infection.
 Even healthy looking seeds may have inoculums, treatment seed with suitable
fungicides.
 Use resistant/tolerant wheat varieties.
 Use the varieties recommended for the area.
 Use balanced and recommended quantity of fertilisers – avoid high dose of nitrogen.
 Regularly remove and destroy weeds in and around the wheat field, these grassy
weeds act as secondary hosts and spread for many disease pathogens in wheat.
 Monitor the crop regularly for presence of symptoms of any disease.
 Loose smut infected plant should be uprooted and destroy.
 Use foliar sprays of suitable fungicides.

8. Insect Pests of Rice-Wheat System and their Management

Poonam Jasrotia, Ankur Rana, PL Kashyap, Sudheer Kumar and GP Singh
Rice and wheat are the two important cereal crops in the North-Western Plains Zone
(NWPZ) of India. Though this rotation is in vogue in parts of India since long, it has gained
popularity in north western plain zone due to improved irrigation facilities, better seed quality,
high yielding varieties, fertilizer availability and better crop production technology, coupled
with better returns to the growers. The post green revolution period has witnessed an
increase in pest problems, both in number of insect species as well as their severity.
Replacement of older tall varieties with dwarf high yielding ones, expansion in irrigation
facilities and indiscriminate use of increased rates of agrochemicals in recent years with a
view to increase productivity has resulted in heavy crop losses due to insect pests in certain
crops. This situation has risen mainly due to elimination of natural enemies, resurgence of
pests, and development of insecticide resistance and out-break of secondary pests. The
damage by insect pests can cause enormous grain yields losses, if not managed in time.
Important key pests of crops and their management practices are outlined hereunder:
Major Insect-Pests of Wheat

1. Aphids
Rhopalosiphummaidis (L.), Rhopalosiphumpadi (L.), Sitobionavenae (F.) and other species
Distribution: Aphids are present in almost all wheat growing areas in the country, especially
in NWPZ and Peninsular India.
Development: The aphids are soft-bodied, lime-green colored insect with a darker green
stripe on its back. The aphids exist in different stages, viz., winged (alates), wingless
(apterous), sexual and asexual forms. The rapid spread takes place through asexual
reproduction where viviparous females give rise directly to nymphs rather than eggs. The
young nymphs undergo a number of moults and become adults. Infestation occurs usually
during January, till crop maturity. The aphids complete more than 10-15 generations per
season.
Nature of Damage: When present in sufficient numbers, aphids can cause yellowing and
premature death of leaves. They exude drops of sugary liquid known as “honey dew" which
may cause tiny scorch marks on the foliage and tends to encourage the development of
sooty molds. Honey dew also encourages the growth of other microorganisms such as sooty
mould, which often appears as a black smudgy substance on the leaf, thereby reducing the
photosynthetic efficiency. The aphids may act as vector of barley yellow dwarf virus.
Management
 Chemical control is required only if the level of aphids per tiller crosses 10 during
vegetative phase and 5 during reproductive phase.
 Spray imidacloprid 17.8 SL@ 100 ml per ha initially on border rows during initial stage
of the aphid colonization. This will help in protection of the bio-agent insect, the lady
bird beetle inside the field which feed on aphid.

2. Termites
Odontotermesobesus Rambur, Microtermesobesi Holmgren.
Distribution: Mainly found in the northern and central India, but also in some pockets of
peninsular India.
Development: Small to medium sized, soft bodied, slender, creamy or dirty white to dark
brown social insects, that lives in underground colonies. After a short flight, mating takes
place they shed their wings and the queen and the kings settle down in the soil. The female
burrows in the soil, lay eggs and establish new colony. The queen gradually grow in size and
lay eggs very rapidly at the rate of one egg per second or 70,000 to 80,000 eggs in 24
hours. It lives for 5 to 10 years. It can live for several years also. There is only one queen in
a colony. Incubation period is one week in summer and within 6 months larvae develop to
form soldiers or workers. The reproductive castes when produced mature in 1-2 years.
These insects live in colonies in special nests called termitaria, which may be above ground
or underground.
Nature of Damage: Termites are traditional pest of wheat under rained conditions.
Generally sandy loam soils are more suitable for termite attack. Termites attack the crop at
various crop growth stages, from seedling to maturity. The severely damaged plants can be
easily uprooted and give wilted and dried appearance, and ultimately die. Termites feed in
semicircular fashion on wheat leaf margins and roots. If the roots are partially damaged, the
plants show yellowing. Drying of plants in patches is also observed. The plants damaged at
later stages give rise to white ears. Infestation is found to be heavy under unirrigated
conditions and in the fields where un-decomposed FYM is applied before sowing. These
insects live in colonies in special nests called termitaria which may be above ground or
underground.
Management
 Seed treatment with chloropyriphos 20% EC @ 4 ml/kg seed or Fipronil 5% SC @ 6ml/
kg seed.
 To manage infestation in standing crop, dilute one litre of cholrpyriphos 20 EC in 2 litres
of water, mix in 20 kg sand and broadcast evenly in one hectare. This is the only
effective method to control termites in standing crop under rainfed area. If the crop is
irrigated, apply light irrigation, after broadcasting.
3. Root Aphid
Rhopalosphumrufiabdominalis (Sasaki).
Distribution: This pest causes severe damage in some pockets in Central zone, especially
in some parts of Madhya Pradesh. It is also present in NWPZ and NEPZ but the losses are
very limited. This pest has shown an increasing trend in the NWPZ in the recent years.
Development: Root aphids are stout and pale green in colour. It attacks wheat, barley, oats,
etc. and most often overlooked because they usually feed on underground stem and roots of
the plants. Root aphids are surprisingly adaptable and their lifecycle can vary tremendously.
They reproduce asexually during the growing season.
 Eggs overwinter in soil or, in warm seasons, eggs are seen attached to leaves and
stems above the root line where they hatch and fall to the ground.
Nature of Damage: The root aphids feed in the root zone of wheat and several other
cereals usually during the seedling stage under light soil.Aphids suck sap from the roots and
affected plant shows drying up of leaves. When infested plants are pulled out, colonies of
aphids can be seen clinging to root system. Ants are seen moving around collar region of
plant as they feed on honeydew and they carry aphids to non-infested fields. Root aphid
damage is often more observed in the rainfed wheat growing areas.
Management
 Seed treatment with Imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 1.5 ml per kg seed can effectively
manage root aphid.
4. Pink Stem Borer

Sesamia inference walker
Distribution: This is widely distributed species and is a common pest of wheat in India.
Presently, noticed in all rice-wheat cropping system.
Development: Moths - small, straw colored. Forewings with faint longitudinal band in the
middle while hind wings are pale. Caterpillars are small, pink colored, smooth with dark
spots on the body. Each spot bears a hair 22-25 mm long. Eggs are eggs are laid within leaf
sheath in clusters. Incubation period is 4 -9 days. Larva period is 3 -4 weeks. Pupa-pupation
in stem. Pupal period is 5 -12 days. Life cyclic completed in about 6 -7 weeks.
Nature of Damage: In early stages the whole plant dies forming dead hearts. Plants
become yellow and pulled out easily with the excreta at the base of the plant. At the time of
damage larvae of this pest can be easily seen on the base of the plant. When the damage
occurs in later stage, individual tillers die in the form of dead hearts. In later stage damage
causes white dead hearts. It attacks on wheat, maize, sugarcane, jowar, paddy, ragi, barley,
oats and guinea grass etc. The larvae of stem borer, feed on leaf sheath for about a week
and then bore inside the stem causing dead-hearts at the vegetative and reproductive
phases and white ears at ripening, which could be easily pulled out. Damage due to this pest
was occasionally seen more in fields of rice-wheat cropping system where wheat is sown in
zero tillage fields
Management
 Hand picking of infested tillers and their destruction reduces borer attack.
 To avoid the infestation use of nitrogen fertilizers in split doses.
 If infestation is more spray 1300 ml of quinalphos 25%EC in 500 liters of water per
ha.
5. Brown Wheat Mite

Petrobialatens Muller
Distribution: It occurs in most of the wheat growing areas, especially under rainfed
conditions in Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
Development: Only females occur and eggs are laid within two days after reaching the
adulthood, the eggs are laid in the soil. It lays two types of eggs, red coloured ones being
laid during winter through which the pest multiplies during crop season and the other type
having white covering being laid during early summer.
Nature of Damage: They cause damage through sucking mouth parts. When present in
large numbers, mites cause a silvery flecking on leaves. Individual mites are too small to be
visible with naked eye without effort. Mites cause loss of chlorophyll and infested leaves
shows minute yellowish spots, which merge with each other causing yellowing of leaves.
The grain get chaffy and lose boldness. The infested crops look stunted and yellow. Unlike
most other phytophagous mites, brown wheat mites remains in soil and comes to plant for
feeding during day time when sunshine is bright and does not form webs on the plants.
Incidence usually starts during December-January and continues till crop maturity. Frequent
winter rains and cloudy weather is not conducive for mite multiplication.
Management
 Spray of Propargite 57SC (Omite) @ 1.5ml/l of water per hectare in 500 liter of water
were found most effective for controlling the Brown Wheat Mite.
 The treatment needs repetition after 15 days interval depending on the pest
incidence.
6. Army Worm
Mythimnaseparata Walker
Distribution: This insect occurs mostly in the warmer climates of central zone and to some
extent, in NWPZ and NEPZ.
Development: The pest is destructive in the larval stage only. The newly hatched larvae
feed on tender leaves. The grown up larvae feed on leaves, flag leaf, awns, glumes and on
the developing grains. Adults are smaller than other members of the cutworm-armyworm
group, about 12 mm long with a wing spread of 25 to 40 mm. Body and wings range from
silvery-grey to greyish-brown. Forewings have a lighter spot near the centre. Hindwings are
paler with darker borders, with a light band at the wing edges. The eggs are laid in mass on
the surface of the leaves and covered with whitish scales. The egg stage lasts for 3 days.
The larvae undergo several colour phases from green to almost black. The larval stage lasts
for about 9-14 days and usually has six instars. Pupation occurs in the soil and lasts for
about 10 days.
Nature of Damage: The larvae are found in the cracks of soil and hide during the day but
feed during night or early morning. In wet and humid weather, they may feed during day time
also. They are voracious feeders and under favorable conditions, entire fields are denuded
of foliage within a few days. They survive during summer on the subsequent crops like rice
and also continue to exist in rice stubbles before wheat crop comes in the field.
Management
 To control this pest, spray the crop with quinalphos 25 EC@400ml /acre in 80-100
litres of water. To obtain better control always spray the crop in the evening hours
because larvae are more active at this time.

7. Shoot Fly
Atherigona naquii,Atherigona soccata and Atherigona oryzae
Distribution: The pest is more prevalent in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.
Development: Shoot fly has emerged as an important and regular pest of wheat crop since
the adoption of semi-dwarf varieties. The fly is about 3 mm in body length and dark grey in
colour.
Nature of Damage: Shoofly damage to plants by formation of “Dead heart” which results in
drying of the central portion of tillers. The infestation occurs throughout the plant growth but
damage to young seedling and tillers is more significant. In case of severe infestation the
plant assumes bushy appearance with large number of tillers.
Management
 Timely irrigation provides in the field, it can help to reduced intensity of the pest.
 If late sowing are done and shoot fly incidence (dead hearts) is noticed, spraying of
Cypermethrin 10% EC, 550 ml/ha in 500 liter of water for control the insect.
Major Insect Pests of Rice

1. Rice Stem Borer
Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker)
Distribution: The yellow stem borer of rice attacks only rice and has wide distribution in all
Asian countries.
Development: The female lays 15 - 18 eggs in a mass near the tip on the upper surface of
tender leaf blade and covers them with buff coloured hairs and scales. A female lays about
2 - 3 egg masses and the incubation period ranges from 5 - 8 days. The newly hatched pale
white larva enters the leaf sheath and feeds for 2 – 3 days and bores into the stem near the
nodal region. The larva becomes full grown in 33 - 41 days and measures about 20 mm long.
The pupa is dark brown and measures 12 mm long. The pupal period varies from 6 -10 days
and may get prolonged depending on the weather conditions. The entire life-cycle is
completed in 50 - 70 days.
Nature of Damage: Larva feeds inside the stem causing drying of the central shoot called
‘dead heart’ in young plant or drying of the panicle called ‘white ear’ in older plants. October-
December has been found conducive for the multiplication of the insect.
Management
i. Destruction of stubbles after the harvest decreases the carry over to next crop.
Harvesting the plant close to the ground.
ii. Clipping off tip of seedling before transplanting reduced carryover of egg from nursery
to main field. As the egg of stem borers are laid near the tip of leave.
iii. Release Trichogramma japonicum, T. chilonis an egg parasitoid @ 50,000 – 1,00,000
adult/ ha.
iv. Avoid high dose fertilizer.
v. Field sowing more than 5 % dead heart should be spray with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
1250 ml/ha in 500 litre of water.
2. Rice Gall Midge

Orseolia oryzae
Distribution: It is distributed throughout India. Five biotypes of gall midge have been
observed. It is destructive in some parts of Kerala, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Bihar.
Development: The yellowish brown fly, which is active at night, lays 100 - 300 reddish
elongate tubular eggs singly or in groups of 2 - 6 on just below or above the ligules of leaf
blade. The maggots hatch out in 3 or 4 days move down to shoot primordia in 6 – 12 hrs.
The maggot feeds on the shoot primordia resulting in the suppression of the apical meristem
and formation of radial ridges. Only one larva develops in a shoot apex and throughout its
development it remains inside the tubular gall formed due to its feeding. The pupal stage
lasts for 2 - 8 days. The life cycle occupies 19 – 21 days but during winter it takes 32 – 39
days.
Nature of Damage: The gall formed by this fly is popularly known as ‘silver shoot’ because
of the formation of hollow pink or purple, dirty white or pale green cylindrical tubes bearing at
their tips a green reduced leaf blade complete with ligules and auricles. It infests the rice
even in the nursery but usually tillers are preferred. The loss in yield in a heavily infested
crop may be up to 50 %.
Management
 Removal and destruction of weeds that serve as alternate host plants.
 Spray application of fipronil 5% SC @ 1000 ml/ ha. in 500 liter water at 15 days
interval.
3. Paddy Green Leaf Hoppers

Nephotettix virescens
Distribution: These insects are found distributed in all rice growing areas in Asia and Africa.
The insect is active during July – November in different regions.
Distribution: The female of N. nigropictus is green and the male has two black spots
extending upto the black distal portion on the fore wings. It has a black tinge along the
anterior margin of pronotum and a submarginal black band on the crown of the head. In N.
virescens black submarginal band on the crown is absent and the black spots on forewings
do not extend upto the black distal portion.
Nature of Damage: Both nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and cause browning of
leaves. Both the species are known to be vectors of virus diseases of rice such as rice
transitory yellowing and rice yellow dwarf.
|
Management
 Spray application of imidacloprid 17.8 SL 100-125ml/ha or fipronil 5% SC @
1000ml/ha in 500 litre water at 15 days interval.

4. Brown Plant Hopper [Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.)]

Distribution: Distributed throughout South and South East Asia where rice is grown. It is
known only to feed on rice and the weed Leersia hexandra Sw.
Development: Two forms viz., macropterous (long-winged) and brachypterous
(short-winged) are noticed and they are ochraceous brown dorsally and brown ventrally. The
female inserts the eggs in two rows on either side of the midrib of the leaf sheath. The
average member of eggs laid varies from 250 - 350. The incubation period is 6 - 9 days and
the nymphal period is 10 – 18 days. The total life-cycle occupies 16 – 27 days.
Nature of Damage: It infests the rice crop at all stages of plant growth. Due to feeding by
both nymphs and adults at the base of the tillers, plants turn yellow and dry up rapidly. At
early infestation, round yellow patches appear which soon turn brownish due to the drying up
of the plants and this condition is called ‘hopperburn’. N. lugens is a phloem feeder. Very
high infestation causes lodging of the crop resulting in yield loss ranging from 10 - 70 %.
Management
 Close planting creates favourable micro climate for rapid development of hopper
population. Hence spacing of 20 x 30 cm should be followed.
 Alternate drying and wetting of field during peak infestation and drain standing water
from the field checks hopper population.
 Avoid high dose of nitrogen fertilizer application.
 Mirid bug are predator of egg and nymph of hopper.
 Spray application of imidacloprid 17.8SL, 100-125ml or fipronil 5% SC, 1000ml or
dichlorvos 76% EC 470 ml per hectare in 500 liter water at 15 days interval.
5. Rice Leaf Folder [Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guen.]

Distribution: Occurs in all rice growing areas of our country and active from Oct to Jan.
Development: The brownish – orange coloured moth is small and has two and one distinct
dark wavy lines on the brownish fore and hind wings respectively. Both wings have a dark
brown to grey band on their outer margin. The eggs are laid singly or in pairs on the under
surface of tender leaf blades. The incubation period is 4 - 7 days. The pale yellowish green
larva becomes full grown in 15 - 27 days and pupates inside the leaf roll. Pupal period is
6 - 8 days. Total life-cycle varies from 25 - 42 days.
Nature of Damage: The larva rolls the leaf blade by fastening its edges and sometimes
even fastening the leaf tip to the basal part of the leaf blade and feeds from inside by
scraping. In a severely infested field the whole crop gives a sickly appearance with white
patches. The infestation at boot leaf stage of the crop sometimes results in heavy loss of
grain yield.
Management
 Remove grass weeds from bounds around paddy field.
 Light trapping of adult help to reduce pest population.
 Release trichogramma Japonicum or T chilonis @ 50,000 to 1,00,000 adult.
 Spray insecticide at economic threshold level of 10% damage. Spray
flubendiamide 39.35 % SC 50 ml per ha. or chlorpyriphos 20 EC (2.5 ml/litre of
water) at 15 days interval.
Major Insect-pests of Wheat
Root Aphid Termites

Foliar Aphid
Shoot fly
Brown Wheat Army worm

Mite Pink stem
borer
Major Insect-pests of Rice
Rice stem
borer
Brown plant Rice leaf
hopper folder

9. Promising Genotypes for Different end-use Products and

their Quality Requirements
Sewa Ram, Sneh Narwal, OP Gupta, Vanita Pandey and GP Singh
Wheat is an important cereal crop and is one of the major sources of energy, protein and
fibre for the world population. India is the second largest wheat producer and Indian wheat is
globally known for its quality. Wheat is consumed in different forms and major products are
chapati, bread, biscuit, noodles and pasta products. Wheat has three groups of cultivated
species namely bread, durum and dicoccum wheats. The common or bread wheat accounts
for approximately 95% of world production. Nearly all of the remaining 5% cultivated
varieties are durum wheats used for pasta products and couscous and dicoccums represent
very little of the total wheat production. The bread wheat is divided into two broad classes
based on grain texture; hard and soft. Hard wheat with high protein content and strong
gluten are used for making bread and some noodles, while soft wheat with lower protein
content and weak gluten for biscuit, cakes and pretzels. Semi-hard wheat having some
combinations of the above characteristics are utilized for making unleavened breads such as
chapati, Asian steamed bread and some noodles. There can be large disparity within wheat
of various classes; therefore to provide consistent quality, it is divided into grades. The
grading is determined by the test weight, protein content, moisture and foreign material. The
major wheat exporting countries have distinct grading patterns designed to provide wheat for
specific purposes and consistent quality.
Other Important Traits: High semolina yield & yellow pigment (Beta carotene) content in
durum wheat and high extraction rate in bread wheat. Among all the cereal grains, it is wheat
only which can be used to make a wide variety of products. This is mainly due to the presence
of gluten proteins in wheat. All the wheat types cannot be used to prepare all types of
products. Each product has specific requirement of different quality characteristics which are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Quality requirements for different wheat products

Type Grain texture Protein content Gluten Strength Starch
Bread wheat
1. Chapati Hard 10-13% Medium, extensible ----
2. Biscuit, Cakes Soft/very soft 8-10% Weak, extensible ----
3. Bread Hard >13% Strong, extensible Partial Waxy
4. White Noodle Soft 10-12 Medium Partial Waxy
5. Yellow Noodle Medium 10-13 Medium Partial Waxy
Durum wheat
1. Pasta products Hard >13% Strong Partial Waxy

Product Specific Wheat Varieties

The demand for the traditional and new convenient processed wheat products is
continuously increasing, particularly in economically emerging countries. The growing
demands for convenience foods such as ready-to-eat, frozen, microwaveable and instant
products has promoted the increase in mechanized food production in larger commercial
plants and the increase in wheat products sold in the supermarkets. Industrial food
processing requires wheat quality attributes that often cannot be met by wheat for traditional
foods. Therefore, improving the quality of new wheat cultivars to satisfy the demands of the
industry is now in many developing countries one of the main priorities of wheat breeding
programmes. The ability to supply wheat that meets local demand for specific end-use
quality requirements will thus become more and more crucial. Also, with the surplus
production of wheat, India is exporting it to many countries. To compete in the international
market, India has to maintain the quality of its wheat produce.
Product specific wheat varieties have been identified through the AICRP on wheat. The
chapati quality in India is among the best in the world but more efforts are required for
improvement in bread & biscuit quality. This can be accomplished by using currently
developed methodologies for screening recombinant lines in breeding programme. Attempts
are in progress to develop such promising varieties by targeted quality breeding programme
and advance lines are being tested in the national coordinated programme. At, IIWBR,
attempts have been made using quality breeding and molecular breeding to develop wheat
varieties good for biscuit and bread quality. Many superior lines have been identified and are
in advanced generation.
Table 2: Promising wheat varieties for different wheat products

Product Promising varieties
C 306, Raj 3765, HD 2864, HD 2285, PBW 226, PBW 175
PBW 373 (NWPZ)
C 306, K 0307, K 8027, K 9107, MACS 6145, UP 262, NW 1014, HUW 234, HD 2888, HUW
Chapati 533, DBW 39, K 1317 (NEPZ)
(>8.0/10.0) LOK 1, C 306, Sujata, HI 1500, HI 1531, HI 1563, HW 2004, DL-788-2, GW 173, GW 273,
GW 322, Raj 4238, Raj 3077, MP3336 (CZ)
LOK 1, HD 2987, HD 2833, GW 496, MP 3336, NIAW 34, NIAW 1415, MACS6478, HD
2932, DBW 168 (PZ)
WH 1021, WH 1080, NW 2036 (NHZ)
HD 2285, PBW 396 (NWPZ)
Bread HD 277, HD 2733, NW 2036 (NEPZ)
(> 575 ml loaf Lok 1, HD 2864, HD 2932, GW 120, GW 173, GW 190, GW 496 (CZ)
volume) HI 977, Raj 4083, HD 2189, HD 2501, HD 2781, DWR 162, DWR 195, MACS 6222, MACS
6273, MACS 2496, MACS 6478, UAS 304, AKAW 4627, NIAW 34, NIAW 1415, NIAW 917,
NI 5439, HD 2932, DBW 93, NI 5439 (PZ)
Biscuit
(>11.0 spread
factor) HS 490 (NHZ)
PDW 233, WH 896, WHD 943, PDW 291, PDW 314 (NWPZ)
Pasta
HI 8627, HI 8663, HI 8498, HI 8713, HD 4672, MPO 1215, HI 8737 (CZ)
(>6.5/ 9.0)
MACS 2846, DDK 1009, NP 200, HI 8663, UAS 446 (PZ)

Table 3: Average values of different quality parameters of wheat across zones

Agro-climatic Zone
Quality Parameter Mean
NHZ NWPZ CZ NEPZ PZ
Grain Appearance 5.9 6.3 6.7 6.2 6.6 6.3
Protein (%) 10.7 12.3 12.2 11.9 13.2 12.1
Test Weight(Kg/hl) 79.0 78.8 80.9 78.7 80.0 79.5
Sedimentation value (cc) 44.0 51.0 46.0 48.0 47.0 47.2
Hardness Index 67.0 71.0 73.0 75.0 74.0 72.0
Wet Gluten 23.4 29.0 30.5 28.8 33.7 29.1
Gluten index 63.0 70.0 59.0 59.0 56.0 61.4
Iron (ppm) 39.0 38.0 42.0 41.0 42.0 40.4
Zinc (ppm) 38.0 38.0 39.0 39.0 37.0 38.2
Chapati quality (Max. score 10) 6.6 6.5 6.9 7.1 6.5 6.7
Bread loaf volume (cc) 510 529 565 507 568 535
Bread quality (Max. score 10) 6.6 7.0 7.9 6.4 8.1 7.2
The issues involved in the improvement of industrial quality are, (i) critical evaluation of
germplasm (both indigenous and exotic) for important quality parameters along with their
genetic and molecular characterization for the identification of promising parents, (ii)
development of product specific wheat varieties involving identified promising parents, (iii)
development of micro-level tests requiring small amount of wheat and less analysis time so
as to use them in analysing early generation breeding material, (iv) establishing relationship
of end products with different yield and quality components, (v) use of molecular marker
technology approaches for the improvement of wheat quality and (vi) studies on starch and
other components to enhance wheat quality
Utilization of microlevel tests and molecular tools for improving wheat quality
The development of fast prediction methods for end use quality continues to be a major
focus of wheat breeding programs. Many small scales, predictive tests for wheat quality
have been adapted from large-scale tests. Those methods share some of the basic
attributes: they require relatively small amounts of grain, wheat meal, or flour; are rapid; and
provide information that can be used to improve the end use quality potential of breeding
material. In early segregating generations when small quantity of materials is available and
short time is left in between next sowing, chemical tests are very useful in predicting the
quality. Depending upon the chemical constituents of the grain, large numbers of tests have
been developed to predict the quality traits. Solvent retention capacity tests were developed
to predict the quality of biscuit flours, water absorption for bread and chapati quality.
Similarly starch properties are measured using microlevel as Flour Swelling Volume using 20
mg of the flour for estimating Gelatinization and with an important effect on the quality of
end-use products, especially on the quality of white salted noodles. Large amount of
information has been generated on molecular basis of processing and nutritional quality
traits. Major genes for determining quality of different end-use products have been identified
which are contributing significantly in improving wheat quality.

The combinations of different protein subunits of HMW glutenins have been identified
associated with gluten strength. Grain hardness has been studied in detail and puroindolines
have been used as markers for improving biscuit quality. In addition germplasm lines having
unique quality traits such as double null trait of Glu-D1 I Nap Hal. This has contributed in
improving biscuit making quality of wheat in India. This will reduce dependence on chemical
improvers for improving dough properties suitable for different products.
Nutritional Quality
Micronutrient malnutrition, or “hidden hunger”, is a widespread problem in developing world
countries including India, to which economic development and income growth alone are not
expected to provide a solution any time soon. The consequences of this hidden hunger, in
terms of mortality, impaired physical and cognitive development, or eye problems, are of
staggering magnitudes. Existing micronutrient interventions like pharmaceutical
supplementation or industrial fortification have their limitations and can be complemented by
a new approach: breeding food crops for higher micronutrient densities. Food crops like
cereals, which make significant dietary source of minerals, are generally deficient in
micronutrient contents in edible parts as grain and that too is not bio available to humans
and monogastric animals leading to micronutrient deficiency and phosphorus pollution.
Genetically increasing the levels of micronutrients and their bioavailability is especially
relevant for poor families living in isolated rural areas for whom vegetable sources are often
in short supply.
The micronutrient deficiency can be dealt by various means such as fortification (adding
external micronutrients in the flour), supplementation (syrup/pills), dietary diversification and
biofortification. Biofortification is the process of breeding food crops that are rich in
bioavailable micronutrients. Therefore, biofortification refers to enhanced content of Fe and
Zn in grains along with the lower anti-nutritional factors and higher absorption promoting
components. Biofortification through breeding is cost effective and sustainable. Since wheat
is grown widely in the country and most consumed cereal after rice, it is an important dietary
source of minerals. In principle, once such micronutrient-rich crops are developed and
successfully disseminated, they automatically form part of the food chain. Hence, for a
largely one-time investment this strategy can produce a constant stream of future benefits to
consumers of these crops. Recently CRP Biofortification has been initiated by ICAR to
develop wheat with enhanced micronutrients and higher bioavailability to human beings. Lot
of data has been generated on enhancing bioavailability of micronutrient and also reducing
anti-nutritional factors such as Phytic acid. Many lines in the advance generations have been
identified for these traits. Large numbers of mutants have been identified for very high
phytase levels and low phytic acid contents.
In addition, wheat is also a good source of a number of phytochemicals, which are beneficial
to health and contribute to the antioxidant capacity of wheat. These include carotenoids,
phenolics, lignins, vitamins, minerals and phytates. These antioxidants can provide additional
health benefits and help in controlling the aging related diseases like heart diseases, cancer,
diabetes and other degenerative diseases.
Out of different grain fractions, bran has the highest antioxidant activity followed by whole meal
and flour. Therefore, for better health benefits, the food products based on whole grains are
recommended. Large variations have been identified in antioxidants levels in wheat varieties
and thus can be used for improving antioxidant factors.
Conclusions
India has great potential for developing high yielding wheat varieties with excellent quality for
different products and having better nutritional quality. New advances in quality research will
further enhance the precision in breeding for improving wheat quality in short period of time.
Therefore benefits of new advances can be availed by breeders in to accelerate breeding for
better wheat quality.

10. Production and Consumption Trends of Wheat Based

Products in India
Om Prakash Gupta, Vanita Pandey, Sneh Narwal, Sewa Ram and GP Singh
Introduction
India is the second largest wheat producing country in the world next to China. The present
production of wheat in India is about 99.7 million tonnes from an area of 29.5 million hectare
with an average productivity of 3371 kg/ha (4th advance estimate, MoA&FW, 2018). In India,
three wheat species namely T. aestivum, T. durum, T. dicoccum is mainly cultivated. Due to
significant difference in the grain quality of these wheat species, various end products are
produced (Table 1). Wheat serves as the basic raw material for various bakery and
household food products. The suitability for a particular product largely depends on the
quality of wheat flour. In contrast to developed country, majority of the wheat produced in
India is processed into whole wheat flour for use in various traditional products. About 10 per
cent of the total wheat grain is processed via roller flour mill, which forms the main raw
material for bakery and pasta industry. In spite of small quantities of wheat
processed in a roller flourmill for use in bakery products, milling and baking industry
still remains the largest organised food industry in the country.
Table 1: Wheat based products prepared from commonly grown species in India
Species Products
Bread, biscuit, chapatti, naan, samosa, matthi, tandoor, kachori, kulcha, bhatura,
T. aestivum puri, pizza, namakpara, papad, balusai, ghewar, sattu, noodles, pav buns, cake,
pastry etc.
Parantha, dhebra, bhakri, porridge, rava idli, rava puttu, khichdi and pasta
T. durum
products, vermicelli etc.
T. dicoccum Godi huggi, sweet pan cake, madel and pasta products etc.
Bakery Industry
Due to the rapid population rise, the rising foreign influence, the emergence of a female
working population and the fluctuating eating habits of people, baking industry has
witnessed a significant growth in last two decades. Due to constant changing consumers
taste preferences, baking industry has been experimenting with newer options to satiate the
burgeoning appetite of the health-conscious Indian. The Indian bakery industry is one of the
biggest sections in the country’s processed food industry. Bakery products, particularly
bread and biscuits contributes over 82% of the total bakery products in the country. The
bakery industry in India can be classified mainly into bread, biscuits and cakes. Indian
baking industry is mainly situated at Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka
and Uttar Pradesh. About 60% of production takes place in the unorganized sector and
remaining by organized sector. There are around 2 million unorganized bakeries operational
comprising small bakery units, cottage and household type manufacturing. The organized
sector consists of large, medium and small‐scale manufacturers producing bread and
biscuits. Bread and biscuits are low margin ‐ high volume businesses. Moreover, about 40%
of bread and 50% of biscuits are sold in the rural market. Since the advent of multinational
companies (MNC) selling pizzas and burgers in the country, people are changing their tastes
also. The bakery industry in India has witnessed an annual growth rate of >15% during the
past years. There is an immense growth potential in the global and domestic markets.
Bread: Bread has become a crucial ready-to-eat product and is constantly getting popular in
hotels, restaurants, canteens and in households. The bread is a fast and convenience food
made from wheat. There are many varieties e.g. whole flour bread, brown bread, milk based
and fortified breads. The per capita consumption of bakery products in the country is about 2
kg/ annum, against 50-100 kg bread alone in western countries. Consumption of bread is
increasingly fast at estimated rate of 135% with a scope for further enhancement. The
manufacture of bread in small towns and villages shall not only meet the local demand but
generate employment opportunities in the vicinity. The bread industry in India is estimated to
be of 0.53 billion USD in 2015 which grew at a CAGR of ~9% over the last three years.
Furthermore, industry is estimated to be a market of 0.86 billion USD by 2020 with a CAGR
of 10%. Demand for brown and fruit breads is estimated to increase further due to an
increasing urban consumer base and a rise in health awareness about nutritional food. The
per capita consumption of bread in India is only around 1.5 kg to 1.75 kg in various
zones. The consumption pattern in four zones is: Northern States: 27%; Southern States:
32%; Western States: 23% and of Eastern States: 18 %.
Hindustan Unilever Ltd. (HUL) has become the largest player in the branded bread segment
followed by Britannia Industries Ltd. (BIL).These two companies account for around 90% of
the branded bread market, supplying to the high and medium price segments. Local
manufacturers equipped with abundant local brands tend to target the mass market segment
and contribute substantially in the bread segment. A significant number of small bread
manufacturers still use traditional methods of manufacturing baked products. To keep the
production cost at minimum, these local manufacturers tend to compromise with the quality
of the products. Thus, most bakery products are positioned in the lower end economy
segment.
Biscuits: India is the third largest producers of biscuits after United States and China. The
biscuit market of India is driven by some of the key factors such as increase in purchasing
power, shift to premium biscuits, more manufacturing facilities set up, growing health
awareness, innovation in biscuits, attractive packaging, etc. The biscuits and cookies
production volume reached to 623.7 thousand metric tons in the country during 2017 which
is higher than 600.3 thousand metric tons produced in 2016. Indian biscuit market stand
reached to 3.9 billion USD mark and further growing at CAGR of 11.27% which is further
expected to reach 7.25 billion USD by 2022. Moreover India is one of the largest biscuit
consuming countries in the world. The organized biscuit market contribute >70% of value
share in the overall Indian biscuit market. Organized market comprises of all the major
players of biscuits which serves both in rural and urban area. The distribution network of
players like Parle and Britannia are widely spread in the rural areas. It is very easy to find a

` 5 Parle biscuit in any traditional general shop in those areas. Organized market consists of
different product categories of biscuits such as cream, cookies, glucose, marie, cracker,
milk, etc. Organized players like Parle, Britannia, Mrs. Bectors, Surya Food and Agro Ltd.
manufacture all types of biscuits mentioned above. Rural consumption of biscuits has shown
a better growth in past few years. Along with the major biscuit manufacturers, many regional
companies are also into the production chain. Their biscuits are well-labelled and packaged
yet healthy to eat and available at a low price which makes it affordable for the low income
consumers. Urban localities include distribution channels such as hypermarket,
supermarket, general stores and growing one "e-retailing". E-retailing is in trend nowadays.
E-retailing allows consumers to select their kind of products and also offers discount at times
like in festive seasons. It is convenient to shop from here as one can easily purchase
anything by sitting at home. Amazon, Flipkart, Snapdeal are some of the e-retailers in India
which keep biscuits from both national and international brands. The global Biscuit market
has been divided into major ingredients, category, product type, specialty type and region.
 On the basis of major ingredients: Wheat, Oats, Millets, Mixed Grain, Others
 On the basis of category: Sweet Biscuits, Chocolate Biscuits, Savory Biscuits,
Crisp Bread, Crackers and Others
 On the basis of product type: Everyday Biscuits, Everyday Treats, Special Treats,
Healthy Biscuits, Children's Biscuits, and Others
 On the basis of specialty type: Dairy-Free, Gluten-Free, Sugar-Free, Fortified, and
others
 On the basis of region: North America, Europe, Asia Pacific and ROW.
As regards the consumption pattern is concerned. surveys and estimates by industry from
time to time indicate the average consumption scenario in the four Zones have been more or
less close to each other, as below: northern states: 28%, southern states: 24%, western
states: 25%, eastern states: 23%. The per capita consumption of biscuits in India is ~2.1 Kg,
compared to more than 10 kg in the USA, UK and West European countries.
Pasta and Noodles: The pasta and noodles industry comprises the retail sale of dried
pasta, dried and instant noodles, chilled pasta, chilled noodles, ambient pasta and ambient
noodles. The Indian pasta and noodles industry performed global revenues of 609.0m USD
in 2017. In 2015, the Indian food safety authority banned the production and sale of Nestle's
Maggi, claiming that it includes high levels of lead. Up until that point, Maggi was the market
leader; however prohibition caused a $67m product recall. With the rapidly changing
lifestyles over the last couple of decades, ready-to-cook and instant food brands have
become almost indispensable in the urban kitchens, as such easy-to-cook foods are great
time-savers besides being easy on the palate, and also because they are greatly relished by
children.According to India Instant Noodles, Pasta & Soup Market Overview, the total market
for instant noodles, pasta and soup is growing with more than 20% CAGR from last five
years. The instant noodles market in India was growing at a healthy rate from last few years
but Maggi's MSG lead controversy affected the category majorly with sales being reduced by
almost 14% in the year 2015-16. As a result, other players like CG Foods and ITC Sunfeast

Yippee are trying to grab a larger share of the category. Flexible plastic packaging of packet
noodles dominates the market as consumers prefer convenient packaging with affordable
quantities. However, cup noodles will prove to be a trendy friend of young multitasking
generation in the coming years. More than two-third sales revenue of instant noodles comes
from traditional formats (kirana stores) whereas retail is growing fast and online sales are still
at a nascent stage. The ready-to-cook pasta market in India is at the kind of stage that the
instant noodles market was years ago. The major players are Nestle India Pvt. Ltd.,
Hindustan Unilever Limited, Bambino Agro Industries Ltd., ITC Limited, CG Foods India
Private Limited.
Flat Bread (chapatti): Flat breads were the earliest breads made by humans. Ingredients
like flour, water, and salt were kneaded into pliable dough before being shaped by hand and
baked. Flat breads were eaten at every meal, functioning as plates with other foods being
served on them or as implements for eating other things such as stews or sauces. They are
important amongst the people of India and the Middle East and have spread to Western
countries where their popularity is growing because of their versatility. They can wrap
(tortilla), hold (pita), and form the base of substantial foods (pizza). People have been
making flat breads for well over 6000 years. The oldest baker’s oven in the world was known
in Babylon in4000 B.C. Flat bread was baked in hot ashes or on heated stone slabs in the
old kingdom of Egypt as long ago as 4000 B.C. Next discovery was baking the flat sheets of
dough on flat stones in hot sun by nomadic herdsmen. Tandoor originated in Persia (Iran)
and brought to India via Afghanistan by Arabs way back in 3000 B.C. Small mud-plastered
ovens have been found in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro of ancient valley. Description
regarding the popular flat breads of the India is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Popular flat breads in India

Name Description Ingredients
Bhakri Flat unleavened bread Sorghum flour, water, and oil
Dosa/Dosai Flat leavened bread Rice flour, blackgram, and salt
Chapati/phulka Flat unleavened bread Whole-wheat flour, salt, and water
Flat unleavened bread baked on a

Tandoori roti Whole-wheat flour, salt, and water
tandoor
Parantha Flat bread folded with ghee Whole-wheat flour, salt, and water
Puri Deep fat fried Whole-wheat flour, salt, and water
Naan Flat bread baked on a tandoor Wheat flour, salt, yoghurt, and water
Creamish colored flat bread with

Parotta Wheat flour, oil, salt, and water
distinct layers
Wheat flour, oil, curd, yeast, salt,

Kulcha Creamish colored flat bread
sugar, and water
Wheat flour, oil, yoghurt, soda, yeast,

Bhatura Deep fat fried
salt, sugar, and water

No meal in India is complete without this quintessential flatbread. Chapatti also known as
roti, safati, shabaati, phulka and (in the Maldives) roshi, is an unleavened flatbread from the
Indian Subcontinent and staple in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, East Africa
and the Caribbean. Chapatis are made of whole wheat flour known as atta, mixed into dough
with water and optional salt in a mixing utensil called a parat, and is cooked on a tava (flat
skillet). Chapatis were also introduced to other parts of the world by immigrants from the
Indian subcontinent, particularly by Indian merchants to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, East
Africa, and the Caribbean islands. The carbonized wheat grains discovered at the
excavations at Mohenjo-daro are of a similar variety to an endemic species of wheat still to
be found in India today. The Indus valley is known to be one of the ancestral lands of
cultivated wheat.
Bibliography
http://www.techno-preneur.net/technology/project-profiles/food/bread-manu.html
http://www.aibma.com/industry.html
http://passarolaventures.com/index.php/business-reviews/business-focus/76-the-bakery-market-a-
industry-in-india
https://www.statista.com/statistics/762057/india-biscuits-and-cookies-production-volume/
http://www.ibmabiscuits.org/industry-statistics
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/india-biscuit-market-overview-2017-2023-
300617486.html
Parimala KR and M. L. Sudha (2015) Wheat-Based Traditional Flat Breads of India, Critical Reviews
in Food Science and Nutrition, 55:1, 67-81.
https://www.reportlinker.com/p04865604/Pasta-Noodles-in-India.html
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/india-instant-noodles-pasta--soup-report-2017-growing-
at-a-cagr-of-more-than-20-from-the-last-5-years---research-and-markets-300447219.html

11. AgriNutri Smart Villages (A2N): An Approach to Fight

Malnutrition
Sangeetha V, Premlata Singh, Satyapriya, V Lenin, P Venkatesh, Sudipta Paul, Sukanya Barua,
Muralikrishnan, Sitaram and Shivani Singh
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12
Introduction
India enjoys an enormous biodiversity, fertile soil, a large cultivable area and, above all, a
long history of crop husbandry covering large groups of fruits, vegetables, mushrooms,
flowers, plantation and spices. The total cultivable area is 159.7 million hectares with an
annual production of 284.83 million tonnes. Fruits and vegetables together contributed to 90
percent of this production and74per cent of the total area (Annual Report, Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, 2017). Today, India is the largest producer of fruits and
vegetables in the world. Despite having huge production with most versatile productivity, the
country is struggling with malnutrition with 42.8 per cent of children U-5 are underweight, 42
per cent are stunted, 25.8 per cent are wasted and 9.2 per cent are severely wasted as per
NFHS IV data (2015-16). Why malnutrition is concern because it not only contributes to
increased morbidity, disability, stunted mental and physical growth, and but also reduces
national socioeconomic development (WHO and FAO, 2003).
Micronutrient malnutrition with iron, zinc and vitamin A deficiencies also most prevalent
which affects more than two billion people. More than five million childhood deaths occur
from micronutrient malnutrition every year (Kennedy et al., 2007). Why again, it is a concern
because it affects mostly among resource poor families. The analysis of the problem
suggests that where the child is malnourished, the family including the mother was probably
malnourished ad hence the approach to address malnutrition is to be at the family and
population level rather than just at the child or anganwadi level (UNICEF, 2017).
Agriculture is the main source of food, employment and income for 70 to 80 percent of
people suffering from hunger in developing countries. As such, food security is unlikely to be
achieved without considerable attention to the food and agriculture sector. Until recently, the
focus has been primarily on micronutrient supplementation, which is essential for high risk
populations and emergencies, but cannot provide the long-term nutrition, social and
economic benefits that agriculture can provide, (Vakili et al., 2013). The development for
sustainable agriculture and malnutrition fight firstly should be focused to villages. Almost 70
per cent of the Indian population is dependent on agriculture and lives in villages. Hence, our
county is agriculture based country, targeted agricultural programmes can complement
these investments by enhancing access to diverse diets and supporting livelihoods. The idea
of nutrition sensitive agriculture needs to be explored.

Bio-fortification
By breeding nutrients like vitamin A, iron and zinc content into staple food crops through
conventional plant breeding methods is called as biofortication. And also it can be done
through transgenic techniques, or agronomic practices. It is an answer to the problems of
malnutrition. It is an approach to overcome the nutrient problems of poor populations (Bouis et
al., 2011). For example, improved varieties of provitamin A rich orange-fleshed sweet potato,
beta-carotene rich Golden Rice, high- iron rich rice etc. will help to overcome vitamin A and
iron deficiency malnutrition. Seven major staple crops like rice, beans, cassava, maize, sweet
potato, pearl millet, and wheat target three important micronutrients- Fe, Zn, and vitamin A
(Welch and Graham, 2004) to tackle the issues of food deficiencies and malnutrition. An
estimated economic return of US$17 is available if a dollar is invested in biofortification
(Sgustafson, 2017).
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) along with all the Krishi Vigyan Kendras
(KVKs), Research institutes and other organizations are constantly working to develop latest
nutritionally fortified varieties. The major nutrient rich varieties developed by ICAR institutes
are listed below.
Crop Varieties Nutrient value
Pomegranate SolapurLal Iron, zinc & vitamin-C
Rice DRR Dhan 45 High zinc
Rice CR Dhan 310 High protein (10.3%)
Wheat WB 02 and HPBW 01 High iron and zinc
Bread wheat HS 562 Fe and Zn micronutrient-rich
Wheat AHB 1200 Fe rich

(Hybrid) HHB 299 Fe & Zn rich
Sweet Potato BhuSona β-carotene rich
Sweet Potato Bhu Krishna Anthocyanin rich
Spinach All green Fe rich
Bio-fortified crop varieties developed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) has made concerted efforts to address the
numerous challenges facing food and nutritional security. The Institute has been making
tremendous contributions in addressing nutrition security through the development of high
yielding varieties as well as products which are rich in nutrients. The major nutrient rich
varieties developed by ICAR-IARI are listed as follows.

Bio-fortified crop varieties developed by ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Crop Varieties Nutrient value
Wheat Malavkirti, PusaMangal-rich in vitamin A,

Iron, zinc, copper
PusaPrachi
Mustard Pusa Mustard 29, Pusa Mustard 21, Pusa Low erucic acid
Mustard 30 Zero erucic acid
Pearl Millet Pusa Composite 701 and 443, AHB 1200,

HHB 299 High Fe (60 ppm) and high Zn (50 ppm)
Cauliflower Bio-fortified beta carotene (800 – 1000

PusaBetakesari
µg/100 g) rich
Radish PusaJamuni, PusaGulabi Rich in anthocyanins and ascorbic acid
Mango PusaShreshth, PusaPratibha, PusaLalima Rich in vitamin C and beta-carotene
Lentil PusaVaibhav Rich in iron
Bitter Gourd PusaRasdar Beta-carotene rich
Carrot PusaAsita High anthocyanin
Carrot PusaRudhira Lycopene rich
Musk melon PusaMadhuras Beta carotene rich
Radish PusaJamuni
Anthocyanin rich
PusaGulabi
Masoor PusaAgeti, PusaVaibhav Iron rich lentil
Maize hybrid Pusa HM4, Pusa HM8 Improved &Pusa

Lysine & tryptophan rich
HM9 Improved
Cauliflower PusaBita Kesari-1 Beta-carotene rich
Eventhough, lots and lots of efforts are going on in bio-fortification, our farmers are not
aware of it. It is very essential to take these things into farmers’ field to increase individuals’
daily micronutrient intakes, to improve nutrition, to curb the maladies of malnutrition. These
bio fortified varieties can act as link between agriculture and nutrition. Hence, in order to
connect agriculture with nutrition through bio fortified varieties, an Agri-Nutri (A2N) model
has been conceptualized under the institute funded project called Enhancing Nutritional
Security and Gender Empowerment. As established by Sangeetha et al. (2018), An Agri-
Nutri smart village is a model to address the problem of malnutrition by integrating
agriculture and nutrition (A2N). The main components of this model are nutri farming system,
agri-nutri education; capacity building and SHGs based nutri forums for social learning. It is a
framework which includes the various agriculture interventions, awareness campaigns and
capacity building programmes, field days and field demonstrations on nutri rich crops and
varieties, farmers-scientists interface, exposure visits, streaming of videos on healthy
practices as well as on nutri rich varieties, minimal processing techniques of pulses, fruits
and vegetables etc.

The interventions target various stakeholders such as farmers, farm women, Self Help
Group (SHG) members, Anganwadi workers, school children etc. through Behavioural
Change Communication (BCC) by involving all the local institutions. The practices involved
are focused to sustainable agriculture and nutrition security. The involved interventions are;
demonstration of nutri rich varieties, Nutrition awareness campaigns, Exposure on Nutri-
Kitchen garden, awareness on nutrition, to consume healthy or nutritionally rich foods, to
increase production and consumption diversity and for improving nutritional security through
introducing Nutri Farming System.The main component of Nutri farming system is cultivating
biofortifed varieties.
Conclusions
The vision of reaching one billion becomes a reality, only through a collaborative effort.
National governments, policy makers, multilateral institutions, food processors, extension
professionals must give high priority to the role of bio fortified crops in curbing malnutrition.
The production and consumption of bio fortified crops along with nutrition education aimed at
both men and women is very crucial in making bio fortified crops a success. The approach
of making villages an agrinutri smart with sustainable agriculture activities and nutritional
interventions will make the food system better equipped in producing good nutritional
outcomes. This will definitely lead to in accessing nutritious and healthy food. Finally, this
paper concludes that the overall objective of making the food system better equipped to
produce good nutritional outcomes is possible through an innovative approach of Agri-Nutri
Smart Village and making the bio fortified crops as a part of Nutri farming system.
Bibliography
FAO, 2003.Synthesis of Guiding Principles on Agriculture Programming for
Nutrition.<www.fao.org/docrep/017/aq194e/aq194e00.htm>.
Bouis HE, P. Eozenou, A. RahmanFood prices, household income, and resource allocation: socioeconomic
perspectives on their effects on dietary quality and nutritional status , Food Nutr. Bull., 32 (1) (2011),
pp. S14-S23
http://www.foodsecurityportal.org/improving-nutrition-through-biofortification
Kennedy, G. L., M. R. Pedro, C. Seghieri, G. Nantel, and I. Brouwer. 2007. “Dietary Diversity Score Is a Useful
Indicator of Micronutrient Intake in Non-Breast-Feeding Filipino Children.” Journal of Nutrition 137
(2):472–477.
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Annual Report 2016-17, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India.
Ministry of Horticulture, Horticulture Together at a Glance, 2007, Government of India.
Sgustafson, 2017.Improving Nutrition through Biofortification.www.foodsecurityportal.org
UNICEF. 2017: The world of Nutrition. Technical report, New York.
Sangeetha V, P. Singh, Satyapriya, V. Lenin, S Paul, S. Barua, L. Muralikrishnan and Sitaram, 2018. An Agri-
Nutri Smart Village Model for Food and Nutrition Security. Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR-
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12
Vakili, M., Abedi, P., Sharifi, M. and Hosseini, M. (2013) Dietary Diversity and Its Related Factors among
Adolescents: A Survey in Ahvaz-Iran.Global Journal of Health Science,5(2).
WHO/FAO (World Health Organization /Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).2003.
Preparation and use of food-based dietary guidelines. Geneva: Nutrition Programme, World Health
Organization.

12. Varietal Cafeteria in Barley, Package of Practices and

their Role in Enhancing the Crop Productivity
Kharub AS, Vishnu Kumar, Dinesh Kumar, Anil Khippal and Chuni Lal
Barley is one of the most important coarse cereals and ancient crop species. The
archaeological evidences have been revealed that the crop was domesticated 10000 years
ago with other crops in the “Fertile Crescent” of the Middle East. The crop is mainly used for
food and feed purposes and its unique properties for enzymatic activities and husk content
also make suitable for malting and brewing. Barley is a crop of wide range of production
conditions and being cultivated in the drier areas of Rajasthan, Western and Eastern plains,
central plateaus to the Northern and Eastern Hills. It is a low input crop suitable for saline,
marginal and poor fertility soils and water scarce areas. It thrives well in sandy loam to loamy
sand textural soils. During 2017-18 barley was grown in an area of 6.6 lakh ha with a
production of 1.77 m tones and with productivity of 26.79 q/ha. The four states Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana cover 80 % of area and 90 % of production.
The cultivation for malting and brewing purposes in Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab is
practised relatively in better management conditions to get good grain quality. In J&K,
Hulless barley is being grown in Leh region specifically for food purpose.
Industrial Importance of Barley

In ancient times, barley was used for flour and sattu making (local preparations) and also
used as animal feed. The grain as well as straw or the green ripe crop are used as fodder
for feeding the dairy animals. The other most important use of barley is for malt mainly used
for brewing purpose and small portion of malt is further used in chocolate, infant food, baby
food, milk based beverages. The medicinal properties of barley include diuretics and kidney
stone ailments.
Selection of Barley Varieties

There are number of improved varieties available for different production conditions. The
details are as under:
Area of Average Yield Potential Yield
Variety Year Production Condition
Adoption (q/ha) (q/ha)
Two-row Malt Barley, NWPZ
DWRB 123 2017 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ 48.7 67.26

DWRUB 52 2007 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ 45.10 58.40
DWRB 91 2013 Irrigated (LS) NWPZ 40.62 58.90
DWRUB 64(6r) 2012 Irrigated (LS) NWPZ 40.50 61.20
DWRB 73 2011 Irrigated (LS) NWPZ 38.70 53.18

Area of Average Yield Potential Yield

Variety Year Production Condition
Adoption (q/ha) (q/ha)
Six-row Feed Barley, Timely sown, NWPZ

BH 946 2014 Irrigated NWPZ 51.96 66.32
BH 902 2010 Irrigated NWPZ 49.72 61.60
RD 2624 2004 Rainfed NWPZ 24.89 38.08
RD 2660 2006 Rainfed NWPZ 24.30 34.10
Six-row Feed Barley, Timely sown, NEPZ
DWRB 137 2018 Irrigated NEPZ 37.93 53.62
HUB 113 2014 Irrigated NEPZ 43.20 63.77
K 603 2001 Rainfed NEPZ 29.07 38.40
K 560 1997 Rainfed NEPZ 30.40 46.40
Six-row Feed Barley, Timely sown, Central Zone
DWRB 137 2018 Irrigated CZ 42.58 67.44
BH 959 2015 Irrigated CZ 51.0 65.0
RD 2786 2013 Irrigated CZ 50.20 61.40
PL751 2007 Irrigated CZ 47.30 64.10
RD 2715 2009 Irrigated (dual purpose) CZ 26.30 54.50
Six-row Feed Barley, Northern Hills Zone
BHS 400 2014 Rainfed NHZ 32.71 58.70
VLB 118 2013 Rainfed NHZ 30.84 50.00
UPB 1008 2011 Rainfed NHZ 26.44 35.00
BHS 380 2010 Rainfed (Dual purpose) NHZ 20.97 29.80
Hulless/Naked barley
NDB 943 2010 Irrigated UP 25.00 38.00
K 1149 1991 Irrigated UP 21.31 27.81
HBL 276 1999 Rainfed NHZ 23.00 34.90
BHS 352 2003 Rainfed NHZ 21.90 38.00
For Salinity conditions
RD 2907 2018 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ, NEPZ RARI, Durgapura
NDB 1173 2005 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ, NEPZ NDUA&T, Faizabad
Package of Practices
Preparation of Land: Sandy to loam soils of Indo-Gangetic plains having neutral to mild
saline reaction and medium fertility are the most suitable types for barley cultivation,
however, it may be grown on a variety of soil types, viz; saline, sodic and lighter soils.
Being salt resistant, its cultivation has become possible on saline areas of various states. In
barley cultivation field is prepared like wheat crop, land leveling and high bunding is a must
so that rain water can be harvested. To save the crop from termite, ants and other insects,
seed treatment is a must. In irrigated area field should be prepared after irrigation for proper
germination.
Method of Sowing: The best method of sowing is with a seed-drill or dropping seeds with a
chonga (a tube connected with a funnel like structure behind country plough) attached to a
desi-plough. Dropping seeds in open furrows behind desi-plough and broadcasting are
found to be inferior to line sowing with seed drill. Soil should be made compact by planking
or running a roller for better seed-soil contact. Sowing by zero tillage is found economical as
it saves energy and time and produce almost at par with conventional tillage.
Seed treatment: Carboxin 37.5 %+ Thiram 37.5 % WS @3g/kg seed or Tebuconazole 2DS
@1gm/kg of seed
Methods and time of sowing, seed rate and spacing, nutrient requirement
Production Seed rate Fertilizer
Time of sowing Spacing (cm)
condition (Kg/ha) (Kg /ha)
Irrigated
a) Timely sown 100 10-25 Nov. 23 60 N : 30 P : 20 K
b) Late sown 125 01 Dec-31 Dec. 18 60 N : 30 P : 20 K
c) Malt 100 1-20 Nov. 18-20 90 N : 40 P : 20 K
d) Dual 125 25 Oct to 05 Nov 20 75 N : 30 P : 20 K
Rainfed
Plains 100 25 Oct-10 Nov. 23 40 N : 20 P : 20 K
Hilly Region 100 20 Oct-10 Nov. 23 40 N : 20 P : 20 K
Half of nitrogen should be applied as basal and remaining half in two splits, one fourth at the
time of first irrigation and one fourth at the time of second irrigation.
Irrigation: Barley is grown in irrigated as well as rainfed / water scarce areas. Generally it
requires 2-3 irrigations for better yield. Depending upon the water availability suitable stages
for irrigation should be identified. If two irrigations are available, first should be given at 25-
30 days after sowing and the second at 65-70 days after sowing. If only one irrigation is
available then apply it at 30-35 days after sowing. The malt barley requires 3-4 irrigations to
ensure better yield, grain uniformity and grain quality.
Weed Control: Barley is a fast growing crop and it does not let weeds smoother it, even
then, if necessary weed control operation can be taken up.
Dose a.i.
Nature of Weeds Weedicides Method of Application
(per /ha)
A) Broad leave 2,4-D 500 gm 30-35 days after sowing
Chenopodium album (Bathua), in 400-500 litres of
Convolvulus arvensis (Hirankhuri), Metsulfuron 4 gm water.
Anagalis arvensis (Krishna neel),
Cronopus didymus (wild carrot)
B) Narrow leave Isoproturan 75% 1000 gm 30-35 days after sowing
Avena fatua(Wild Oat), Phalaris minor Penaxaden (Axil) 30-35 gm a.i. in 400-500 litres of
(Kanaki) 1.0-1.5 litre water. Immediately after
Pendimethilin sowing. (within 3 days)
C) Both (Broad and Narrow leave) Isoproturan 75% 1000gm 30-35 days after sowing
Isoprotaran+2,4-D 750 gm+500gm in 400-500 litres of
Isoproturan+ 750gm+4gm water
Melsulfuran

Diseases and Insect-Pests

Loose and Covered Smut: Seed treatment with vitavax/bavistin @ 2g/kg seed for loose
smut, and vitavax & thiram in the ratio of 1:1 for covered smut should be used for seed
treatment. Seed can be given solar treatment during the month of May -June. Soak the seed
for four hours in water and keep it in sunshine for 10-12 hours. Afterwards, store the seeds
in a dry place.
Rust and Blight: Both of these diseases are multiple cycle diseases and spread like a wild
fire under favourable environments. Though the spray chemicals are available, but the
control by sprays may not be effective. Frequent sprays may be needed at regular intervals,
which in not feasible for low input crop like barley. The use of resistant varieties is highly
recommended and a number of resistant/tolerant varieties are available for these diseases.
Aphid: Barley crop is affected by aphid which causes heavy loss to the crop as well as the
grain quality in old variety of feted. Apply rogar twice @2 ml/liter for one acre in 400 liters of
water at an interval of 15 days. Further control of aphid foliar spray of Rogor to ml/lit. or
Imidachloprid 200@ 20gm a.i. in 1000 litres of water. In case of heavy incidence the second
spray can be made at an interval of 15 days. Initially the infestation starts from the borders
of the field in that case spray should be given in 15 metre row from the borders can avoid
heavy loss.
Molya Diseases: Use resistant varieties RD 2052 and RD 2035 and RD 2592
Harvesting and Storage: Barley crop gets ready for harvest by the end of March to first
fortnight of April. Since barley has shattering character on over ripening, it should be
harvested when it ripes to avoid breaking of spikes due to dryness. Barley grain absorbs
moisture from the atmosphere and should be stored at an appropriate dry place to avoid
storage pest losses. For industrial purpose, choose an appropriate variety, sow and harvest
timely with proper management.
Enhancing the Crop Productivity

Soils, water and plant are three important factors affecting crop productivity.
 The soils in which crops are grown, water which is the life of the plant. Soil and water
supports physical properties for the plant growth and gives mechanical support to
plants.
 Soils supply nutrition to plants. Every soil has its natural fertility which differs from soil
to soil and it can be supplemented by adding chemical fertilisers in desired quantities.
The soil productivity can be further enhanced through soil and water conservation
measures.
 Application of organic manure and bio-fertilisers, adaptation of tree-based farming.
 Water is the life of plant and must be supplied in proper quantity. Too much water
may suffocate the plant roots and too little may not be able to sustain the plant.
 The soil and water are two variables which either have to be suitably adjusted for the
plant to grow or the plant should be so bred and selected that it will adjust to a given
soil and water condition.
 There are a variety of crops and plant breeders are constantly at work to evolve
varieties which will suit the given soil and water conditions e.g., those which may
stand drought condition, those which will absorb more nutrients and convert them
into food giving bumper yields, varieties which will be resistant to diseases etc.
 Integrated pest management can be promoted to boost the yields.
 Replacement of local seeds with certified seeds, change of crops, use of improved
farm implements, mineral nutrients, plant protection measures and installation of
irrigation system are some of the new initiatives to further enhance the crop yields.
The improved practices including disease resistant varieties for the particular production
condition / or agro-ecological condition should be adopted for better productivity and
profitability.

13. Potential and Prospects of Malt Barley Cultivation in India

Dinesh Kumar, Vishnu Kumar, Anil Khippal, Chuni Lal and AS Kharub
Introduction
Barley is an ancient crop and one of the world’s first domesticated cereals. Barley is a
member of family ‘Poaceae’ and the crop has very wide adaptation and is grown from
problematic soils to high altitudes. The area of barley worldwide is 48.05 mha, while in India
it is 0.67 mha. The total world production of barley is 144.26 million tonnes and of India is
1.77 million tonnes. The major advantage with barley is that it can be grown in problematic
soils and with lesser resources. The area of barley got drastically reduced in late 60s, mainly
because of availability of high yielding dwarf wheat varieties, assured irrigation facilities and
changes in food habits over the period of time. However, the area has more or less
stabilized since last two decades and it is a high probability that in the times to come
demand of barley and subsequently area under this crop is expected to increase. The major
reason for this expected increase is increasing industrial use of barley because of changing
food habits, increasing urbanization and awareness about health benefits of foods. In this
article potential and prospects of barley in India has been discussed.
Barley Usage
Barley is mainly used as an animal feed in India and roughly 70% of total production goes for
feeding animals. The rest 30% goes for industrial use and out of this 25% is used for malt
making and approximately 5% is directly used for human food. The barley malt is used for
brewing, health foods, confectionary items and little bit for distillation.
What is Malt?
In simple terms malt is the modified grain where complex bio molecules like starch and
proteins are broken down in simple units like monosaccharide and disaccharides in case of
carbohydrates and in amino acids for proteins. There simple molecules increase the
digestibility of grain and that’s why malt is used for making the health drinks like Horlicks,
Bournvita, Amul Pro, Complan, Powervita, Maltova etc. These simple molecules also serve
as perfect source of nutrition for yeasts and they metabolize these sugars to form ethanol in
the process of brewing to make beer. To make malt from barley, the grain is germinated in
controlled conditions to break the complex molecules into simple ones with minimum growth
of root and shoot (radicle and plumule). This process is called malting and involves three
steps ie steeping (to increase the moisture content of grain), germination at controlled
temperature and humidity and finally kilning to decrease the moisture content and roasting of
malt. The malt is further processed to make the wort (malt is grounded and mixed in water at
fixed temperatures), the wort is then converted into malt extract. Wort is used for brewing
and distillation, while malt extract goes for making health drinks and confectionary items.

The simple flow chart of the micro-malting process is given below just for illustration;
however the temperatures and duration may vary depending upon the quality of malt desired
and condition of raw material:
STEEPING GERMINATION
Wet stage for 8 hours at 25oC 24 hours at 18oC
Air rest for 12 hours at 18oC 24 hours at 17oC
Wet stage for 6 hours at 25oC 12 hours at 16oC
Air rest for 10 hours at 18oC
KILNING
MASHING 3 hours at 45oC
Hot Water Extraction (45-70 oC) 3 hours at 50oC
3 hours at 55oC
3 hours at 60oC
3 hours at 65oC
WORT 3 hours at 70oC
3 hours at 75oC
3 hours at 80oC
MALT EXTRACT BREWING
Quality Requirements of Barley Grain for Making Malt

For making good quality malt and better recovery of malt, the raw material i.e barley grain
must satisfy certain minimum quality parameters. The major contributor to the malt extract is
starch, therefore higher level of starch in grain will lead to higher recovery of finished
product. Starch is also the largest contributor to the dry weight of the grain. Therefore bold
grains (>2.5 mm) are desirable for malting. The protein content should be low (9-11%) for
brewing purpose malt however for food industry, the higher protein content is normally
demanded. Some of the major/selected quality requirements for barley grain meant for malt
making are listed in Table 1.
Why Barley is Preferred for Malting?

The malt can be prepared from other cereals also like wheat, sorghum etc., however barley
grain is preferred because of following reasons:
1. The husk remains attached with the grain, this protects the growing plumule during
malting process thus resulting in better recovery of malt. Secondly during wort
filtration, the husk acts as a sieve.
2. The endogenous enzyme activity for degrading starch is relatively more in barley
grain as compared to other cereals. This is very important for proper
degradation/modification of the starch and is collectively referred as diastatic power.
3. Besides the above two factors, barley malt has traditionally been used for making
beer and hence is preferred over other grains. However, adjuncts like wheat, rice
flakes etc. are also used, but even than barley is used as a natural source of diastatic
enzymes.

In case of barley, there are several variants from grain point of view, these are two-row and
six row barley; hulled and huskless barley and coloured grains. However, two rowed barley
with attached husk are usually preferred one for malt making.
Improved Indigenous Malt Barley Varieties

The systematic barley breeding programme in India started in nineties and several malt
barley varieties have been developed. These varieties are mainly developed for north
western plain zone and at present malt barley cultivation is mainly concentrated in the states
of Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh. The major characteristics of
some of the varieties are given in Table 2. All the malt barley varieties developed in India till
dates are two rowed except DWRUB 64 which is six rowed. The major milestone indigenous
variety was DWRUB 52, which was developed in public-private partnership and a package of
good quality, yield and disease tolerance. At present the improved varieties like DWRB 91,
DWRB 92, DWRB 101 and RD 2849 have also become available. The malt varieties need to
be grown in irrigated conditions with recommended package of practices, since the grain
chemical composition is different from feed barley varieties and for malt making grains with
specific quality traits are required. In this regard work done for north western plain zone has
shown that varieties need NPK of 90 kg: 30 kg: 20 kg per hectare, require 3-4 irrigations, to
be grown on normal soils and should have row to row spacing of 18 cm for better yield and
quality. Similarly the optimum dates of sowing have been standardized (first fortnight of
November in NWPZ) to give maximum time and congenial conditions for grain filling window.
The farmers can grow these malt barley varieties to save upon the resources as compared
to same season crop of wheat; however they must ensure the market and remunerable
prices for the produce. But there is greater need for the malt industry to come forward to get
these varieties in contract growing chain with recommended package of practices and give
competitive prices to the growers, this will result in better remuneration to the farmers,
diversification of cropping pattern and availability of good quality raw material to the industry.
The advantage of using indigenous varieties lies in the fact that these are better adapted to
our climate being bred here, have better yields, disease resistance and good quality. To
make this value chain operational the concerted efforts of researchers, extension machinery
and industry are required to link the farmers to the industry. This will not only save upon the
resources of farmers, but also precious foreign exchange being spent in importing the grain
and malt; if right varieties along with recommended package of practices are followed along
with linking the farm to factory.
Potential and Perspective of Malt Barley Cultivation in India

The demand for malt is on increase on global level and especially in India and China.
Because of changing life styles, food habits and urbanization consumption of beer and other
malt based products is bound to increase. This is apparent by entry of several global players
like AB InBev, Axereal, Soufflet etc. in Indian barley malt market in past few years (partial list
of malt manufacturers as collected online given in Table 3). At present approximately
25-30% of barley production goes for malt making besides the barley and malt being
imported.

In the next five years the demand will further increase and efforts will be needed by breeders
and agronomists to keep pace with the requirement of industry, very extensive efforts by
extension machinery to make farmers aware of improved indigenous malt barley varieties
and technologies and linking farmers with the industry. The industry is also expected to
provide remunerative prices to farmers through segregated marketing/purchase of malt
barley. The barley has passed through a very bad phase where its area and production went
down drastically, but now it seems that era of revival of this crop has started primarily due to
its increasing industrial usage. Let us all make it a vehicle to double the income of farmers
by 2022 with conservation of resources for long-term sustainable agriculture growth.
Table 1: Major quality parameter requirement of barley for malting purpose

No. Parameter 2-row 6-row
BARLEY GRAIN
1 Moisture (%) <12.0 <12.0
2 Hectolitre Weight (kg/hl) > 65.0 > 60.0
Kernel Size Uniform plump Uniform plump
3 on 2.5 mm >90% >80%
Through 2.2 mm <3% <5%
4 1000 grain weight(g) 42-45 >40
5 Husk Content <11.0% <11%
6 Protein Content(d.b.) 9.0-12.0% 9.0-12.0%
7 Germination Capacity >96% >96%
8 Germination Energy (72hrs) >96% >96%
9 Beta-glucan <4.0% <4.0%
MALT
1 Malt Homogeneity >90% >90%
2 Malt Friability >65% >60%
Total Protein (d.b.)
3 Soluble Protein 4-5 % 4-5 %
S/T/Ratio 40-44% 40-44%
4 Malt Extract (minimum) 80% 78%
5 Wort Viscosity <1.5 mPas <1.5 mPas
6 Wort turbidity Clear Clear
7 Diastatic Power(0L) >90 >90
8 Wort Beta-glucan <200 ppm <200 ppm
9 FAN >150 ppm >150ppm
* Finalized in first meeting of the “NATIONAL CORE GROUP ON MALT BARLEY DEVELOPMENT” at DWR, Karnal on 12 Dec., 1995 and
revised during the annual workshop at IARI, New Delhi in August 2004 and further on 05.03.2016 at ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal.
Table 2: Some of the indigenous malt barley varieties for north western plain zone
Bold grain Hot water
Year of Potential Protein
S.No. Variety Row type percentage extract
release yield (q/ha) (% dw t)
(>2.5 mm) (fgdwtb)
1 DWRUB 52 2007 2 58.4 83.3 11.4 78.2
2 DWRUB 64 2012 6 61.2 87.5 10.7 77.1
3 DWRB 91 2013 2 58.9 91.7 10.6 81.0
4 DWRB 92 2014 2 69.06 93.0 11.9 79.0
5 DWRB 101 2015 2 67.44 86.0 11.0 80.3
6 RD 2849 2016 2 69.2 83.2 11.0 79.6
7 DWRB 123 2017 2 67.26 91.1 11.3 79.5

Table 3: List of some of the malt manufactures collected from internet*
S.No. Company Name Address/Web site
1 AB InBev https://www.ab-inbev.com/
2 Axereal India http://axerealindia.com/
3 Barmalt India Pvt. Ltd Post Box No. 34, Jharsa Road, Sector-31,Gurgaon-122001, Haryana
4 Imperial Malts Limited Village-Ghasola, P.O. Bagampur,Gurgaon-122001, Haryana
5 Indomalt Processors Private Ltd. http://www.indomalt.com/companyprofile.html
6 Kamala Aahar Solutions Pvt. Ltd. 99, Azad Squiar,South Malaka,Allahabad-211003, Uttar Pradesh
7 Mahalaxmi Malt Products Pvt. Ltd C/O. Crown Courier, B-494, 2nd Floor, Nit,Faridabad-121001, Ha
8 Maltex Malsters Ltd Maltex House, Rauni, Patiala - Nabha Road,Patiala-147001, Punjab
9 Pearl Malt Pvt Ltd NH-8 Delhi-Jaipur Road,Behror-325701, Rajasthan

1102, 11th Floor, Tower D, Welldone Tech Park, Sohna Road, Sector 48,
10 PMV Maltings Pvt. Ltd.
Gurugram, Haryana 122001
A-131, Road No.9d, Vishwakarma Industrial Area,Jaipur-302013,
11 Shakti Malt (P) Ltd
Rajasthan
C-175, Road No. 9j, V.K.I.Area,Jaipur-302013, Rajasthan, INDIA
12 Shri Rahul Malt Pvt. Ltd.
Soufflet Malt India Pvt Ltd
13 https://www.soufflet.com/en/The-Group
14 The Malt Company India Ltd. Post Box No. 1, Khandsa Road,Gurgaon-122001, Haryana
Panagarh, Old Kanksa Road, Dist:Burdwan,Durgapur-713148, West
15 Raj Food Product
Bengal
68 KM Stone, Delhi Jaipur Highway/NH8, Village:Joniawas, (Dharuhera)
16 United Breweries Limited
District Rewari Haryana 123106
* http://www.eworldtradefair.com/barley-malt-manufacturers-india.html & other sites
Please Note: The brand names or Companies names have been used just to quote example, it’s not an endorsement or
recommendation in any way of any particular brand or manufactures from authors or ICAR-IIWBR. The information regarding
brands/companies has been collected from internet on 13.09.2018 and the reader is advised to cross check the information
her/himself, ICAR-IIWBR is no way responsible for any discrepancy in the information.

14. Registration and Protection of Farmers’ Varieties

under PPV&FRA
Arun Gupta and Charan Singh
Preamble
The Indian sui generis legislation has some notable features. Apart from protection of a well
defined breeder’s right for creating new plant varieties through research, it has strong and
protective farmers’ right for contributions made in conserving, improving and making
available plant genetic resources for the development of new varieties. There are also
clauses to protect the right of researchers and provisions to protect the public interest. It
offers flexibility with regard to protected genera/species level and period of protection when
compared to other similar legislation existing or being formulated in different countries. The
Act covers all categories of plants except microorganisms. The main objectives of PPV&FRA
are:
 To recognize and protect the right of farmers.
 To provide the needed incentives and protection to intellectual property and
encourage the development of new varieties of plants having commercial/aesthetic
value.
 To accelerate agricultural development in the country and protect plant breeder’s
right (PBR) and to stimulate investment in research and development both in public
and private sectors, for breeding new plant varieties.
 To facilitate the growth of the seed industry this will ensure the availability of good
quality seed and plant material to the farmers.
In this article, we are providing information on Farmers’ varieties and its protection
Farmers under PPV&FRA

Definition of Farmer: Farmer means any person who
 Cultivates crops by cultivating the land himself; or
 Cultivates crops by directly supervising the cultivation of land through any other
person; or
 Conserves and preserves, severally or jointly with any person any wild species or
traditional varieties or adds value to such wild species of traditional varieties
through selection and identification of their useful properties.
Farmer as Breeder (Section 39(1) (iii)): A farmer who has breed or developed a new
variety shall be entitled for registration in the like manner as a breeder of a variety under the
Act.
Farmers’ variety: Traditionally cultivated and evolved by the farmers in their fields or a wild
relative or land race or a variety about which farmers possess the common knowledge.

Farmers’ Right
During the long tradition of agriculture, farmers have involved in the cultivation of wild and
domesticated plants for food and other needs. In this process, farmers selected plants for
specific trait and product value and improved the existing cultivars to fulfil their increasing
needs. They conserved, improved and selected variety out of both wild and domesticated
germplasm. It is evident therefore, that farmers have make important contribution in the
development of new varieties and also contributed intellectually towards variety
improvement. The act recognizes the farmer not just as a cultivar but also as a conserver of
the agricultural gene pool and a breeder who has bred several successful varieties. And the
Farmers’ variety is such variety which has been traditionally cultivated and evolved by the
farmers in their field or a wild relative/land race of a variety about which the farmers possess
the common knowledge. We can categorize nine rights accorded to farmers under PPV
&FRA, 2001.
 Rights to Seed: The act allow the farmer to save, use, exchange or sell seeds and
propagating material in the way he has always done. This is important because in
India, the farming community is the largest seed producer, providing about 87% of
the country’s annual requirement of over 60 lakh tonnes. If the farmer were to be
denied the right to sell, it would not only result in a substantial loss of income for him
but more importantly, such a step would displace the farming community as the
country’s major seed provider. However, the right to sell seed is restricted in that the
farmer cannot sell seed in a packaged form labeled with breeder’s registered name.
In this way, both farmer’s and breeders’ right are protected.
 Rights to Register Varieties: Farmers like commercial breeders can apply for IPR
over their varieties. The act makes provisions for farmer’s varieties to be registered,
with the help of NGOs so that they are protected against being scavenged by formal
sector breeders. The criterion for registration of varieties is similar to breeders
(distinctness, uniformity and stability) but novelty is not a requirement.
 Rights to Reward and Recognition: Through the National Gene Fund the farmers
that have played an important role in conservation of varietal development of plants
are recognized and rewarded. This provision promotes conservation but does not
provide further specifications regarding to the method.
 Rights to Benefit Sharing: The Act proposes the setting up of a National Gene
Fund through which benefit sharing would be facilitated. The authority is required to
publish the registered varieties and invite claim for benefit sharing. Any person or a
group of persons or government or non-government organization can submit its claim
for this. The reward can only be given to farmer/ community who can prove that they
have contributed to the selection and preservation of materials used in the registered
variety.
 Rights to Information and Compensation of Crop Failure: The Act states that the
breeder must give information about expected performance of registered variety. If
the material fails to perform, the farmer may claim for compensation in case they

suffer losses. This provision ensures that seed companies do not make ex-
aggregated claims about the performance to the farmer.
 Rights to Compensation for Undisclosed use of Traditional Varieties: In case
breeder has not disclosed the traditional knowledge and the source of varieties
belonging to a particular community, compensation can be granted through the gene
fund. Any individual, NGO or government Institution may file a claim for
compensation on behalf of the local community.
 Rights to Adequate Availability of Registered Material: If after three year of
registration of variety, the breeder is not able to provide the adequate supply of seed
to the public at reasonable price, any person can apply to the authority for
compulsory license. It will revoke the exclusive right of breeder and enable third
parties to produce, distribute and sell the registered verity.
 Rights to Free Services for Registration: Under this act the farmers are exempted
from paying fees for registration of variety, for renewal of registration, for conducting
test on varieties and for all legal proceedings.
 Protection for Legal Infringement in Case of Lack of Awareness: Due to lack of
literacy level in the country, the act provide safeguard against innocent infringement
by farmers.
Registration of Farmers’ Varieties

The Act allows registration of traditional varieties or farmers' varieties under Section 14.
Once a variety is registered, farmers obtain the exclusive right to produce and market it. This
right recognizes the role of farmers as plant breeders and innovators. Right to reward and
recognition. Once farmer get the plant breeder’s right (PBR), he can use it in the similar way
as he/she is using it for real property only limitation is that PBR is for certain time limit that is
15 years for crops and 18 years for tree/vine.
Categories of Plant Varieties

The PPV&FR Act 2001 provides protection to following types of plant varieties:
 Newly bred varieties: A new variety shall be registered if it fulfills the criteria of
Novelty, Distinctness, and Uniformity and Stability.
 Extant varieties: “Extant varieties” are defined as varieties that are available in India
and have been notified under Section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966. The varieties which
were released under Indian Seeds Act, 1966 and have not completed 15 years as on
the date of application for their protection are registered under this category.
 Farmers’ varieties: The varieties which have been traditionally cultivated, including
landraces and their wild relatives which are in common knowledge, as well as those
evolved by farmers.
 Essentially derived varieties: Another category of plant variety is that of the

“essentially derived variety,” which is any variety that has been derived from a new,
extant, or farmers’ variety that has been registered under the Act.

Registration Procedures
Who can apply for registration: Any farmer or group of farmers or community of farmers
claiming to be breeder of the variety or any person authorised to apply on behalf of farmers.
Application form: There is separate application for the registration of farmers varieties.
However farmers must get their application endorsed through the authorities namely
Chairperson of Panchayat or Secretary of Panchayat or Chairperson, Bio Diversity
Management Committee or Secretary, Bio Diversity Management Committee or District
Agricultural Officer or Director of Research of concerned State Agricultural University or
Director of Extension of concerned State Agricultural University or District Tribal
Development Officer or Director of ATIC.
Acceptable denomination (u/s 15(3c): The name of variety may be expressed by means of
letters or a combination of letters and figures written in English or Hindi. The variety shall not
be registered, if the denomination creates confusion or hurt the religious sentiments or if
identical with protected under Trademarks Act, 1999.
Affidavit (u/s 18c): The applicant should submit an affidavit stating that variety does not
contain any genetic use restriction technology or gene sequence involving terminator
technology.
Fee: The farmers are exempted to pay registration fee however they have to pay Rs.10/- as
annual fee for the maintenance of registration.
Seed: The have to deposit the desired quantity of seed to the authority. For crop like wheat,
one has to deposit 3kg seed.
Rights Conferred to Farmers Once the Variety is Registered

The registrar will issue certificate of registration after making necessary entry in the registry.
The certificate of registration issued for a variety under the PPV and FR Act shall confer an
exclusive right on the breeder or his successor, his agent or licensee to produce, sell,
market, and distribute the variety. The farmer may authorize any person to produce, sell,
market or otherwise deal with the variety registered under this act.
Term of Protection
The total duration of protection of registered varieties in India is as given below:
 For trees and vines: 18 years from the date of registration
 For extant varieties: 15 years from the date of notification
 For other varieties: 15 years from date of registration

Processing of Application: The work flow for registration process is given below:
Submission of Application Form + Technical

Questionnaire to PPV & FR Authority
Initial Scrutiny
Receipt/ Acknowledgement
Acceptance after validation of information

from database
Publication in Plant Variety Journal
Invitation of objections (within 90 days)
Extant Variety New Variety
Issue of certificate Conduct of DUS test

of registration (2 years at two locations)
Found Novel, Distinct,

Uniform, Stable

15. Participatory Seed Production in Wheat and Barley for

Enhancing Farm Income
Sharma AK, SK Singh, R Sendhil and Raj Kumar
Introduction
Seed has played very important role in agricultural growth since adoption of crop plants
including wheat and barley for commercial cultivation. For seed to play a catalytic role, it
should reach farmers in a good quality state, i.e high genetic and physical purity, good
germination and free from diseases. In contrast to fertilizers and pesticides, farmers select
and save seed to plant the next year's crop, and any off-farm seed from the formal sector
should be of a better quality for farmers to invest in it. Therefore, the best production
techniques need to be followed to produce good quality seed. The impact of semi-dwarf
wheat varieties is immense in Indian agriculture and helped country to increase ten-fold
wheat production from 9.5 million tonnes in 1963-64 to 99.7 million tonnes in 2017-18. This
un-precedential growth in wheat production could have been possible because of continuous
replacement of old varieties with high yielding improved varieties as a result of concerted
efforts of wheat researchers and a systematic and effective seed replacement mechanism.
Seed delivery system in India is represented by both informal and formal systems in the
proportion 55:45, respectively. The formal seed sector is well organized state operated seed
production and distribution system whereas informal seed delivery system is the farmer
driven localized seed delivery system in which farmers obtain, produce, conserve, improve
and distribute seed in an unorganized open market without any regulations. The farmer seed
systems are important in both good and bad agriculture years coming up with varieties
gathered for which farmers opine as the most suitable system to meet the demand, and
thus, provide an impetus to their being crucial link in maintaining crop diversity. It consists of
multitude of individual farmers who select and save their own seed or exchange seed with
others through traditional means such as gift, barter, labour exchange, cash transactions or
social obligations.
Farmers Participatory Seed Production in India included it among the few countries
(Chowdhury et al., 2010) where the seed sector has advanced in parallel with the agricultural
productivity. Availability of quality seed of improved varieties and hybrids is grossly
inadequate and is one of the major constraints for enhancing production. For the crops with
high volume-low value seeds (most of the field crops come under this category),
predominantly the farmers are using farm saved seeds resulting in about 80% of the area
sown with old and obsolete varieties. It is more so in crops like potato, elephant foot yam,
groundnut, soybean, chickpea etc. as seed cost alone accounts for 50% of the total cost of
cultivation (Roy, 2012). During last 10 years, number of varieties/hybrids has been
developed in different field crops which have shown 10-40% yield superiority over local
cultivars and some possess better resistance to insects and diseases. The production of
high volume-low value seeds is primarily left with public sector due to the bulky nature of
most of the self- pollinated crops, more investment on infrastructure and less remuneration.
To boost the productivity of such low value-high volume crops, farmers need to have access
to improved seeds of the right type, at the right time, at the right place and at a reasonable
price. For the supply of such seeds, the informal seed sector (namely, farmer managed
seed, seed village programmes, Farmers’ Participatory Seed Production and famer seed
distribution systems) and the formal seed system (seed enterprises) have a great role to
play. The informal seed sector is found to be effective in quickly reaching out to the difficult,
inaccessible, small holder pockets and would be a sound alternative for entrepreneurs to
gradually evolve into the formal enterprises. Farmers can produce quality seeds of some
self-pollinated crops, such as, rice, wheat, mustard, and vegetative propagated crops,
namely, potato seed tuber, elephant foot yam, Arachis pintoi (Neef et al., 2004) etc. at their
own farm for 2-3 generations, provided they are trained of the package of practices to
maintain genetic purity. For the purpose, seed villages can be generated in order to provide
locally available best quality seed at farmer end. Therefore, there is urgent need to set up
informal seed production system involving local farmers. To upgrade the quality of farmer-
saved seed, financial assistance is provided for distribution of foundation/certified seed at
50% cost of the seed of crops for production of certified/quality seeds only and for training on
seed production and technology to the farmers. The seed produced in these seed villages is
stored till the next sowing season. In order to encourage farmers to develop storage
capacity of appropriate quality, assistance is given for fabrication/procuring of various kind of
bins for storage of seed produced by the farmers.
Generation System of Seed Multiplication

The generation system of seed multiplication refers to the production of a particular class of
seed from breeder seed to the certified seed stage. The choice of a proper seed
multiplication model is the key to further success of a seed programme. This basically
depends upon the rate of genetic deterioration, seed multiplication ratio and total seed
demand. Based on these factors different seed multiplication models may be derived for
each crop and the seed multiplication agency should decide how quickly the farmers can be
supplied with the seed of newly released varieties, after the nucleus seed stock has been
handed over to the concerned agency, so that it may replace the old varieties. In view of the
basic factors, the chain of seed multiplication models could be a. Three - Generation model
(Breeder seed - Foundation seed - Certified seed), b. Four - Generation model (Breeder
seed - Foundation seed (I) - Foundation seed (II) - Certified seed (I) or Certified (II). In these
systems, seed production should not exceed three generations beyond Foundation seed (I).
Classes of Seed
a) Nucleus Seed: This is the hundred percent genetically pure seed with physical purity and
produced by the original breeder/Institute /State Agriculture University (SAU) from basic
nucleus seed stock. A pedigree certificate is issued by the producing breeder.

b) Breeder Seed: The progeny of Class of seed Label colour Label size*
nucleus seed multiplied in large Breeder Golden Yellow 12 cm x 6 cm
area as per indent of Department Foundation White 15 cm x 7.5 cm
of Agriculture, Cooperation and Certified Azure Blue 15 cm x 7.5 cm
Farmers Welfare (DAC&FW), TL Seed Opal Green 15 cm x 10 cm
* If tag is to be fixed on a smaller container then the size of the tag
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers
may be reduced proportionately. However, length and breadth ratio
Welfare, Government of India, and contents would remain the same
under supervision of plant breeder
/ institute / SAUs and monitored by a committee consisting of the representatives of State
Seed Certification Agency, National / State Seed Corporations, ICAR nominee and
concerned breeder. This is also hundred percent physical and genetic pure seed for
production of foundation seed. A golden yellow colour label is issued for this category of
seed by the producing breeder.
c) Foundation Seed: The progeny of breeder seed produced by recognized seed producing
agencies in public and private sector, under supervision of seed certification agencies in
such a way that its quality is maintained according to prescribed field and seed standards. A
white colour label is issued for foundation seed by seed certification agencies.
d) Certified Seed: The progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers
under supervision of seed certification agencies to maintain the seed quality as per minimum
seed certification standards. A blue coloured label is issued by seed certification agency for
this category of seed.
e) Truthfully Labeled Seed: This is the class of seed, which can be multiplied from any
above stated classes of seed. As per the Seeds Act, labeling is compulsory but certification
is voluntary. Therefore, in truthfully labeled seed, there is no certification required but
labeling is compulsory. However, it must meet the seed standards prescribed for certified
seed. Opal Green colour tag is prescribed for this class of seed.
Improved Wheat and Barley Varieties (<15 years of release)

Wheat
Northern Hills Zone (NHZ): Jammu & Kashmir (except Jammu and Kathua districts, HP (except Una and
Paonta valley), Uttarakhand (except Tarai area), Sikkim, hills of West Bengal and North eastern states
Early sown, rainfed conditions HS 542, HPW 251, VL 829
Timely sown, rainfed conditions TL 2969 (Triticale), SKW 196
Timely sown, irrigated/rainfed conditions HS 562, HPW 349, HS 507, VL 907, HPW 184
Late sown, restricted irrigation condition HS 490, VL 892, HS 420
Timely sown, rainfed conditions at very high VL 832, HS 375
altitude
North Western Plains Zone (NWPZ) Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Western UP, Tarai regions of Uttarakhand,
Jammu and Kathua district of J&K and Una and Paonta valley of HP
Timely Sown, irrigated (high fertility) condition Bread Wheat: WB 2, PBW 723, DBW 88, HD 3086, WH 1105,
HD 2967, DPW 621-50, PBW 550, DBW 17
Durum Wheat: WHD 943(d), PDW 314 (d), PDW 291(d)
Late Sown, irrigated (medium fertility) DBW 173, DBW 90, WH 1124, DBW 71, HD 3059, PBW 590,
condition WH 1021,DBW 16, WR 544 (VLS),
Timely sown, rainfed/Restricted irrigation (low PBW 644, HD 3043, WH 1080, PBW 396
fertility) condition
North Eastern Plains Zone (NEPZ) Eastern U.P. , Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Assam and Plains
of north eastern states
Timely Sown, irrigated (high fertility) condition NW 5054, K 1006, HD 2967, DBW 39, CBW 38, Raj 4120, K
307, HD 2824,
Late Sown, irrigated (medium fertility) DBW 107, HD 3118, HD 2985, HI 1563, NW 2036, DBW 14
condition
Timely sown, rainfed/Restricted irrigation (low K 1317, HD 3171, HI 1612, HD 2888, MACS 6145
fertility) condition
Central Zone: MP, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kota & Udaipur divisions of Rajasthan and Jhansi division of UP
Timely Sown, irrigated (high fertility) condition Bread Wheat:WH 1142, HI 1544, GW 366, GW 322Durum
Wheat:HI 8759, HD 4728,HI 8737, HI 8713, MPO 1215, HI
8498
Late Sown, irrigated (medium fertility) Raj 4238, MP 3336, MP 1203, HD 2932, HD 2864, MP 4010
condition
Timely sown, rainfed/Restricted irrigation (low Bread Wheat:DBW 110, MP 3288, MP 3173, HI 1531, HI
fertility) condition 1500,Durum Wheat:HI 8627, HD 4672(d)
Peninsular Zone: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Plains of Goa and Palni hills of TamilNadu
Timely Sown, irrigated (high fertility) condition Bread Wheat:DBW 168, MACS 6478, UAS 304, MACS 6222,
NIAW 917, Raj 4037, GW 322
Durum Wheat:MACS 3949, WHD 948, UAS 428, UAS 415, HI
8663
Dicoccum Wheat: MACS 2971, DDK 1029, DDK 1025
Late Sown, irrigated (medium fertility) HD 3090, AKAW 4627, HD 2932, Raj 4083, HD 2833, PBW
condition 533
Timely sown, rainfed/Restricted irrigation (low Bread Wheat:UAS 375, UAS 347, HI 1605, DBW 93, NIAW
fertility) condition 1415, HD 2987, PBW 596, MP 3288, MP 3173, HI 1531, HI
1500,
Durum Wheat:HI 8627, HD 4672
In addition, KRL 210 and KRL 213 were notified for cultivation in saline and alkaline conditions of all the zones.
Barley
North Western Plains Zone Timely sown, Irrigated BH 902, BH 946
(NWPZ) Malt Barley: DWRUB 52, RD 2668, DWRB 92,
DWRB 101, RD 2849, DWRB 123
Timely sown, Rainfed RD 2624, RD 2660
Saline/alkaline soils NDB 1173, RD 2794, RD 2907 (Identified)
North Eastern Plains Zone Timely sown, Irrigated HUB 113, DWRB 137
(NEPZ) Timely sown, Rainfed K 603
Central Zone (CZ) Timely sown, Irrigated DWRB 137, Pl 751, RD 2715 (Dual purpose), JB
1 (M.P.), RD 2786 BH 959, RD 2899 (Identified)
All India Saline/alkaline soils NDB 1173, NDB 1445 (UP)

RD 2794, RD 2907 (Identified)
Important Steps in the Production of Quality Seed of Wheat and Barley
Selection of Field: The land that is to be used for seed production should be fertile, well
levelled and free from drainage problems. At higher elevation, specifically in the foothill
areas, emergence of volunteer wheat plants is a problem. In such cases, adequate care is to
be taken to ensure that such volunteer plants do not come in the way of production of good
quality seeds. Also care should be taken to avoid production of seed in field which has a
history of tundu disease infection.

Methods of Sowing: A low seed rate of 80 kg/ha is recommended to avoid interplant

competition and bolder seed development. Seed production plots should be sown with the
help of seed drill for placement of seed at uniform depth and plant to plant distance. This
facilitates the ease in spotting of off-type plants and their roguing. The following care should
be taken before sowing of breeder seed
 The seed drill needs a thorough cleaning of the pipes, seed cups and bin. Any left back
seed will contaminate the seed production plot.
 To ensure that physical mixture due to negligence at sowing time does not occur, it is
recommended that when seed production of more than two varieties is taken,
phenotypically contrasting varieties should be sown alternately. This will help in easy
detection of seed drill resultant rogues and can be easily identified and pulled out from
the field.
 In order to walk through the plots and effective execution of roguing, keep one row
unsown after every eight-ninth row. One direction sowing always helps in easy cultural
operation, monitoring etc.
Isolation: Seed plot should be isolated from other wheat variety plots by a minimum
distance of three meters, and no loose smut infected wheat, triticale or rye field should be
there within 150 meters. The precaution is necessary to ward-off infection by seed borne
pathogens.
Seed Treatment: The seed treatment with Vitavax 75 WP @ 2.5g/kg or tebuconazole @

1.25g/kg seed should be done before the sowing of the seed.
Sowing Time: Optimum sowing time for seed of all the varieties is 10-25 November
Seed Rate/Sowing Method: 100 kg seed /ha in line sowing with row to row and plant to
plant distance of 20 cm and 5 cm, respectively.
Fertilizer Doses & Time of Fertilizer’s Application: 120:60:40 kg/hectare N2:P2O5:K2O in

wheat and 60:30:20 kg (N:P:K) in barley. 1/3rd quantity of N with full dose of P and K at the
time of sowing and remaining 2/3rd at first node stage i.e 35-40 DAS should be applied.
Weed Management: For the control of broad-leaved weeds 2,4-D at 500 g/ha or
metsulfuron at 4 g/ha or carfentrazone at 20 g/ha can be sprayed using about 250 litres of
water/ha. For the control of grasses isoproturon at 1000 g or clodinafop at 60g or fenoxaprop
100g or sulfosulfuron at 25 g/ha should be used. In isoproturon resistant P. minor infested
areas, clodinafop or fenoxaprop or sulfosulfuron can be used. For the control of complex
weed flora, combination of isoproturon with 2,4-D or metsulfuron, or sulfosulfuron with
metsulfuron can be applied at 30-35 DAS at sufficient soil moisture. In, barley, pinoxaden
(5.0 EC) @100ml /ha should be sprayed at 30-35 DAS.
Irrigation: 5-6 irrigations. First at 20-25 DAS and thereafter at 20 days interval in wheat and
2-3 irrigations are required in barley.

Seed Certification and Roguing: The purpose of the seed certification is to maintain and
make available to the farmers through the process of certification high quality seeds and
propagating material of notified kind and varieties to insure genetic identity and purity. Seed
certification is also designed to achieve prescribed standards. Seed of only those varieties
which are notified under section 05 of the seed act 1966 shell be eligible for certification.
Certification shall be completed in six broad phases listed as under:
(i) Receipt and scrutiny of application ( Grower list/Area list)
(ii) Verification of Seed Source, Class and other requirements of the seed used
for raising the seed crop.
(iii) Field inspection to verify conformity to the prescribed field standards.
(iv) Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and packing.
(v) Seed sampling and analyses, including genetic purity test and seed health
test, germination test, moisture test etc. in order to verify conformity to the
prescribed standards.
(vi) Grant of certificate and certification tags, tagging and sealing
The validity period shall be 9 months from the date of test at the time of initial certification.
The validity period could be further extended for 6 months provided on retesting seed
conforms to the prescribed standards in respect of physical purity, germination and insect
damage for all seeds except vegetatively propagating material. Roguing of seed production
plots is done to remove the off-type plants which might arise due to segregation caused by
residual heterozygosity, out-crossing with other varieties, admixtures or mutations,
aneuploidy in some semi dwarf wheat varieties, etc.. Off-types are identified based on the
variations noticed for ‘DUS’ features of a variety like auricle pigmentation, days of flowering
and maturity, plant height, waxiness, ear colour, shape, density and grain characters, etc. It
is suggested to perform at least three roguing i.e one each at early vegetative growth, 75%
ear emergence and maturity stages. The rogued plants, particularly after seed
developmental stage, should be removed far-off from the seed production plot to avoid any
chance of admixing of the pulled out plants with general seed bulk at the time of harvesting.
The diseased plants should also be removed carefully.
Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling of Seed: Extra care is needed to avoid mechanical
mixing that is likely to occur during harvesting, threshing, seed treatment, packing and all
through the processing steps. These stages are to be fullproof from potential seed mixture.
Threshers, combine harvesters, trailers, processing machinery, etc. should be thoroughly
cleaned before harvesting. Seed production plots of more than two hectares are suitable for
combine harvesting and smaller plots can be harvested manually and threshed by machine.
Seed Storage: The seed moisture of the harvested seed plots should be measured by
drawing adequate true samples. Generally, at harvesting time the seed moisture is around
14 to 15% and at such moisture level the seed lots should not go to warehouse. The seed
lot should be dried in seed driers or at farm till seed moisture comes down to 9-10%. Low
seed moisture helps in increasing seed viability and decreases damage chances due to
storage pests and fungal infestation. In warehouse/silo storage, samples must be drawn at
periodic intervals to measure grain moisture, inspect for pest/fungi damage. As the situation
may demand action must be taken either to reduce seed moisture levels or fumigate seed to
suppress insect pests incidence. Occasionally, rodent control also becomes necessary
under poor storage conditions. Consultation with storage entomologist for understanding
procedures and precautions, dose and usage of chemicals/fumigants to be used is needed
to combat storage pest’s infestation.
Seed Purity Standard: The quality of seed is examined through a series of tests. Generally
such tests are conducted in seed testing laboratories designated for this purpose. Every
state of the country has at least one seed testing laboratory to conduct research on seed
testing methods, training of personnel, determining the standards for seed purity and seed
quality.
Minimum certification requirements for field standard in wheat & barley crop
Field Standards Specific Requirement Limits
Isolation Seed Born
Inseparable
Field Distance (m) Off Type Disease
Field Other Crop
Selection Plants (%) Infested
Inspection Crop Disease Plants (%)
Plants (%)
F C F C F C F C F C
Free of Two 3 3 150 150 0.05 0.20 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.50
volunteer
plants
F: Foundation Seed C: Certified Seed
Minimum certification requirements for seed standard in wheat and barley

Standard
Factors
Foundation Certified
1. Pure seed (minimum) 98% 98%
2. Inert material (minimum) 2% 2%
3. Other crop seed (Maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
4. Other distinguishable varieties (Maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
5. Total weed seed (Maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
6. Objectionable weed seed (Maximum) 2/kg 5/kg
7. Ear-cockle/tundu infested seeds None None
8. Karnal bunt infested seeds (Maximum by number) 0.05% 0.25%
9. Germination (Minimum) 85% 85%
10. Moisture % (Maximum) 12% 12%
11. For vapour-proof containers (Maximum) 8% 8%
Costs and Returns from Seed and Grain Production in Wheat

The comparative economics of seed production vis-à-vis grain production in wheat at the
farmer’s field estimated during 2016-17 is shown in table and it is explicit that the operational
costs involved in seed production were higher by 55.35 per cent in comparison to the usual
grain production and is attributed to the cost of seed for sowing, processing and certification
with other operational cost items remaining the same for both the cases. Similarly, the fixed
costs remain same for both the cases since the land, fixed capital and associated
depreciation were identical for seed as well as grain production.

Comparative economics of seed production and grain production in wheat (2016-17)

` per ha
S.N. Particulars
Seed Production Grain Production
A Operational Costs 52453 33763
A1 Human Labour 12353 12353
A2 Machine Labour 8605 8605
A3 Seed 5670 3000
A4 Fertilizer & Manure 4300 4300
A5 Plant Protection Chemicals 888 888
A6 Irrigation Charges 3880 3880
A7 Miscellaneous (Processing & Certification) 16020 0
A8 Interest on Working Capital 738 738
B Fixed Costs 28195 28195
B1 Rental Value of Owned Land 21512 21512
B2 Rent Paid For Leased-in-Land 0 0
B3 Land Revenue, Taxes, Cesses 0 0
B4 Depreciation on Implements & Farm Building 525 525
B5 Interest on Fixed Capital 6158 6158
Total Cost [A+B] 80648 61958
C Returns
C1 Main Product 176000 81250
C2 By-Product 26000 26000
Gross Income 202000 107250
Net Income 121352 45292
Benefit Cost Ratio 2.50 1.73
The difference in returns arises from the main product (grain or seed) value despite same
by-product value (straw). The magnitude of the difference between seed production and
grain production owing to the main product alone was around ` 94750 per hectare
(116.62%). Ultimately, the difference in net returns or profit was to the tune of ` 76060 per
hectare (167.93%). The comparative economics as depicted in Table indicates that the
farmer has made a profit of `121352 per hectare through seed production which is higher
than the grain production by 168 per cent.
Conclusions
As seed is the major input that decides the production of crop in a specific field, it is needed
to provide better quality seed to the farmers. The participatory seed production in association
to farming community in a village is the need of the day where good quality seed production
may made available at local level and cater the need of nearby villages. The knowledge of
above mentioned package and practices for production of good quality seed may be
extended to the farm level in order to develop Farmer Resources which can be a step
towards enhancing the farm income.

Bibliography
AK Sharma, Lokendra Kumar, Anil Khippal and Raj Kumar (2016). Training manual on
Quality seed Production published by ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal under ICAR Seed Project.
Pp 85.
Anonymous (2015). India a Seed Hub for Asia and Africa. A Knowledge Report by Sathguru
Management Consultants. pp69
Anonymous (2017). Indian Seed Sector at http://seednet.gov.in/Material/IndianSeedSector.

htm
NAAS (2018). Accelerating Seed Delivery Systems for Priming Indian Farm Productivity
Enhancement: A Strategic View Point. Strategy Paper No. 9, National Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi: 22p.
Raj Kumar, AK Sharma, PR Chaudhary, GP Singh and DK Yadav (2017). Strengthening

seed delivery in eastern India. In Souvenir: 56th All India Wheat and Barley Research
Workers’ Meet held during 25-28th August, 2017 at BHU, Varanasi (India) Pp. 112-
117
Raj Kumar, Malvika Dadlani and MB Arun Kumar (2011). Seed Technology. In: 100 Years
of Wheat Research in India - A saga of distinguished achievements. Directorate of
Wheat Research, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, India. p 205-222.
Vishnu Kumar, Raj Kumar and Indu Sharma (2013). Wheat (Triticum aestivum) varietal
spectrum and need of varietal replacement in relation to north eastern India. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences 83 (6): 694-696.

16. Salt Affected Soils in India: Problems, Status of Crop

Production and Remedial Measures
Raju R
ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal-132001 (Haryana)
Introduction
Salt-affected soils are found in all the continents under diverse climatic conditions and are a
major threat to agriculture for sustaining farm income and food production. These soils are
present extensively in arid and semiarid regions and cover approximately 7 per cent of the
total land area of the Earth (Ghassemi et al., 1995). In India, irrigation-induced salt-affected
soils cover an area larger than naturally occurring salt affected soils, and both are
widespread in the arid and semiarid agro-ecological regions (Singh, 2005; Smedema and
Shiati, 2002). Land degradation resulting from soil salinity, sodicity or a combination of both,
is a major impediment to productive utilization of land resources for crop production. There
are several practical methods for reclaiming these salt-affected soils. The soil salinity and
water logging could be reclaimed through subsurface drainage technology. The provision of
subsurface drainage through public interventions has significantly increased the productivity
of land and has provided a source of regular income to resource-poor households
(Chinnappa, 2005; Datta and Dejong, 2000; Joshi et al., 1987).
Extent and distribution of salt affected soils in India

The development of salt-affected soil depends on climate, topography, geology, soil mineral
weathering, drainage, hydrology, source and method of irrigation, underground water table,
and quality and crop production practices (Ghassemi et al., 1995). In India, 6.73 Mha land is
salt-affected, out of which 3.77 Mha are alkali soils and 2.96 Mha are saline soils (Mandal et
al. 2010). The distribution of salt-affected soils in India, shown in Table 1, reveals that the
salt-affected soils are widely distributed in different parts of the country.
Table 1: Extent and distribution of salt affected soils in India

Saline soils Sodic soils Salt-affected soils
S.N. State
‘000 ha % to total ‘000 ha % to total ‘000 ha % to total
1 Andhra Pradesh 77.6 2.62 196.6 5.21 274.2 4.08
2 Andaman & Nicobar islands 77.0 2.60 0.0 0.00 77.0 1.14
3 Bihar 47.3 1.60 105.9 2.81 153.2 2.28
4 Gujarat 1680.6 56.84 541.4 14.36 2222.0 33.03
5 Haryana 49.2 1.66 183.4 4.86 232.6 3.46
6 Karnataka 1.9 0.06 148.1 3.93 150.0 2.23
7 Kerala 20.0 0.68 0.0 0.00 20.0 0.30
8 Maharashtra 184.1 6.23 422.7 11.21 606.8 9.02
9 Madhya Pradesh 0.0 0.00 139.7 3.71 139.7 2.08
10 Orissa 147.1 4.98 0.0 0.00 147.1 2.19
11 Punjab 0.0 0.00 151.7 4.02 151.7 2.26
12 Rajasthan 195.6 6.61 179.4 4.76 374.9 5.57
13 Tamil Nadu 13.2 0.45 354.8 9.41 368.0 5.47
14 Uttar Pradesh 22.0 0.74 1347.0 35.72 1369.0 20.35
15 West Bengal 441.3 14.92 0.0 0.00 441.3 6.56
Total 2956.8 100.00 3770.6 100.00 6727.4 100.00
Source: Mandal et al. (2010)

Across states, Gujarat has the largest salt-affected area (33.0%), followed by Uttar Pradesh
(20.35%), Maharashtra (9.02%) and West Bengal (6.56%). The land degradation due to
alkalinity is also a serious problem across different states of India. Uttar Pradesh has the
largest alkali area of 1.36 Mha (35.72%). The alkali soils are also extensively distributed in
Gujarat (14.36%), Maharashtra (11.21%), Tamil Nadu (9.41%), Haryana (4.86%), and
Punjab (4.02%). These present a serious threat to environment and livelihood security of the
people living in the region.
Production and Monetary Losses from Salt Affected Soils in India

The state-wise production and monetary losses from salt-affected soils in India is shown in
Table 2. Among the states, largest state of Uttar Pradesh suffered the highest production
losses of 7.69 million tonnes followed by Gujarat (4.83 million tonnes), which together
contributed three fourths of the total production losses. However, Gujarat accounted `100.63
billion monetary loss followed by Uttar Pradesh (`181.29 billion). Although the production
losses were higher in Uttar Pradesh, the monetary losses were lower than Gujarat due to
higher production losses in cotton in Gujarat and cotton price per unit is about three times
higher than rice and wheat prices. These two states contributed 79% (`181.92 billion) to the
total monetary losses in the country. Therefore, India loses annually 16.84million tonnes of
farm production valued at 230.19 billion due to salt-affected soils from 14 states spread
across 240 districts.
Table 2: State-wise production and monetary losses from salt affected soils in India
Production loss Monetary loss
States
Million Tonnes % ` in crores %
Haryana 0.719 4.27 779 3.38
Punjab 0.144 0.85 98 0.42
Uttar Pradesh 7.695 45.69 8129 35.31
Madhya Pradesh 0.032 0.19 88 0.38
Andhra Pradesh 0.501 2.98 731 3.17
Karnataka 0.016 0.09 31 0.13
Kerala 0.004 0.02 7 0.03
Tamil Nadu 0.147 0.87 138 0.60
Gujarat 4.832 28.69 10064 43.72
Maharashtra 0.923 5.48 499 2.17
Rajasthan 0.190 1.13 403 1.75
Bihar 0.554 3.29 559 2.43
Odisha 0.197 1.17 266 1.15
West Bengal 0.890 5.29 1229 5.34
Total 16.844 100.00 23020 100.00
Source: Sharma et al. (2015)
Reclamation of Salt Affected Soils in India

The technology for reclamation of salt affected soils has been standardized to prevent the
adverse effects of soil degradation. The pH of saturated paste of alkali soils was more than
8.2 and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) was more than 15. For successful crop
growth in alkali soils, the ESP of the soil must be lowered by the application of soil
amendments like gypsum, pyrite, etc. (Chhabra, 1996).

In India, gypsum is the major source of soil amendment used to reclaim alkali soils. The
investment depends on the quantity of gypsum required for reclamation, which depends on
the amount of exchangeable sodium to be replaced, which in turn is governed by the amount
of absorbed sodium in the soil, sodicity tolerance and rooting depth of the crop to be raised.
A study conducted at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute has shown that 10 to 15 tonnes
of gypsum containing 70 per cent CaSO4.2H2O is sufficient to reclaim 15 cm surface soil of 1
ha (Abrol and Bhumbla, 1979). The actual quantity of gypsum required is calculated on the
basis of laboratory tests carried out on the surface soil (0-15 cm). The item-wise break-up of
initial investment is given in Table 3. The total investment incurred on alkali land reclamation
was ` 76284 per hectare. In total cost, the cost of gypsum was the major item (50.86%),
followed by the cost of irrigation (19.66%) and land leveling (11.62%). The soil amendment
application, irrigation and flushing of salts were the other cost items amounting to `6400/ha
constituting 8.45 per cent of the total investment on soil reclamation. This indicates that a
large amount of capital is required to reclaim alkali land and it may not be possible for the
resource-poor marginal and small farmers to bear this cost.
Table 3: Investment cost on sodic soil reclamation
Particulars Cost (` /ha) Share in total cost (%)
Gypsum cost 38500 50.86

Land leveling (by tractor) 8800 11.62
Irrigation channels & field drains 4800 6.34
Bunding 1800 2.38
Irrigation & flushing of salts 6400 8.45
Amendment application (by tractor) 2200 2.91
Amendment application (by labour) 3000 3.96
Irrigation cost 10200 13.47
Total 75700 100.00
Source: Thimmappa et.al (2017)
Similarly, the saline land reclamation with the implementation of subsurface technology
(SSD) also involves a significant amount capital cost (Table 4). The cost of preparation of
DPR in case of medium textured alluvial soils with pumped outlet with 67 m spacing, and
heavy soils with gravity outlet with 30 m spacing was `2,500 each and its cost share was
3.7% and 2.2% of the total cost, respectively. The cost of drainage materials including
structures and pump set for medium textured soils with pumped outlet was `37,226 (50.9%)
whereas the cost of drainage installation including filter wrapping, dewatering and
supervision charges was `27,453 (37.5%). Similarly, for heavy textured soils including
Vertisols with gravity outlet, the cost of drainage materials including structures and outlet
pipe was `60,550 (54.2%) whereas the cost of drainage installation including filter wrapping,
dewatering and supervision charges was `40,766 (36.5%). It is observed that the cost of
drainage materials in case of medium textured soils with pumped outlet, and heavy soils with
gravity outlet is higher by 13.4% and 17.7% than that of installation, respectively.
It is also observed that cost of drainage materials in medium textured soils with pumped
outlet is lower by `13,324 (higher by 3.3%) than that of heavy textured soils with gravity
outlet. Similarly, installation cost in medium textured soils is lower by 13,313 (higher by
1.0%) than that of heavy textured soils. The higher material and installation cost in heavy
textured soils including Vertisols is mainly due to installation of larger length of lateral drain
pipes than that in medium textured soils.
Table 4. Cost comparison of SSD components in medium and heavy texture soils
(`/ha)
Medium texture soils Heavy texture soils
SSD Components
(67 m spacing with pumped outlet) (30 m spacing with gravity outlet)
DPR 2,500 (3.7) 2,500 (2.2)
Pipes and fittings 21,750 (29.7) 41,989 (37.6)
Filters/envelopes 8,334 (11.4) 14,776 (13.2)
Structures 7,142 (9.8) 3,785 (3.4)
Installation cost 22,953 (31.4) 36,766 (33.0)
Dewatering 500 (0.7) 0 (0.0)
Supervision charges 4,000 (5.4) 4,000 (3.5)
Contingencies 3,431 (4.7) 5,352 (4.8)
Farmer’s training 750 (1.0) 750 (0.7)
M&E 2,000 (2.7) 2,000 (1.8)
Total 73,000 (100.0) 111,500 (100.0)
Note: Figures in parenthesis show the share (%) of the total cost
Source: Bundela et al. (2016)
Economic Feasibility Analysis of Salt Affected Soils

Investment on salt affected soils yields returns from the first year itself. However, the
payback period is estimated to be 3 years for both sodic and saline soil reclamation
(Table 5). Both the reclamation process yields a similar benefit-cost ratio of 2.47 and 2.71
from sodic and saline land reclamation respectively. Internal rate of return obtained from the
investment on these soils were about 67% and 39% respectively for sodic land and saline
land. All the estimated economic parameters showed that the investments on salt affected
soils are worthy and hence economically feasible.
Table 5: Economic feasibility of sodic and saline soil reclamation

Particulars Sodic Soils Saline Soils
Benefit-Cost Ratio 2.47 2.71
Internal Rate of Return (%) 67 39
Payback Period (Years) 3 3
Source: Thimmappa et al. (2017) and Raju et al. (2016)

Conclusions
Salt-affected soils are a major threat to agriculture for sustaining farm income and food
production. In India, 6.73 Mha land is salt-affected, out of which 3.77 Mha are alkali soils and
2.96 Mha are saline soils. Salt-affected soils cause enormous production and monetary
losses in India, which can affect the food security and economy over the years. The different
technologies include biological reclamation approaches, reclamation of sodic soils by
amelioration with chemical amendments and waterlogged saline soil using sub-surface
drainage technology. Hence, India needs to reclaim large tracks of salt-affected lands on
priority to achieve long-term objectives of providing food and livelihood security to resource-
poor farmers.
Bibliography
Abrol, I.P. and Bhumbla, D.R. (1979). Crop response to differential gypsum application in a
highly sodic soil and tolerance of several crops to exchangeable sodium to under
field conditions, Soil Science, 127(1): 79-85.
Bundela, D.S., Kaledhonkar, M.J., Gupta, S.K., Mohan Lal, Kamra, S.K., Sharma, D.K.,
Sharma, P.C. and Chaudhari, S.K. (2016). Cost Estimation of Sub-Surface Drainage
Systems for Reclamation of Waterlogged Saline Lands Journal of Soil Salinity and
Water Quality 8(2), 131-143.
Ghassemi, F., Jakeman, A.J. and Nix, H.A. (1995).Salinization of Land and Water
Resources: Human Causes, Extent, Management and Case Studies, CAB
International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.
Chinnappa, B. (2005). An economic analysis of land reclamation technologies for

amelioration of irrigation induced soil degradation, Agricultural Economics Research
Review, 18(1): 103-116.
Datta, K.K. and Dejong, C. (2000).Reclaiming salt-affected land through drainage in

Haryana, India: A financial analysis, Agricultural Water Management, 46: 55-71.
Joshi, P.K., Singh, O.P., Rao, K.V.G.K. and Singh, K.N. (1987). Subsurface drainage for
salinity control: An economic analysis, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 47
(2), 198-206.
Mandal, A.K., Sharma, R.C., Singh, G., and Dagar, J.C. (2010). Computerised database on
salt affected soils in Inida. Technical Bulletin: CSSRI/Karnal/2/2010. Central Soil
Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India.
Sharma, D.K., Thimmappa, K. Chinchmalatpure, R. Anil, Mandal, A.K., Yadav, R.K.,

Chaudhari, S.K., Kumar, S. and Sikka, A.K. (2015). Asseseement of production and
monetary losses from salt-affected soils in India.Technical Bulletinn (05), ICAR-
CSSSRI, Karnal.
Singh, N. T. (2005). Irrigation and Soil Salinity in the Indian Subcontinent: Past and Present.
Lehigh University Press, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
Smedema, L.K. and Shiati, K. (2002). Irrigation and salinity: A perspective review of the
salinity hazards of irrigation development in the arid zone. Irrigation Drainage
System, 16: 161-174.
Annexure I
Impact of reclamation of salt-affected soils in India

Particulars Sodic soil Saline soil Salt-affected soil
Total Area Reclaimed (lakh ha) 20.71 0.7 21.41
Food grains Produced (million t/year) 16.57 0.56 17.13
Agricultural Income (` in thousand Crore) 25.32 0.86 26.18
Employment Generated (Crore man days/year) 27.96 0.95 28.91
Farm Families Benefited (Lakhs) 18.01 0.61 18.62
28.91
30 26.18
25 21.41
17.13 18.62
20
15
10
0
Total Area Foodgrains Agricultural Employment Farm Families
Reclaimed Produced Income (Rs generated Benefited
(lakh ha) (million thousand (million man (Lakhs)
t/year) crores) month/year)
Figure 1: Impact of reclamation of salt-affected soils in India

17. Diversification of Enterprises: A Supplementary Source

of Farm Income
Tripathi SC
Indian agriculture along with its allied sectors is the largest source of livelihoods in India.
Approximately 70% of its rural households still depend primarily on agriculture for their
livelihood and about 82% of farmers categorized as small and marginal farmers possessing
less than 2 ha area. As per fourth advance estimate (2017-18) from the Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, GoI, the total food grain production was 284.83 million
tonnes, out of which 112.91 and 99.7 million tonnes were rice and wheat,
respectively. These two crops i.e rice and wheat together contributes almost 74.6 % of total
food grain production of the country. India is the largest producer (25% of global production),
consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world. India's
annual milk production was 165 million tonnes (2017-18), making India the largest producer
of milk, jute and pulses, and with world's second-largest cattle population 190 million in
2012. It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and groundnuts, as
well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of
the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively (FAO, 2018).
In a dominant cropping system like rice-wheat, which occupies approximately 10.3 million
hectare acreage in India, diversification refers to replacing of all the crops or any one crops
in a cropping system or intensifying the cropping system by addition of short duration crops
or addition of short duration crops as intercrop/mixed crop/relay crop with any main crop.
From variety point of view, it is of interest to diversify the gene pool so that a single variety
may not occupy the whole area. This reduces the chance of disease occurrence on a large
area. Besides crop diversification a farmers should look into plethora of options like animal
husbandry, fisheries, poultry, piggeries, honey bee production, floriculture, horticultural crop,
agroforestry etc. depending upon the land, labour, time and capital availability at their end,
socioeconomic condition, culturally acceptable, market availability and eco-friendly in nature.
Driving force for any diversification programme is the demand and supply at local/regional/
national /international level. Besides these factors, risk involves in adoption of diversified
enterprises play a vital role for its success. Since, more than 82 % farmers in India are small
and marginal farmers; therefore, they can choose either one of two enterprises best suited to
them for enhancing their income and livelihood. Government of India had already launched
such type of programme, including providing subsidies, in each state for increasing the
income of farmers. Diversification and/or intensification of rice-wheat system is possible by
two approaches for sustaining the productivity of this important cropping system. Former
approach involves in replacing of either rice or wheat or both crops in a year whereas latter
one deals with inserting short duration catch or cash crops after rice or wheat harvest.
Diversification over large area is not feasible option owing to huge demand of rice-wheat for
food security of India. Therefore, option left is intensification of rice-wheat system. Very short

duration catch cum cash crops are possible after rice harvest and before wheat sowing.
Similarly, after wheat harvest short duration green gram/ cowpea/ green manuring/ any other
crop which can be harvested before the onset of monsoon is viable option. This will reduce
the import burden of pulses. Additionally, inclusion of leguminous crop in a cropping system
fixes atmospheric nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation thereby reducing the N
requirement (25% for rice) of succeeding crop. Development of zero tillage technology
further reduces the time, energy and cost of cultivation for sowing of third crop. Benefits of
crop diversification/intensification are increasing the soil and crop productivity, reducing the
weed problem by suitable selection of crops like berseem, improving the physico-chemical
properties of soil, increasing the water holding capacity of soil, reducing the disease and
pest incidence and sustaining the system productivity on long term basis.
Table 1: Wheat equivalent yield, land use efficiency and production efficiency across cropping sequences
Wheat Land use Production

Cropping sequences
equivalent efficiency efficiency
yield (t/ha) (%) (kg/ha/day)
Rice-wheat -rice-wheat -rice-wheat 11.93 69.59 46.95

Rice-berseem-rice-wheat-rice-wheat 12.14 73.42 45.28
Sorghum (fodder)- wheat-green gram 12.06 76.16 43.39
-rice-wheat-rice-wheat
Rice-mustard-green gram-rice-wheat-green gram- 14.82 93.15 43.60
rice-wheat-green gram
Soybean -wheat -rice-wheat-rice-wheat 11.48 72.88 43.17
Rice-vegetable pea-wheat-green gram 15.26 96.44
Rice-vegetable pea-wheat-green gram 43.34
Rice-vegetable pea-wheat-green gram
Maize-vegetable pea-wheat-rice-wheat-green gram- 13.31 87.67 41.60
rice-wheat-green gram
Pigeon pea- wheat-rice-wheat-rice-wheat 12.27 72.60 46.31
CD (p=0.05) 0.68
Source: Tripathi and Singh (2008)
Perusal of Table 1 revealed that rice-vegetable pea-wheat-green gram (15.26 t/ha) and rice-
mustard–green gram–rice-wheat- green gram-rice-wheat-green gram (14.82 t/ha) crop
sequences produced at par wheat equivalent yield, which was significantly higher than other
crop sequences and 27.91 and 24.22 % higher than rice-wheat system, respectively. Higher
wheat equivalent yield in these crop sequences was due to intensification options. In former
sequence, vegetable pea was grown as pre rabi crop and summer green gram as green
manure crop after late sown wheat whereas in latter crop sequence green gram was taken
as summer crop either after mustard or after timely sown wheat. Singh et al. (2007) reported
that growing of rice-wheat-green gram enhanced system productivity by 39.1 % than rice-
wheat system. Gangwar and Ram (2005) also reported similar findings. Maize–vegetable
pea-wheat-rice-wheat-green gram-rice-wheat-green gram crop sequence also gave
significantly higher wheat equivalent yield (13.31 t/ha) than rice-wheat system. This was
possible due to inclusion of green gram as summer crop. The lowest wheat equivalent yield
was obtained in soybean-wheat-rice-wheat-rice-wheat crop sequence.

An intercropping study of canola and mustard with wheat in different ratio showed that the
maximumm and significantly higher wheat equivalent yield (69.88 q/ha) was recorded in
wheat : canola intercrop in 6: 2 ratio as compared to other treatements followed by wheat :
mustard intercrop (62.33 q/ha) in same ratio. This wheat equivalent yield increase in wheat
+canola in 6: 2 ratio was to the tune of 32.4 % than wheat sole crop. The highest gross
return (` 97833/ ha), net return (` 46133/ ha) and B: C ratio (1.89) was obatined under
wheat+canola in 6: 2 ratio followed by wheat+mustard in same ratio (Tripathi et al., 2016).
Similarly, autumn sugarcane+wheat provides an elbow to increase the wheat area and
enhance in sugarcane yield and sugar content as compared to spring planted sugarcane.
This provides a win-win situation for both crops i.e wheat and sugarcane. Under bed planting
scenerio in wheat, vegetables like radish can be grown in furrows, which provides additional
income to the farmers particulaly small and marginal farmers.
The Indo Gangetic Plain (IGP) region can be divided into four transects based on agro-
climatic characteristics, soil type and physiographic features. These are: Trans Gangetic
plain, Upper, Middle and Lower Gangetic Plain regions. These regions have specific problem
and accordingly different crop rotations were found profitable (Table 2). Maximum profit was
in middle and lower Gangetic plain where potato was taken after rice.
Table 2: Diversified profitable cropping systems in different agroclimatic regions of India

Agro- Yield (kg/ha) Cost of cultivation (`/ha) Net
climatic Crop sequences returns
zones Kharif Rabi Summer Kharif Rabi Summer Total (`/ha)
Trans - Cotton-wheat 1832 4101 15600 16100 31700 35066

Gangetic
Clusterbean-wheat 1105 3969 8622 16100 24722 28152
Plains
Rice-berseem 6591 102834 15100 14000 29100 49155
Upper Rice-gram 4557 2337 13209 9277 22486 34889

Gangetic
Rice-mustard 4593 1789 13209 9798 23007 28226
Plains
Middle Rice- 3995 4317 559 16087 14600 - 30687 37540

Gangetic Maize+coriander
4023 23578 1197 16087 35800 8911 60798 66751
Plains
Rice-potato-
3930 19341 3814 12250 35800 12250 60300 61428
sunflower
Rice-potato-maize
Lower Rice-potato- 4919 25479 1362 14956 36100 3800 54856 82551
Gangetic sesamum
4982 25421 6353 14956 36100 13000 64056 86976
Plains
Rice-potato-bhindi
Source: Adapted from Gill et al. (2008)
It is utmost important to maximise the profitabilitry of small and marginal farmers without
much increase in cost of cultivation. Even small increase in profit of poor farmers will have
an impact on their livelihoods. To utilise furrows, under bed planting condition, as a relay
crop of cucurbits in wheat is one of the options to explore for profit maximisation strategy for
farmers. A series of cucurbits were seeded during first week of March in furrows under bed
planted wheat. At this stage wheat crop was in milk stage and lower leaves started dyeing
thereby facilitating more light penetration in furrows. The cucurbits planted were musk melon
(kharbuj), water melon (tarbuj), bottle guard (ghia), ridge guard (tori), bitter guard (karela),
cucumber (kheera) and tarkakari. Obviously there was no advese effect on wheat yield and
additional produce of all cucurbits were obatined. Most profitable realy crop was bottle guard
(ghia) followed bytarkakari, cucumber (kheera), ridge guard (tori), bitter guard (karela), water
melon (tarbuj) and musk melon (kharbuj). Thus, small farmers can utilise these produce for
their own home consumption and excess produce can be sold in local market for earning
more money. In this way, small and marginal farmers can also engage their family labours in
summer season and earn more money for their house hold in lean and small period of time.
Diversified agriculture is certainly a source of supplementary farm income, generates

additional employment, creates jobs for family members throughout year and even in lean
season, reduces risk due to involvement of many enterprises, chances of success of other
enterprises if one fails owing to vagaries of weather.
Bibliography
Anonymous. 2018. FAO report 2017-18. http://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-

glance/en/
Gangwar B. and Baldev Ram. 2005. Effect of crop diversification on productivity and
profitability of rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat (Triticum aestivum) system. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences.7: (7) 435-438.
Gill M. S., Shukla Arvind K. and Pandey P.S. 2008. Yield, nutrient response and economic
analysis of important cropping systems in India. Indian Journals of Fertilisers. 4(4): 11-
48.
Singh K., Bohra, J. S., Singh T. K., Singh J. P., Singh Y. and Singh C. S. 2007. Productivity
and economics of integrated farming system in irrigated ecosystem of eastern Uttar
Pradesh.Indian Journal of Agronomy.52 (1): 11-15
Tripathi S. C. and Singh R. P. 2008. Effect of crop diversification on productivity and

profitability of rice (Oryza sativa L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping
system.Indian Journal of Agronomy.53 (1) 27-31.
Tripathi S. C., Chander Subhash and Meena Raj Pal. 2016.Intercropping of canola and
mustard with wheat suitable for higher profitability. Journal of Wheat Research. 8 (1):
30-33.

18. Integrated Farming System: A Way to Enhance the

Farmers Income
Ponnusamy K, Kousalya Devi and S Ashokkumar
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal – 132001 (Haryana)
Integrated Farming
The concept of integrated farming is an integration of different interdependent enterprises for
effective utilisation of all reserves. Indian farmers have a long tradition of Integrated Farming
System (IFS) primarily involving large ruminants like cow and buffalo and small ruminants
like goat and sheep. There are symbiotic linkages between ruminating animals and crop
husbandry, since such animals can digest cellulosic wastes and provide manure besides
milk. Further, bullocks have been the major source of energy. By making use of time and
space dimensions in irrigated or rainfed areas within a specified time span, productivity is
sought to be increased by repeated and intensified farming. Income through arable farming
alone is insufficient for bulk of the resource poor farmers. Integration of various farm
enterprises assumes critical importance in supplementing their farm income. It fits well with
farm level infrastructure and ensures full utilisation of by-products. Integrated farming also
involves the utilisation of primary produce and secondary produce of one system, thus
making them mutually integrated as one whole unit. This incidentally helps to reduce the
dependence on procurement of inputs from open market, thereby making the IFS, a self-
supporting entity and sustainable system overtime (Ponnusamy and Kousalya Devi, 2017). It
may be possible to reach the same level of yield with proportionately less input in the
integrated farming and the yield would be interestingly more sustainable because the waste
of one enterprise becomes the input of another, leaving almost no waste to pollute the
environment or to degrade the resource base. The IFS is a demographic necessity to meet
the expanding needs for food, jobs and income and an ecological necessity to ensure the
protection of soil health and efficient use of water and prevention of build-up of pests. To put
this concept efficiently into practice, it is necessary to study linkages and complementarities
of different enterprises in various farming systems.
Advantages of Integrated Farming

In the face of multidimensional challenges of the new millennium, integrated farming being a
multi-enterprise system offers the following advantages:
1. Regular income generation all round the year from different enterprises
2. Maintenance of soil fertility and soil and water conservation
3. Residue recycling in the farm
4. Fulfilment of social and cultural obligations
5. Utilisation of marginal land and non-marketable produce will offset the economic risk
6. Full utilisation of surplus family labour in the farm itself
7. Favourable income generation prospects in rural areas can slow down migration
8. Products and by-products for saleable production in the form of hides and skins
9. Risk reduction from diseases, crop failure and climatic failure or hazards

10. Energy production and consumption

11. Increased populations of beneficial insects and fishes and migrant birds
12. Availability and consumption of various products at a farm reduce the problem of
malnutrition of family members.
Reasons for Declining of Integrated Farming System

A study entitled “Multidimensional analysis of Integrated Farming System in the coastal agro-
eco system of Tamil Nadu” conducted by Ponnusamy (2006) with a sample of 150 farmers
had investigated to know the reasons for declining of integrated farming systems in the
coastal regions and presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Reasons for declining of IFS in India (n=150)

S.No. Reasons Number Percent
1. Declining profitability of agriculture 142 94.67
2. Lack of marketing support 127 84.67
3. Escalation of input prices narrowing the productivity and margins due to 122 81.33
inadequate application
4. Sudden price crash of farm commodities 117 78.00
5. Lack of labour/high cost and decreasing labour efficiency 114 76.00
6. Lack of capital for investment in farm 105 70.00
7. Non/poor reclamation of tanks/ponds reducing water availability for crops 99 66.00
and animals
8. Declining grazing land due to encroachment/diversion for other activities 95 63.33
9. Mechanisation leading to less preference of bullocks 88 58.67
10. Scattered land holdings unamenable for comprehensive land use 79 52.67
11. Pest and disease problems resulting in huge loss 77 51.33
12. Technological development focusing more on specialised farming 72 48.00
13. Urbanisation and industrialisation providing ample job opportunities to the 70 46.67
rural farmers
14. Occurrence of drought, erratic/inadequate rainfall and cyclones/tsunami 68 45.33
15. Decreased livestock population 67 44.67
16. Problems in maintenance of different farm enterprises 66 44.00
17. Lack of coherent policy and extension support 64 42.67
18. Modernisation- preference for white collared job due to increased 60 40.00
educational level
19. Declining of joint family system reducing family labour 59 39.33
20. Laziness of farm families due to increased civilisations 57 38.00
21. Easy and cheap availability of products at nearby market discouraging 56 37.33
farmers not to produce
22. Lack of time to look after farming due to mechanical life 47 31.33
23. Lack of availability of quality animal feed and fodder 43 28.67
24. Salinisation affecting crop cultivation in coastal areas 42 28.00
25. Conversion of waste land into cultivable land affecting the local eco-system 40 26.67
26. Lack of space to accommodate different farm enterprises 39 26.00
27. Declining per capita land due to sub-division 38 25.33
28. Lack of transport for marketing of produce 33 22.00
29. More emphasis on rice production by government agencies 28 18.67
30. Entry of private companies concentrating on commercialisation 24 16.00

Strategies for Enhancing Farmers’ Income through IFS Approach

Agriculture both in terms of policy and practice needs to reorient itself to the changing
circumstances and improve its adjustment mechanisms in order to enhance the income level
of farmers with following strategies:
1. Cropping pattern should be stabilised so that the farmers would produce different
crops on sustained basis, which not only fetches better returns to them but also
avoids large scale price fluctuations.
2. The failure of reclamation of local water bodies can be managed through people’s
monitoring and implementation through Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI) instead of
public works department (PWD) of state governments. The construction of check
dam, percolation pond, contour bund and shelter belts is needed for promoting the
IFS.
3. Despite earmarking sufficient fund for road development in the rural areas by the
Government, the sub-standard road was found to be the major constraint. Here
again, the role of PRIs will become indispensable to be a partner in infrastructure
development in the rural areas.
4. The farmers become defaulters to banks due to recurrent and frequent natural
disasters and thereby become “push outs” of formal credit system. Rescheduling and
restructuring of farmers’ loan may not provide the long lasting solution. Hence, an
Agriculture-Risk Fund may be created by the governments to waive off the full or part
of the loan and interest in the event of droughts, floods, heavy pest infestation,
cyclones and tsunami.
5. Reviving the defunct cooperative societies and starting of cooperatives particularly for
dairy need to be done on priority basis for lending and marketing in the coastal areas.
The elections to cooperative societies should not be conducted on political lines and
the autonomy of cooperatives needs to be ensured. Since permanent asset creation
at the farm level was low and prevalence of private money lenders was high in most
of the systems, arrangement for liberal credit flow with four per cent interest rate will
help farmers to make adequate investment in their farm so as to practise
economically feasible enterprise and crop combinations.
6. There is a necessity of improving the facilities for marketing of farm produce,
dissemination of system related farm models and technologies and formation of
commodity groups so that farmers of particular farming system could able to utilise
these services for a better sustainable livelihood.
7. In view of the constraint on lack of grazing land for rearing of livestock, it is suggested
that the common grazing lands/ poramboke lands should be retained and reclaimed
from encroachers for making the dairy and small ruminant’s population to survive
even in the harsh conditions and to ensure fodder security in each and every village.
For this purpose, local elected bodies should be suitably empowered to do needs.
8. The low to medium level of input recycling as found in the study can be increased
through generating technologies on the optimum proportion of livestock that could be
maintained by the farming community under varied agro-climatic and socio-economic
situations.
9. On the lines of women self-help groups, the commodity specific groups comprising
both men and women are to be created in order to establish an effective backward
and forward linkage. The commodity associations will be helpful to facilitate transport
and market the farm produce.
10. Based on the interaction with farmers in the study villages, it was found that most of
the farmers do not expect free inputs or subsidies including electricity but want
regular and uninterrupted supply of inputs at affordable prices. For example, the
reducing sales tax etc. on agricultural inputs will make the availability of inputs at
reasonable rate. An efficient input delivery system is vital to prevent sale of sub-
standard items and manipulations of private dealers who happened to be engaged in
unauthorised and illegal activities. Only the agricultural graduate should be
authorised to sell inputs.
11. In view of low nutritional security in most of the farming systems, special effort is
needed for motivating the farmers to have home garden of at least 2 to 3 cents (100
cents = one acre) in their back yard or side yard in order to secure livelihood security
and to reduce external purchase of household requirements. SHGs can be mobilised
in this regard.
12. On the basis of constraint on lack of government support and services in crop and
livestock production systems, it is suggested that policy decisions by the state
governments may be taken in accordance with the norms and policies formulated by
the Directorate of Extension, Department of Agriculture, Government of India, New
Delhi in order to plan effective extension and training programmes on IFS involving
different component enterprises. Field demonstrations, village camps and off-campus
training should be spearheaded to enhance the adoption of situation specific
integrated farming system. Establishment of soil testing laboratories and pest and
disease diagnosing labs at every taluk headquarters and Krishi Vigyan Kendra in
addition to information kiosks or expert system with an extension agent will take
farming upward for majority of the farmers.
13. Communication network among personal localite sources such as family members,
neighbours, friends and fellow farmers need more focus by the various development
departments in order to improve the knowledge and skill of the farmers on the basis
of whole family approach, so that these sources can be utilised for meaningful
sharing of information in the system of technology transfer.
14. Farm programmes should be invariably telecasted in all public and private TV
channels in local language preferably thrice a day, covering the areas of on-going
government schemes, new technologies, constraints, success stories and prices of
commodities. This will encourage entire farm family to view the programmes and
divert their attention from viewing only entertainment programmes such as serials,
comedies, cinema etc.
15. Farmers need to be trained through on and off campus trainings. In addition, large
number of on-farm adaptive research trials of IFS models developed at research
stations is to be performed in farmers’ fields in village situations so that optimum IFS
model which is responsive to farmers’ endowments and priorities can be developed.
16. In view of lack of infrastructure as a deterrent for practising appropriate farming

systems by the farmers, creation of certain common assets like nursery, drying yard,
storage godown, tools and implements etc. at every village will help to reduce
enormous external dependence and mobilize the community for the common sake
and good will.
17. To promote integrated farming system, palmyrah based industries should be started
at the village level to utilise the resource effectively. Toddy tapping from palmyrah
and coconut trees should be permitted to boost the rural economy. This will create a
competitive market for coconut and palmyrah products which will generate additional
employment opportunities and minimise the consumption of ‘Indian made foreign
liquor (IMFL)’.
18. Lack of know-how on effective utilisation of farm produce and technological
recommendations on integrated farming system for different farming situations were
one of the constraints in the overall IFS. Broad based extension is the need of the
hour as extension agent visiting their assigned field areas need to answer
multidisciplinary queries arising from any of commodity grower such as field crops,
vegetables, flowers, fruits, livestock, poultry, sheep and goat, apiary, mushroom and
sericulture. The government cannot appoint extension agents for dealing each
enterprise separately at this juncture. All the departments are to be brought under
single umbrella at the block level to perform the facilitative role of agricultural
development by the extension agents. Policy decision on Broad-based Extension
System (BBES) needs to be taken on priority basis by the government in order to find
out the amicable solutions to constraints the experienced by farmers. This will not
only help to use the manpower in a most productive manner but also to serve the
clientele to his best satisfaction.
19. The resource poor farmers were found to possess fragmented holdings at the time of
field investigation. This situation calls for land reforms. Consolidation of scattered
land holdings should be facilitated to practise multi enterprise combinations.
20. Low profitability of rice crop was one of the constraints as expressed by the
respondents during the group interaction meetings. The world of agriculture beyond
cereals offers higher income for the small farmer and hence there is an ample scope
for farming system and development with multiple enterprise combinations if the
government takes away the price incentives for both inputs and outputs for rice.
21. Encouraging medicinal plants cultivation, organic farming, village level production of
bio-fertilizers, bio-pesticides and vermicompost through self-help groups and
preservation of traditional knowledge for treatment of crop and animal ailments will
lead to sustainable rural development and enable the farm families to achieve
happier life with low cost and high profit in their endeavors.
22. Organised marketing for fish, recognition of fish farming at par with crop farming for
providing loan, electricity, water, insurance and other inputs, production of grass carp
fingerlings in Tamil Nadu itself instead of purchasing it from Calcutta, and adequate
extension and research support to promote fisheries based integrated farming
system will promote aquaculture based farming system in the coastal villages.
23. Inclusion of IFS concept along with environmental protection in the school curriculum
will inculcate a positive outlook and image about Indian agriculture at the budding
stage of our children.
24. Case studies of successful enterprise combinations as reported in this study need to
be documented and used as models by extension systems to disseminate the need
based IFS.
Conclusions
The adoption of multiple farm enterprises in an integrated manner can ensure a substantial
income generation to sustain the livelihood of farmers over the meagre income from self-
standing enterprises. The integrated farming system once very popular among the farming
communities started losing its importance after green revolution in late-1960s and then
further declined drastically after the economic liberalization in early 1990s. The focus of
present government is on doubling farmers’ income by 2022. The partial budgeting,
economic estimation of manure and urine from animal components and factors associated
with total income from different enterprise combinations have shown the directions for policy
makers, extension functionaries and progressive farmers to prepare strategies for doubling
farmers’ income. Only livestock component would provide the facilitating inputs to enhance
the income of farm families within a short period of five years in a synergistic mode. The
adoption of IFS is the right approach in this direction and should be supported through
institutional, extension, policy and marketing interventions in a system approach.
Bibliography
Ponnusamy, K. (2006) Multidimensional analysis of integrated farming system in the coastal

agro-eco system of Tamil Nadu. Ph.D. Thesis. NDRI (Deemed University), Karnal,
Haryana.
Ponnusamy, K and M. Kousalya Devi. 2017. Impact of Integrated Farming System Approach
on Doubling Farmers’ Income. Agricultural Economics Research Review. 30: 233-
240.

19. Participatory Technology Development: Evidence from

Farmer’s Field
Anil Khippal, Dinesh Kumar, Chuni Lal, Satyavir Singh, AS Kharub, Mamurtha HM and Poonam Jasrotia
The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) is characterised by cereal-based farming systems where

livestock is an integral part of farm economy. Majority of the population derives their
livelihood from agriculture sector which is dominated by small land holdings (<2 ha). Cereal
crops (mainly rice and wheat) are vital to ensure food security in the region, but sustaining
their productivity has become a major challenge due to climate variability and uncertainty.
Even after realizing the full irrigation potential of the country, half of the cultivated area will
continue to be under rain fed farming which is highly dependent on monsoon rainfall.
Unpredictability in monsoon, pervasive droughts and floods and abrupt increase in
temperature at crop maturity are some of the immediate harmful impacts of climate change
which could have significant detrimental effects on productivity and quality of different crops.
Land degradation in the country is posing a big threat to the natural resources, resulting in
almost 5 billion tonnes of soil and 6 million tonnes of nutrients losses every year. Burning of
crop residues is another serious issue which not only impacts the soil (fertility) and upsets
the ecological balance, but possesses great threat to human health by polluting the air.
About 90-140 MT of crop residues are annually burnt on-farm mainly to clear the fields to
facilitate planting of succeeding crops. The escalating population is making man to land ratio
increasingly critical and it is feared that the existing land for food production may not be able
to keep pace with the demographic dynamics. It is estimated that India needs 320 million
tonnes of food grains by the year 2025. It is widely believed that increasing rainfall variability
is likely to affect the livelihoods of million small and marginal farmers in the years to come.
The National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) was initiated in 2011 to
primarily strengthen research to address climate change and to demonstrate proven resilient
practices in most climate vulnerable parts of the country. Farmer participatory technology
demonstrations are being carried out since 2011-12 in 100 vulnerable districts prone to
recurrent drought, floods, and extreme weather events like cyclone, heat and cold wave.
Interventions broadly fall into four modules related to natural resource management (NRM),
crop, livestock and fisheries production systems and capacity building. Hence, climate smart
technologies are needed that reduce production costs, save water and improve grain yield
and quality while sustaining environmental quality have become very important. To address
all these issues ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal and Krishi
Vigyan Kendera, Kaithal, started Farmers Participatory Research and Technologies
Demonstrations on crops residues management, direct seeding of rice, mechanical
transplanting of rice, laser land levelling, infusion of green gram in rice-wheat cropping
system, relay cropping of wheat and barley in cotton and intercropping in sugarcane.

What is Participatory Technology Demonstrations (PTD)?

PTD is a long-term association between researchers and local farmers, with the objective of
generating innovations based on indigenous knowledge and cultures to develop sustainable
livelihood systems. It involves and links the power and capacities of agricultural research
with the interests and knowledge of local communities. More broadly, PTD deals with natural
resources management by strengthening the local indigenous specialists and their
communities to carry out experiments in becoming more sustainable and self-reliant through
drawing on their local resources.
Why Participatory Research or Technology Demonstrations?

 Participation of local farmers is a major guarantee that the interests and needs of
them will be defined more successfully.
 To increase the adoption rates of new methods or technologies by involving farmers
in the design and execution of these programme.
 To promote farmer-to-farmer extension and increase agricultural productivity.
 Local farmers generate information that will create a common understanding which is
no longer “only scientific or only local” but the basis for original, self-beneficial
solutions.
 The solutions will be socially and culturally acceptable.
 Participation creates a sense of ownership and local farmers will implement activities
on a basis of self-reliance.
 Participation creates a collective self-esteem leading to revitalization of local
experiences. Local people will feel empowered to manage their resources with
greater awareness of the value of sustainability for future generations.
 So that traditional, native, local, or popular knowledge and experiences become the
driving force of development.
 two different knowledge systems, those of “outsiders” and “locals,” in order to find
joint solutions to rural issues while taking full advantage of local resources (natural,
social or cultural).
 Farmers able to create their own innovations which develop confidence among them.
Participation: Identifying the Challenges, Sites, Farmers and Methods for Research
Four major decisions for a researcher using a participatory approach are to identify
challenges, selection of sites, selection of farmers and how to work with them. These
decisions are depend mainly on the research or technologies demonstration objectives what
scientists in collaboration with farmers, are trying to achieve. These decisions are critical
because the scientists will rely on the selected persons to provide information about
problems, resources, and constraints; to prompt local knowledge successfully; and to
collaborate in conducting experiments.

Identifying problems
Problems of the area or village are identified through interaction or survey of different
farmers of the locality. Farmer available resources are used to solve identified challenges
using scientific principles and demonstrations. Farmers are then encouraged to experiment,
adapt and innovate using applicable demonstrated principles in which they see fit in their
unique system and circumstances.
Selection of sites
The selection of the site for field work should be representative of the surrounding or the
problem identified to draw meaningful comparisons. Preferably the selected site should be at
a place from where maximum farmers cross every day. This will help the farmers in
analysing the performance of the technology demonstrated.
Selection of farmers
Innovative farmers who have risk bearing capacity are selected. They have a reputation for
good workmanship and are not isolated individuals but members of social networks, and that
these networks can play an important role in the adoption of technology.
Working with farmers

Scientists should be careful not to impose a false consensus by forcing participants to agree
on something when they find it difficult to do so. It may be unlikely to achieve consensus on
many problems if the group is truly heterogeneous.
Comparison of Current and New Technological Options

Any technology or practice used by the local people represents an option to solve one or
several problems. Farmers can view some characteristics as positive or advantageous (i.e.,
as benefits in terms of gain in yield or improvement in soil and environment) and others as
negative or disadvantageous (i.e., as increase in cost or difficulty to follow the new
technology). The choice of one technology/practice over others is greatly prejudiced by the
balance between its positive and negative characteristics. Depending on the likings,
resources, and constraints that individual farmers face, a beneficial characteristic for one
farmer may be a negative one for another, or the balance between positive and negative
traits may be acceptable for one farmer but not for another. So the farmers should opt the
new technology depending on their needs and availability of resources.
Evaluating the Effect of New Technologies

Scientists should evaluate the changes that the farming communities observe to have
happened as a result of adopting a new technology. Changes brought about by the adoption
of a new technology ideally should translate into increased well-being for all members of the
farming household, but unfortunately this is not always the case. For this reason, it is
necessary to establish which changes have been brought about by the new
technology/practice and the extent to which these changes have increased or decreased the
well-being of the members of the household. Obviously, such an assessment depends on
household members’ perceptions of well-being.
Outcome of Participatory Technology Demonstrations

ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal and Krishi Vigyan Kendera,
Kaithal, started Farmers Participatory Research and Technologies Demonstrations on crops
residues management, direct seeding of rice, mechanical transplanting of rice, laser land
levelling, infusion of green gram in rice- wheat cropping system, relay cropping of wheat and
barley in cotton and intercropping in sugarcane. The advantages of these technologies are:
Technology Outcome
 Laser land levelling considerably lowers
irrigation time and save water also.
 It increases yields of all the crops.
 It saves electricity.
 Higher yields mean higher incomes for
farmers.
Now number of machines has increased
significantly and almost every field is
laser leveled in Punjab and Haryana. This
technology has proved a boom in water
saving (20-30%) and increasing the yield
(1-2 q/ha)
Laser land leveling

 Reduction in cost for field preparation
and time saving
 Timely sowing of wheat or barley
 No yellowness of wheat crop after 1st
irrigation.
 Phalaris minor population is reduced
drastically.
 The crop escapes terminal heat stress
 Lodging of wheat and barley is reduced
 It saves ` 5000-6000 per hectare.
This technology has become popular
among the farmers where basmati rice is
grown. Majority of the farmers are having
this machine and this technology played
a major role in reducing problem of
Phalaris minor population in rice-wheat
cropping system.
Zero Till sown Wheat

 Enhances soil fertility

 Additional income to the farmers
 Helps in avoiding soil erosion
 Helps in more pulse production which
leads to save foreign exchange
 Helps in avoiding residue burning hence
pollution also
 Save fertilizer as paddy variety CSR 30
require no fertilizer after green gram
Availability of short duration variety of
green gram viz. SML 668, MH 421 and MH
318 helps the farmers to adopt this
technology. These varieties permit timely
transplanting of basmati rice.
Dr. K.M. Bujarbaruah, Vice-Chancellor,
Assam Agricultural University Jorhat
Infusion of green gram in rice-wheat

cropping system
 Increases organic carbon of the soil
 Enhances activities of microorganism in
soil
 Increases availability of N and S to the
plants
 Improves physical property of soil
 Increases water holding capacity of soil
 Avoid soil and water erosion
 Weed population is reduced
 Avoid terminal heat stress
 Helps in avoiding residue burning hence
pollution also
 Reduce lodging of the crop
 Increase in grain yield and income of the
farmers
 Improves seed and grain quality.
Seeing the significance of this technology
many farmers purchased their own
machine. Numbers of custom hiring
centers are available to provide service to
the marginal farmers. Government of
Haryana is also providing subsidies on
this machine. Area under this technology
increased significantly.
Happy seeder sowing of wheat

 Relay cropping promote zero tillage

technique
 Timely sowing of wheat or barley
 Reduces cost of cultivation
 Increases the yield of both the crops
 Increases organic carbon of the soil
 Enhances activities of microorganism in
soil
 Improves physical property of soil
 Increases water holding capacity of soil
 Avoid soil and water erosion
 Weed population is reduced
 Improves seed and grain quality.
 Increases income of the farmers.
Cotton varieties available are of very long
duration which results in delay sowing of
wheat or barley ultimately the reduction in
yield and income of the farmers. CIMMYT
has developed a small machine which can
sow wheat in the standing cotton. Area
under this technology has increased in
Sirsa district of Haryana and Bhatinda
district of Punjab. This technology results
in 1-2 q/ha more yield of both the crops.
Relay cropping system
Relay cropping of wheat/barley in cotton

 Intercropping help in meeting out the
farmer’s need for other crops such as
cereals, pulses and vegetable.
 Different leguminous intercrops fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
 Intercropping of pulses and oilseeds
crops help in meeting out the demands of
these crops which are short in supply.
 In intercropping the same irrigations
served the purpose of both the crops
 Saving of almost 60 liters diesel / hectare
Sugarcane + Wheat  Helps in controlling weeds in the inter
space.
 Escalating Diversity and Stability to a
Higher Level
 Crop residue recycling vis-à-vis
maintenance of the soil health.
 Mid-season income generation from
intercrops
 Increase in LER
 Increase in the yield of both crops.
For doubling farmers’ income this is a
proven technique. Intercropping saves
natural resources and increases land
Sugarcane + Raya
equivalent ratio. Soil fertility improves.
Reduces cost of cultivation and income of
the farmers. Depending upon the
resources farmers can plant various
intercrops in the sugarcane.
Intercropping results in additional income
of ` 30000 to 70000 per ha depending
upon the intercrops.
Sugarcane + Lentil
Activities to Popularize the Technologies

Various field days and kisan melas were organized at the demonstration sites to develop the
confidence of the farmers and to know the feedback. Farmers share their views about the
technology which helps in farmer to farmer extension. Dr. K D Kokate DDG (Agri. Ext.), Dr.
K.S. Khokhar, Vice-Chancellor CCSHAU, Hisar and other dignitaries visited these
technologies demonstrations. Scientists from other parts of the country and from abroad
also visited the sites which help to popularize these technologies across the district or state.

20. Modern Extension Strategies to Disseminate

Technological Innovations and Interventions at Farmers Field
Anuj Kumar, Sendhil R and Satyavir Singh
Introduction
In Agriculture, the role of technology generation system and technology transfer system is
equally important. Traditionally dissemination of technological innovations is done by three
methods viz; personal contact method, group contact method and mass contact method by
using result and method demonstration methods. Farmers are enterprise owners in
agriculture, and it is the responsibility of the Agricultural Extension System (AES) to
transform the knowledge, skill and attitude of the farmers with the aim to enhance their farm
productivity, production and profitability. An effective extension service makes for efficient
farming. There is a change in concept and approach in extension and now “Agricultural
Extension is an empowering system of sharing information, knowledge, technology, skills,
risk & farm management practices, across agricultural sub sectors and along all aspects of
the agricultural supply chain, so as to enable the farmers to realise higher net income from
their enterprise on a sustainable basis”.
Technology Transfer System

Generation (Multi Disciplinary and Multi institution)
Assessment
Refinement
Validation
Transfer
(Multi Institutions)
Feedback
ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat & Barley Research

Present Status of Agricultural Research and Extension System

In India the agricultural research and extension system is very large and is spread all over
the country to cater the need of the farming community and other stakeholders. There are
113 Research Centres/Institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 77 State
Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and Central Agricultural Universities (CAUs), Water and
Land Management Institutes (WALMI), in various states and research institutions of various
Commodity Boards, as also their related Ministries /Departments are involve d in the
generation of transferable technologies encompassing multiple aspects of the agricultural
sector along its long chain of pre-production, production and post-production stages
including marketing. This research system is supplemented with almost 700 Krishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKs) located in all the districts of the country for validating & acclimatising the
technologies for local conditions. More than 50,000 dedicated agricultural scientists are
working to address field level problems and to evolve technological solutions. It is estimated,
that around 1.2 lakh number of extension functionaries are available under the umbrella of
public extension in the country. With inclusion of vacant positions (approximately 30 per cent
as on date), manpower available with ICAR organisations, Agricultural Universities and
KVKs, public extension has the largest manpower base in service of farmers in the country.
Other advantages of public extension are coverage of broad spectrum of agriculture
(horticulture, field crops, animal husbandry, and fishery) and reaching every corner of the
country. Of this however, around 15 per cent of the manpower available in extension
operates at supervisory and administrative positions which are not available for field level
extension. Hence, the present farmers to extension functionary ratio of 1156:1 stands to be
further affected.
Manpower Crunch
The committee has recommended minimum ratio of extension service provider to farming
family: 1:400 in Hilly areas; 1:750 in Irrigated areas; and 1:1000 in Rainfed areas. While the
current ratio of operational holdings per extension functionary was 1:1162. However, while
many states may get at par with the needed ratio if 30% of vacancies are filled up, other
states, including big states such as Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, would continue to suffer because of manpower shortage
and hence would need additional sanctions. Present experience indicates difficulties not only
in new sanctions but also in filling up vacancies. Although the number of operational
holdings is as per the 2010 census, this shall keep increasing with the continuous break up
of holdings. Therefore, while making efforts for new sanctions and filling up vacancies is
important, yet efforts need to be made to achieve the objective with the existing status of
extension manpower.
Pluralism in Extension Delivery

At present extension services are provided by various agencies representing public and
private sector players. There is 107 categories of public and private extension service
providers in the country which includes 22 institutions of DCA&FW, 4 institutions of DARE
including ICAR,KVKs and CAUs, four institutions of DAH,D&F, 8 belonging to the Ministry of
Commerce, 22 Inter Governmental Institutions, and 16 categories of private extension

service providers. Besides these, there is a vast network of institutions in delivery of credit-
linked extension activities, including the immense cooperative network and public and
private sector banking network. The Committee has identified various other agencies that
provide core extension, including 1.57 lakh common service centres, and self-help groups.
There are 1.71 lakh milk cooperatives as well as cooperatives and institutions for fisheries,
bee keeping, etc. It was further stressed that there would be a large number, particularly in
the private sector, which may be unknown to the ministry as it would only be aware of those
service providers in the agriculture sector known to them.
Convergence of Extension Efforts

Despite the large network of public and private extension service providers the the DFI
Committee has recognised several important concerns in the report. One of its main
concerns is; Does there exist an institutional mechanism to review and converge the number
of extension functionaries and the extension approaches adopted by private sector? It was
further deliberated that “While the private sector plays an important role in agriculture
extension it is natural that they would concentrate more on providing information to farmers
that is related to their commercial interests, and on marketing their products. These efforts
need to be made complimentary and supplementary to public extension efforts. There is
scope to develop a mechanism to converge all the private extension efforts onto a single
platform and achieve the needed coordination to serve larger areas and an increased
number of activities. Synergy in effort by the two systems will benefit the farmers better. This
will become an example of Public-private platform of extension machinery”.
Database of Extension Service Providers (ESPs)

Creating a database of all extension service providers and resources is the first step towards
convergence of extension efforts. Accordingly, an Extension Census needs to be conducted
to map all extension service providers and extension resources. Methodology for the same
will need to be evolved – including formats for collection of data, creating a platform for
collection of data, actual collection and compilation of data, and creating protocols for their
storage, protection, and retrieval. This will, furthermore, call for a digital platform wherein
information can be uploaded by the concerned extension service providers. Further steps for
convergence can thereafter be taken.
The Committee on Doubling Farmers Income (DFI) in its draft report, Vol. XI (Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare,
Government of India, 2017) has proposed to transform agriculture extension as an important
engine for doubling farmers’ income. It has made various recommendations while setting the
strategic direction for agriculture extension over the years so as to double farmers’ income
by 2022. It has also examined the paucity of extension manpower, and suggested various
measures to achieve the same.

Broader Role of Extension

The Committee has listed 24 roles under agriculture extension in its report on DFI. The
success expected by government in revitalising the agriculture sector and doubling farmers’
income depends upon extension being able to perform these 24 functions as anticipated.
Roles under Agricultural Extension
Providing information on going schemes and Engaging in research planning

programs in agriculture & allied sectors Promoting projectised mode of
Capacity building, Skilling in emerging areas extension delivery
Advocacy on farmers’ interests ICT enabled services
Counselling for farmers’ well-being Intermediation
Credit facilitation Linking farmers to markets
Critical assistance in risk management Building managerial competence
including climate change, crop insurance etc Linking various support & service
Documentation and Reporting roles networks
Enforcement of Farmers’ Charters Organizing user/producer groups
Issuing Advisories on soil health management, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation
water conservation, pest management etc. PPP Promotion
Facilitating access to production and post- Promoter of farmer led innovations
production inputs & data Redressal of grievances
Facilitation & feedback Technology selection, etc
Friend, philosopher and guide to farmers Feedback to research system
Tackling Resource Constraint

Performing these roles require massive resource commitment in terms of manpower,
finances, and infrastructure. Resource commitment on this scale cannot be provided
whether by central government or state government. The only option is by converging all
extension efforts as recommended by the Committee. This, therefore, becomes a
prerequisite for taking various other initiatives and efforts as recommended by the
Committee for meeting the challenge of doubling farmers’ income.
Role of Institutions in Adoption of Agricultural Innovations

Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption
Mass media Mass Media Neighbour. Neighbour. Neighbour.
Friends, Friends, Friends,
Progressive Progressive Progressive
farmers farmers farmers
Neighbour. Neighbour. Multi Institutions Multi Institutions Multi Institutions
Friends, Friends,
Progressive Progressive
farmers farmers
Multi Institutions Multi Institutions Salesmen, Salesmen, Mass Media
Dealers Dealers
Salesmen, Salesmen, Mass Media Mass Media Salesmen,
Dealers Dealers Dealers

Knowledge Smart Technologies for Dissemination of Innovation

Modern agriculture is a synonym of knowledge and skill. In recent years there has been a
tremendous change in agriculture and it is shifting from traditional to modern and from
modern to high-tech agriculture. In hi-tech agriculture proper knowledge and skill is the pre
requisite to make it a profitable venture as it requires heavy investment. Now protected
cultivation in poly house or green house or tunnel require lot of cultivation skills, harvesting
skills and ultimately marketing skills. Knowledge of e-NAM portal for selling of farm produce
is need of the hour and by registering with it farmers are getting better price. To promote
online marketing of agricultural commodities across the country and to provide maximum
benefit to farmer, on 1 July 2015 govt. launched National Agriculture Market (e-NAM)
through which a web based platform has been deployed across 250 regulated markets to
promote online trading.
Farmers can get price information of their produce which is available on AGMARKNET
website (www.agmarknet.nic.in) or through Kisan Call Centres or SMS. Buyer seller portal is
available at www.farmer.gov.in/buysell.htm. Farmers in a group may form marketing
cooperatives and FPOs for better marketing reach and these marketing cooperatives can
open retail and wholesale outlets. Farmers may also operate cold storage and warehouse to
store the produce in order to avoid distress sale.
Innovation in Technology Dissemination

Formation FPO and Commodity Groups
There is a need to mobilize farmers for the formation of farmers group such as organic
wheat grower association, malt barley grower association, and conservation agriculture
association for the benefit of farming community. If cultivation is done with formation of
groups then bulk purchase of critical inputs such as seed, fertilizer, plant protection
chemicals can be done at cheaper rates. Pulling of all farm produce and selling it in large
volume can be done at a much higher price. Now many FPO are involved in marketing of
farm produce at their own outlets or with commercial outlets. Formation of FPOs in wheat
and barley will provide an opportunity to produce consumer oriented quality and products to
fetch price.
Agri Startups
Honourable Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has announced a target for farmers’ incomes
to be doubled by 2022. Schemes like the government’s Startup Agri India scheme, the Digi
Gaon (Digital Village) initiative, and Bharat Net project will be working together towards
making this a reality. Initiatives like agri-hackathons can also bring together aspiring
entrepreneurs from diverse sectors. Today, the agriculture sector is witnessing a number of
startups in India disrupting everything from organic farming and equipment rentals to
connected supply chains and cloud-based analytics. Some of the examples of these satrtups
are Farm2Fork, Agribolo, Agrowave, Truce, Farm Again, Crofarm, Aibono, Gold Farm,
Earthy Tales, Earth Food, Organic Thelawala etc.

Tele Advisories through Toll Free Number

Toll free numbers has been started by many institutions for providing free of cost information
to the farmers. Toll free number of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in 1800-180-
1551 to provide free of cost information on agriculture, animal husbandry, dairy, fishery,
home science, horticulture, agro-forestry, bee keeping, mushroom cultivation etc to the
farmers. On the same line ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal has also started its own toll free no. 1800-
180-1891 for farmers. By dialing this number anyone can get information on wheat and
barley related aspects. They can also talk to the experts on various aspects of wheat and
barley cultivation.
Advisory Services through SMS

Advisory services through mobile SMS is an effective method of dissemination of information
among the farmers on crop husbandry practices, disease warnings, weather forecast, day to
day market price and many more. IFFCO was the pioneer organization to start this service
for the benefit of the farmers. ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal is also having a comprehensive list of
farmers to whom messages are sent on wheat and barley at a regular interval. This list is
regularly updated to increase the number of beneficiary farmers for this service. Furthe, for
the adopted villages under the “Mera Gaon Mera Gaurav” (MGMG) scheme, SMS is sent
through mobile during the crop season.
Use of Mass Media

Mass media is a powerful tool for dissemination of
information and technologies to the farmers and othe
stakeholders. Institute is regularly using print media
for mass awareness of recent developments in
wheat and barley. The expert team is regularly
visiting DD national and DD Kisan channels in
various programme related to these crops. Through
Krishi Darshan, Vichar-Vimarsh, Samvad and
Prashn Manch regular efforts are made to reach
maximum number of farmers.
Development of Decision Support System

Initially expert systems on various aspects of agriculture were developed by different
institutions for farmers such as Expert System on Wheat Crop Management, Rice Expert
System, Expert System on IPM etc.

Creation of WhatsApp Groups of Targeted Farmers

ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal has created a WhatsApp group of wheat and barley growers. Time to
time messages pertaining to crop husbandry, disease management and weather updates
are shared with the group members. Information on organization of extension activities such
as agril. exhibitions, kisan mela, awareness programme is also shared. Video film on yellow
rust was also shared with the farmers for the management of this disease. Publications such
as folders, bulletins, pamphlets, hand outs etc. are also shared with farmers from time to
time.
Web Portals, Apps and Social Media

More than hundred apps have been developed by ICAR on different facets of agriculture
which serve as an important tool for farmers to gain knowledge. Simply by downloading
these apps on their mobile phones farmers can easily use them. Recently ICAR-IIWBR,
Karnal has developed an App on barley (Link:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=berley.agriculture.berley) for farmers. One can
download this app and use for barley cultivation. Apps like Salinity Expert
(https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.dev.cssri.farmerfirst&hl=en) by CSSRI,
Karnal Chana Mitra
(https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.smsquare.chanamitra&hl=en_IN) by
IIPR, Kanpur, Kisan Suvidha, IFFCO Kisan- Agriculture App, RML Farmer-Krishi Mitr, Pusa
Krishi, AgriApp, Kheti-badi, Krishi Gyan, AgriMarket, Crop Insurance etc. are revolutionizing
Indian agriculture.
ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal, has its own facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/iiwbr/) which is
regularly updated. Even the live telecast of different activities of the institute is done through
FB page and youtube (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC1jkYYv0ucLFuO8gE7-

21kw/featured). It has got its own twitter accounts through which regular information on
wheat and barley production has been shared. Framers and institutions are using many
social sites such as facebook, WhatsApp, linkedIn, Twitter, flicker, youtube, Instagram,
Skype, tumblr, google+, Viber for exchange of socio-personal and professional informations.
There is a need to use these platforms for dissemination of information among the farming
community.
TNAU Agritech Portal
KVK Khoj App

Pusa Krishi App
Kisan Suvidha App
Conclusion
The role ICT is immense in dissemination of agricultural innovation. There is a need to
develop manpower in extension for effective and efficient utilization of potential of IT based
technologies for farmers and replication of successful models in other areas of the country.
Capacity building of field extension functionaries as well as farmers is of immense
importance. Supporting with sufficient manpower and other physical resources will cater the
need of the larger farming community in less time.

21. Sources, Role of Weather Information and Advisories

to Manage Risks and Uncertainties in Crop Production
Ankita Jha1, Rajeev Ranjan2, Raj Pal Meena1, RK Sharma1 and RS Chhokar1
1
Resource Management Division, ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal (Haryana)
2
Department of Agrometeorology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar (Uttarakhand)
Introduction
Climate change is an unavoidable bitter truth; as a result of which there is a sudden reversal
of the prevailing weather conditions. The adverse weather scenario/conditions lead to
decreased production and hence farmers are often compelled to take hard steps like suicide;
owing to huge losses. In a country like India whose population is increasing at an alarming
rate there is every possibility that global warming will have an impact on agriculture sector.
The basic requirement of human being is food, whose production demand exploitation of
direct or indirect energy (natural resources) resulting in higher greenhouse gas emissions;
which is one of the major reasons for climate change. Therefore, to avoid the consequences
of global warming significant efforts are required to be made in the field of agriculture.
Weather based agro advisories services were initiated to get rid of and manage various
weather based risks and uncertainties so as to reduce the cost of production. For the overall
development of farmers, the India Meteorological Department had started providing weather
forecast services prior to independence. The weather forecast was directly broadcasted to
the farmers through All India Radio (AIR) in the form of weather bulletins. In the beginning
“Krishi Darshan”; a program that was broadcasted via “Akashwani” was the only source of
agricultural information for the farmers across the country. With the advent of revolution in
the field of IT sector; information is reaching farmers via various means such as SMS, direct
phone communication, video message etc. Through the weather based agro advisories
services, information on various subjects such as weather information, latest information on
crop production, maintenance of fertility of soil, high yielding and disease free seeds,
irrigation schedule, insect-pests incidence in crops and their management, judicious use of
natural resources, kitchen gardening and horticultural related information, animal husbandry,
dairy, fishery etc. have been made available to farmers from time to time. Apart from this, the
government is also giving special emphasis on providing information related to various
schemes to the farmers and rural communities.
Weather Forecasting and Agro-advisory Services

Agro-advisory services includes meteorological (observing the current weather conditions&
forecasting), agricultural (identifying weather related stress and planning suitable advisory
using weather forecast), extension (scientist-farmer linkage) and information dissemination
(Media, Information Technology, Telecom agencies). Farmers are provided with weather
forecasts and other information related to agriculture through SMS in less than 160
characters so that they get benefitted from time to time. The related information is given to
the farmers as per their local conditions and needs. The short term (three days) and medium

(five to seven days) range weather forecasting information are predicted using statistical
methods and weather forecasting models. Short-term weather forecasting is mainly based
on amount of rainfall received, maximum and minimum temperatures, amount and
movement of clouds, relative humidity content, wind speed and wind direction. Weather
forecast and the agro-advisories related to it are made available to the farmers twice a week
i.e Tuesday and Friday in local languages like Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, etc.
Agro-Meteorological Field Units (AMFUs)

Agro-Meteorological Field Unit is very important as far as the benefit of farmers is
concerned. Weather based agro-advisory services are being prepared by 130 regional units
located across the country. These field units include experts associated with various
agricultural disciplines. At the regional level, a brief note is prepared for the farmers by the
AMFUs. In addition to location-based weather forecast, brief advisory pertaining to sowing of
crops, pesticides spray, time and amount of irrigation, quantity of fertilizers, appropriate time
of harvest etc. is also being disseminated among the farmers. These advisories are provided
based on local conditions and needs. Agro based information bulletins (in English and other
local languages) are being released twice a week at district level for the benefit of farmers.
These bulletins are publicized through local newspapers, magazines, electronic media and
multilingual web portals. The farmers can avail the benefit of location based agricultural
services by means of phone calls and text messages mentioned in the bulletin (Toll free). In
addition to this, a Meso-scale WRF model system (27 km) has been established for
prediction of adverse weather conditions like lightening, thunderstorm etc., the accuracy of
which is approximately 70 to 75 percent. In the present context, forecast models have been
issued which can predict cyclonic activity well in advance (24 to 36 hours prior to
occurrence). Many organizations such as the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Ministry of
Agriculture & Farmers Welfare and the Telecommunication companies are working in unison
to initiate this advanced technology in a proper way so that the farmers can avail maximum
benefit from it. Several other organizations such as IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL)
have been started in 2009 to provide agricultural information to the farmers through mobile
phones. It has launched its e-portal “Gram Sanjeevani” (http://www.gramsanjeevani.com) for
the e-transformation of rural India. This new interactive portal has several new features;
which are in the interest of Indian farmers. For this, the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers
Welfare, Government of India, has also established around 680 Krishi Vigyan Kendras
across the country to get information related to the farmers crop conditions. Krishi Vigyan
Kendra is promoting new technologies related to farming, animal husbandry, pisciculture,
bee keeping and related areas through All India Radio, Doordarshan etc. Farmers can also
get agricultural related information by calling Kisan Call Centers (1800-180-551).
Dissemination of Agromet-advisory services at village level

In spite of development of various advanced agricultural techniques by the scientists, the
farmers are unable to use the information owing to improper dissemination of information
within a proper time. To overcome this problem, the government has started “Gramin Krishi
Mausam Sewa” (GKMS) which provides weather forecast to the farmers at regular basis.

GKMS is providing the following important information to the farmer’s viz.:

1. Crop based education and information related to judicious management of natural
resources.
2. Sowing/transplanting and other related information at village level.
3. Weather, crop and market related warnings.
Advisory Dissemination Modes

 All India Radio (AIR) and Doordarshan
 Private TV and radio channels
 Newspaper
 Mobile phones/SMS
 Web portals
 NGOs
 Kisan Call Centres/ICAR and other related Institutes/Agricultural Universities
 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs)
 Extension units
Impact of Agromet Services

SMS and voice messages via mobile phones are among the latest technologies which
deliver information to the farmers. Now-a-days the farmers can avail the agricultural related
information through online apps. The agriculture productivity has increased with the use of
agromet services resulting in increased availability of grains and enhanced profitability of the
farmers. This has not only increased the crops’ productivity but also has reduced the losses
incurring due to adverse weather conditions. However, still there is a large section of the
society which is deprived of these services; hence there is a need to strengthen these
services so that even the small/marginal farmers may get benefitted.
The analysis and decision support information include information on how to manage the
biotic stresses (disease and pests) when there is congenial conditions (forecast for relative
humidity, rising or falling temperatures or high or low winds) for its attack.; on how to
schedule irrigation under rainfall and temperature forecasts; on how to protect the crop from
different thermal stress when the forecast is for extreme temperature conditions, etc. It also
aids farmers in anticipating and planning for chemical applications, irrigation scheduling,
disease and pest outbreaks and many more weather related agriculture-specific operations
starting from cultivar selection to dates of sowing, planting, transplanting, intercultural
operations, harvesting and post-harvest operations.
Conclusions
Farmers have been benefited to a great extent via agromet advisory services. The weather
related warning information received via SMS is helping the farmers to plan their daily
agricultural activities like rescheduling of sowing time, fertilizer application, irrigation etc. If
this information was not made available at the right time, there could have been both
physical and monetary losses. The important weather parameters such as rainfall,
temperature, solar radiation, wind velocity and direction, cloud cover, relative humidity, etc
influence crop yields by affecting farmer’s decision in selection of cultivar, use of inputs, crop
management practices, etc. These decisions significantly influence the agricultural output;
which in turn has an impact on the country’s economy as a whole. Thus, the timely and
accurate weather based agro-advisories is the need of the hour for sustainable agricultural
production.

22. Role of e-NAM in Realizing Remunerative Price to Farmers

Subash SP1, Aditya KS2, PavithraS1 and P Venkatesh2
1
ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi.
2
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Introduction
Agricultural markets are meeting places where buyers (consumers, traders etc.), sellers
(farmers, traders) could exchange agricultural commodities. Agricultural markets in India are
underdeveloped and subject to several imperfections. Lack of infrastructure, grading and
standards, lack of competitive price discovery, large number of market intermediaries, high
price spread, and prevalence of malpractices has led to inefficiency in marketing of
agricultural commodities. Multiple tax, market fees, licensing barriers and multiple licensing
system have added to the complexities of agricultural marketing besides increasing the
transaction costs. There are about 22,221 rural periodical markets in India, of which 7,157
(15%) of them are regulated markets. These regulated markets are managed by Agricultural
Produce Market Committees (APMCs) (GoI 2011). Regulated markets were established with
the objective of protecting the farmers from exploitations and enforce fair trading practices.
As agriculture is a state subject, each state has its own Agricultural Market Committees
(AMCs). These committees are enacted under the APMCs acts established over different
periods in each state. In 2003, Government of India (GoI) came up with Model APMC Act,
and recommended states to make modification in their existing act. The Act was not
uniformly adopted and states likes Bihar repealed the Act (w.e.f. 01.09.2007), and other
states like Kerala, Manipur and UTs of Andaman& Nicobar Islands, Dadra & Nagar Haveli,
Daman & Diu & Lakshadweep doesn’t have an APMC act. Understanding these challenges,
GoI started exploring alternative marketing systems. Several other options such as Producer
Groups / Farmer Groups (PG / FG) – Producers’ Associations (PAs) – Farmer Common
Service Centers (FCSCs), Pledge Loan linked to Warehouse Development, e-Trading, Direct
marketing etc. were explored (GoI 2011). In 2016, GoI launched e-National Agricultural
Markets (e-NAM), a nation-wide portal facilitating e-trading by connecting the markets. This
concept was evolved from a pilot project of e-tendering done in Karnataka state (Pavithra
2018). In 2017, a new Model Agricultural Produce and Livestock Marketing (Promotion and
Facilitating) (APLM) Act was brought by the GoI advocating establishment of e-markets
(Reddy 2018). The following section discusses different facets of e-NAM, its role in providing
remunerative prices to farmers. The paper is structured detailing about Karnataka ReMS
model, e-NAM, its objectives & process, role on realizing remunerative prices, current status,
and challenges and way forward.
Karnataka ReMS Model of e-tendering

Karnataka was the leading state in implementing the Model Agricultural Produce Marketing
Committee (APMC) Act, 2003. The state introduced e-tendering system, an innovative
approach for price discovery, adopting the modern information communication technology to
promote transparency, encourage fair marketing practices and ensure competitive prices to
the farmers.
Prior to e-tendering system, the traders used to place the bids in a box in the premises of
APMC, for different lots of products displayed in the market yard. At a pre -specified time,
APMC officials used to open the boxes to reveal the highest bidder for each lot and same is
informed to farmer. Such system is called as closed tender system. In the e-tendering
system, entire system is computerised, where; the trader will enter the bid amount after
logging into his account. Success of e tendering paved the way and encouraged the state to
proceed with the market unification. Thus, the government of Karnataka along with the
NCDEX implemented the Unified Market Platform (UMP) in the year 2014. A separate
institution Rashtriya e Market Service Private Limited (ReMS) was established in the year
2014 as an implementation agency for e-marketing services. ReMS is a joint venture of the
state Government along with NCDEX e Markets Limited (NeML formerly NCDEX Spot
Exchange –NSPOT). It provides online access to all traders with a Unified Market licence to
participate in trading with APMC markets across the state. With overwhelming success,
UMP, popularly known as the ‘Karnataka Model’ was adopted by the other states such as
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Following this the Cabinet
Committee approved a central sector scheme for promoting National Agricultural Market
(NAM) and Rs 200 crores was ear marked through Agri-Tech Infrastructure Fund (ATIF) for
integrating 585 regulated markets across the country on similar lines.
About e-NAM
Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) is a nation-wide trading portal which
connects the existing APMC mandis electronically (web portal) creating a unified national
market for agricultural commodities. It provides a single window service for all APMC related
information and services such as commodity arrivals &prices buy & sell trade offers,
provision to respond to trade offers, among other services. The agriculture produce would
continue to flow through the markets, while online platform market helps in reducing the
transaction costs and information asymmetry. Figure 1 represents the process flow in e-NAM
model. In e-NAM model market, the activity starts from the gate-entry receipt (registration of
farmer’s name, commodity name, bank account number, lot number and quantity), they are
allocated to a commission agent. Agent displays the lot and the bidding takes from 10.00 am
to 2.00 PM and the highest bidder wins the lot. The information regarding the bid is provided
to farmer, followed by post auction activities such as generation of sale bill, payment to
farmer, delivery by commission agent to trader and e permit is generated.
Objectives of e-NAM (GoI 2018)

 A national e-market platform for transparent sale transactions and price discovery
initially in regulated markets. Willing States to accordingly enact suitable provisions in
their APMC Act for promotion of e-trading by their State Agricultural Marketing
Board/APMC.
 Liberal licensing of traders and commission agents by State authorities without any
pre-condition of physical presence or possession of shop /premises in the market
yard.
 One license for a trader valid across all markets in the State.
Figure 1. Process flow in e-NAM
 Harmonization of quality standards of agricultural produce and provision for assaying

(quality testing) infrastructure in every market to enable informed bidding by buyers.
Common tradable parameters have so far been developed for 69 commodities.
 Single point levy of market fees, i.e on the first wholesale purchase from the farmer.
Provision of Soil Testing Laboratories in/ or near the selected mandi to facilitate
visiting farmers to access this facility in the mandi itself.
Implementation and Progress

GoI announced the implementation of e-National Agricultural Market (e-NAM) in the Union
budget 2016-17 to provide a common trading platform across the selected 585 regulated
markets. The initiative is widely acclaimed and was considered as ‘a game changer’ or
‘Harbinger of change’ in the agricultural sector of the country. The project is implemented in
three different phases. In the first phase 200 markets wholesale markets are to be
integrated with eNAM platform by 2016, another 200 in March 2017 and remaining 185 by
march 2018 (Shalendra and Jairath 2016).A one-time grant of 30 lakh rupees was provided
to each market for the eNAM infrastructure.Currently e-NAM is implemented in all the
targeted 585 mandis across India (see the link for details of markets
https://www.enam.gov.in/NAM/home/mandis.html). GoI has also targeted to link additional
200 markets by 2018-19.
Source: https://www.enam.gov.in/NAM/home/index.html.
Figure 2. Progress of e-NAM across states in India
Role of e-NAM in Providing Remunerative Prices

In major crops, farmers receive lower prices in mandis than the Minimum Support Price
declared by the Government (Table 1). One of the core issues in lower price received by
farmers are information asymmetry between buyers and sellers, lack of market intelligence,
lack of transparency in auction process, and cartelization by the traders. The regulated
markets were also divided across states by regions and administered by different APMCs
administering its own regulations (including fees). This hindered free flow of agri
commodities from one market area to another. It resulted in multiple handling at multiple
levels with multiple mandis (markets) charges leading to higher prices for consumers without
any benefit to the farmers.
e-NAM addresses these challenges by creating a unified market through online trading
platform, both, at State and National level and promotes uniformity, streamlining of
procedures across the integrated markets, removes information asymmetry between buyers
and sellers and promotes real time price discovery, based on actual demand and supply,
promotes transparency in auction process, and access to a nationwide market for the
farmer, with prices commensurate with quality of his produce. Further, the payment will be
made online, which prevents unauthorized deductions by various market intermediaries. It is
also stated to improve the quality of produce at the consumer level and ensure that prices
are reasonable (due to fair price discovery at national level).

Table 1. Price received by farmers by seller crop produce (`/kg)

Commodity Season MSP (2012-13) Local private Mandi Input dealers Cooperative& govt. Agency Processors Others
Paddy Common Kharif 12.5 11.68 12.92 11.56 13.07 12.88 11.73
Jowar Kharif 15 13.8 14.07 15.07 16.14 7.69
Bajra Kharif 11.75 11.15 10.89 10.49 13.23 9.89
Ragi Kharif 15 17.17 17.22 21.67 15
Maize Kharif 11.75 12.67 12.29 11.99 12.36 12.01 13.08
Tur (Arhar) Kharif 38.5 34.32 35.72 33.28 35 33.86
Moong Kharif 44 41.3 37.26 44.53 39.38 53.07
Urad Kharif 43 33.01 30.4 33.23 26.75 39.92
Groundnut Kharif 37 39.09 40.56 40.57 36.92 35.75
Sunflower Seed Kharif 37 35.72 32.26 30.5 38.33 50
Soyabean Kharif 22 29.11 29.4 28.94 28.38 29 25.6
Sesamum Kharif 42 59.08 62.72 64.52 47.25
Nigerseed Kharif 35 15.42 16.88 25.5
Medium Staple Cotton Kharif 36 37.97 38.98 38.09 39.38 38.84 35.29
Wheat Rabi 13.5 12.84 13.63 12.78 14.07 13.1 13.66
Barley Rabi 9.8 12.28 11.98 11.83
Gram Rabi 30 29.81 29.71 29.18 29.25 29.67
Lentil (Masur) Rabi 29 34.85 34.67 33.71 29.87 40
Rapeseed/ mustard Rabi 30 30.63 30.28 30.91 31.13 23.11 28.8
Safflower Rabi 28 31.5 30
Jute Rabi 22 21.79 19.42 26
Sugarcane Rabi 1.7 4.04 4.19 3.52 2.77 2.7 10.13
Copra (Rabi) Rabi 51 13.96 26 29.83 53
Copra (Kharif) Kharif 51 14.34 17.5 37.31 45 8
Note: Average price received in first sale
Source: Calculated by authors based on NSSO SAS survey 2012-13
Challenges and Way Forward

 Indian markets are not integrated for most agricultural markets except for few crops
like cereals. This necessitates establishment of structure like e-NAM to ensure
efficient price transmission, spatially. e-NAM portal can only generate offers for
commodity and bids; However, it needs system in place for weighing, grading,
transport, assuring the quality standards (more so in case of perishables). There
should be provision for the buyer to assess/ensure the quality of the product he is
buying, albeit electronically. All the connected markets should be developed in these
areas of functionality.
 It should also be duly noted that market density in India is very less. It is reported that
per 10 lakh farmers, there are only five regulated markets in India, on an average
(Roy et al., 2017) unless more markets are opened; a large segment of farmers
might well be excluded from unified markets.
 Indian agriculture is dominated by small holders with meager marketable surplus. In

this scenario, the transaction cost of bringing produce to the market may outweigh
the benefits for the small farmers. Product aggregation through co-operatives or
FPO’s need to be promoted to make e-NAM more inclusive (Roy and Joshi 2016).
 Since agriculture is state policy, the co-operation of states in making e-NAM
successful cannot be understated. It is the role of states to provide back end support
such as licensing, automated auction facilities, price dissemination, market fee
collection and accounting etc.
Bibliography
GoI (2011). Report of the working group on agricultural marketing infrastructure, Secondary
agriculture and Policy required for internal and external trade. XII five-year plan 2012-
17.Planning Commission, Government of India.
http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/agri/weg_rep_market.
pdf. Accessed on 10-09-2018.
GoI (2018). e-NAM. Small Farmers' Agribusiness Consortium Department of Agriculture,

Cooperation & Farmers' Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare,
Government of India. https://www.enam.gov.in/NAM/home/about_nam.html.
Accessed on 10-09-2018.
Pavithra, S., Gracy, C.P, Raka Saxena and Ganesh Gowda Patila. (2018). Innovations in
agricultural marketing: a case study of e-tendering system in Karnataka, India.
Agricultural Economics Research Review 2018, 31 (1), 53-64.
Reddy, A. A. (2018). Electronic national agricultural markets: The way forward. Current
Science, 115(5): 826-837.
Roy, D. and Joshi, P.K. (2016). Modi govt’s big farming initiative: Are we ready for a national
agriculture market? Financial Express.https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/are-
we-ready-for-a-national-agriculture-market/235244/. Accessed on 12-09-2018.
Roy, D., Joshi, P.K. and Chandar, R. (2017). Elements of a National Agricultural Market in
India. In: Financing Agriculture Value Chains in India, Springer.
Shalendra and Jairath, M.S. (2016) National Agricultural market: present status, challenges
and way forward. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 71(3): 252-261.

23. Development Schemes in Agriculture for Enhancing

Food Production and Income Security through Wheat
Based Cropping System
Vikrant Singh
Directorate of Wheat Development, GoI, MoA&FW, DAC&FW, Ghaziabad-201002
Present Status of Wheat

India is a predominantly agricultural country, particularly with reference to livelihood
opportunities. Therefore, there is a need for both vision and appropriate action in the area of
shaping our agricultural destiny. The Green Revolution had been largely confined to irrigated
farming areas and to rice-wheat cropping system. The per unit area productivity of Indian
agriculture today is much lower as compared to other major crop producing countries.
Similarly, Indian wheat productivity is also below the average productivity of the World.
Globally India ranks first position with about 14% World share in area under wheat and
second in terms of production with about 13% World share but, productivity ranks at fifth
position as shown in table given below:
Table 1: Area production and yield of major wheat producing countries (2014)
Area Production Yield Production share
Countries
(million ha) (million tonnes) (Kg/ha) (%)
China 24.10 157.00 6515 21.54

India 30.50 95.90 3144 13.16
USA 18.80 55.10 2931 7.56
France 5.30 39.00 7362 5.35
Canada 9.46 29.30 3097 4.02
Pakistan 9.20 28.24 3070 3.87
Germany 3.22 27.80 8634 3.81
Oceania 12.66 25.72 2031 3.53
Australia 12.60 25.30 2008 3.47
Ukraine 6.01 24.10 4010 3.31
World 220.00 729.00 3314 100.00

Source: GoI, MoA&FW, DAC&FW, Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2016 p-252.
There are also wide gaps in the yield among and within states of India. The challenge facing
the country is to produce more from diminishing per capita arable land and irrigation water
resources and expanding abiotic and biotic stresses. Since, land is a shrinking resource for
agriculture, the pathway for achieving these goals can only be higher productivity per unit of
arable land and irrigation water. The wheat statistics of eleven major states of the country
clearly shows the yield gap within states as follows:

Table 2: State wise area, production and yield of major wheat producing states (2018)
Area Production Yield Production share
States
(million ha) (million tonnes) (Kg/ha) (%)
Bihar 2.04 5.74 2816 5.83
Gujarat 1.06 3.10 2932 3.15
Haryana 2.53 11.16 4412 11.33
Himachal Pradesh 0.34 0.59 1734 0.60
Jammu & Kashmir 0.29 0.48 1554 0.49
Madhya Pradesh 5.32 15.91 2993 16.15
Maharashtra 0.92 1.62 1761 1.64
Punjab 3.51 17.85 5090 18.12
Rajasthan 2.81 9.19 3270 9.33
Uttar Pradesh 9.75 31.88 3269 32.36
Uttarakhand 0.33 0.91 2727 0.92
Others 0.68 0.09 1324 0.09
All India 29.58 99.70 3371 100
Prospects of Wheat Production

There is a vast untapped production reservoir available in major wheat producing states viz.
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan for increasing wheat productivity.
Additional quantity of about 20 million tonnes of wheat can be produced immediately by
bridging the gap between potential and actual yields, with technologies and varieties now on
the shelf. The following nine steps are considered to be helpful in improving wheat
production:
 In the case of late monsoon floods, regions like Gujarat, South Rajasthan, MP and
Maharashtra, which account for nearly seven million hectares of land under wheat,
needs wheat varieties that will mature in 120 days during rabi. Farmers would like to
sow more wheat due to attractive ruling prices and availability of good soil moisture.
Preparedness for timely supply of seeds is necessary, along with other inputs.
 Adequate and timely availability of credit is essential, particularly due to the financial
loss suffered during kharif.
 Wheat should be sown before November 15 in the North Western Plains to get
maximum yield and to escape from potential heat stress in March.
 Use of seed drill to capture soil moisture, adopt proper seeding depth and complete
sowing in time should be recommended. Resource conserving tillage agronomy
should be subsidized to save water and improve yield.
 Avoid sowing wheat during late October in Punjab as such early sown wheat often
suffers if temperatures during December are above normal.
 Balanced use of fertilizers including zinc should be promoted and overuse of urea
should be curtailed.
 Pre-emergence weed control or a post-emergence chemical weed control should be
recommended across the Indo-Gangetic plain.
 Varietal diversity should be ensured all over the wheat growing region and farmers
should grow three of four different varieties to avoid genetic vulnerability to diseases.
 Wherever limited irrigation facility is available at least one irrigation around crown
root stage/early tillering should be recommended followed by need based weeding
and fertilization.
Policy Planning
Based on the report of National Commission of Farmers, “Food security with home grown
foodgrains can alone eradicate widespread rural poverty and malnutrition, since farming is
the backbone of the livelihood security system in rural India. This will enable the Government
to remain at the commanding height of the national food security system. Building a food
security system and containing price rise with imported foodgrains may sometimes be a
short term necessity, but will be a long term disaster to our farmers and farming. A
well-defined, pro-farmer and pro-resource poor consumer Food Security Policy is an urgent
necessity”.
The National Development Council (NDC) in its 53rd meeting held on 29th May, 2007 adopted
a resolution to launch a Food Security Mission comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase
the annual production of rice by 10 million tonnes, wheat by 8 million tonnes and pulses by 2
million tonnes by the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12). Accordingly, a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme, 'National Food Security Mission' (NFSM), was launched in October
2007. The Mission met with an overwhelming success and achieved the targeted additional
production of rice, wheat and pulses. The Mission continued during 12th Five Year Plan with
new targets of additional production of food grains of 25 million tonnes of food grains
comprising of 10 million tonnes of rice, 8 million tonnes of wheat, 4 million tonnes of pulses
and 3 million tonnes of coarse cereals by the end of 12th Five Year Plan. Considering the
experience and feedback received from the States major changes were made in approach,
norms of financial assistance and programme implementation strategy which are reflected in
the revised operational guidelines. Based on past experience and performance of 12th Plan,
it has been decided to continue the programme beyond 12th plan i.e 2017-18 to 2019-20,
which is co-terminus with Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC) period with new targets to
achieve 13 million tonnes of additional foodgrains production comprising of Rice – 5 million
tonnes, Wheat- 3 million tonnes, Pulses- 3 million tonnes and Coarse Cereals- 2 million
tonnes by 2019-20.
NFSM-Wheat
Objectives
 Increasing production of wheat through area expansion and productivity
enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified districts of the country;
 Restoring soil fertility and productivity at the individual farm level; and
 Enhancing farm level economy (i.e farm profits) to restore confidence amongst the
farmers.
Strategy
To achieve the above objectives, the Mission would adopt following strategies:
i. Focus on low productivity and high potential districts including cultivation of
food grain crops in rain fed areas.
ii. Implementation of cropping system centric interventions in a Mission mode
approach through active engagement of all the stakeholders at various levels.
iii. Agro-climatic zone wise planning and cluster approach for crop productivity
enhancement.
iv. Focus on pulse production through utilization of rice fallow, rice bunds and
intercropping of pulses with coarse cereals, oilseeds and commercial crops
(sugarcane, cotton, jute).
v. Promotion and extension of improved technologies i.e, seed, integrated
nutrient management (INM) including micronutrients, soil amendments,
integrated pest management (IPM), input use efficiency and resource
conservation technologies along with capacity building of the
farmers/extension functionaries.
vi. Close monitoring of flow of funds to ensure timely reach of interventions to the
target beneficiaries.
vii. Integration of various interventions and targets with the district plan of each
identified district.
viii. Constant monitoring and periodic evaluation by the implementing agencies for
assessing the impact of the interventions for a result oriented approach.
Selection Criteria and Thrust Areas

Districts with more than 50,000 ha area and yield below state average under wheat have
been selected. There are demonstrations on improved package of practices (variety,
resource conservation technology, micronutrients, bio-fertilizers, nutrient management etc.)
in wheat and wheat based cropping systems as under:
(a) Wheat-summer moong
(b) Wheat relay crop with cotton
(c) Kharif pulses -Wheat
(d) Coarse cereals (maize, bajra)-wheat
To avert the region specific constraints, provision of Local Initiatives kept under programme
to be proposed by implementing agencies with assistance limited to 5% of the total
budgetary allocation made to the State. Assistance would be limited to 50% of the cost of
each intervention. The NFSM-Wheat is being implemented in one hundred twenty six
districts of eleven states of India. Name of States and their number of districts are given
below:
National Food Security Mission – Wheat: State (11) & District (126)
Bihar (10) Jammu & Kashmir (8) Rajasthan(14)
Gujarat (5) Madhya Pradesh (16) Uttar Pradesh (31)
Haryana (7) Maharashtra (3) Uttarakhand (9)
Himachal Pradesh (12) Punjab (11)

Major Interventions for Transfer of Technology

Proven technologies recommended by ICAR system are being demonstrated in the field as
improved technology demonstration and thirty per cent allocation of this demonstration is
earmarked for cropping system based demonstrations. Assistance are being given to
popularize high yielding new released varieties, disease resistant varieties and limited
distribution up to twenty per cent of seed distribution target is also allowed for more than ten
year old high yielding varieties (HYV) under wheat development programmes. Provisions are
available for need based plant protection/soil management practices viz. herbicide,
insecticide, bio-agents, micronutrients and gypsum to prevent the crop from biotic and a-
biotic stresses. Twenty five per cent allocation of each state is provided as flexi components
for resource conservation machineries on energy management to beneficiary farmers at the
approved pattern of assistance of Sub Mission on Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM)
programme of DAC&FW. Assistance is also provided on efficient water application tools and
cropping system based training. Any regional constraints of wheat production not covered
through aforementioned interventions are covered under Local initiative.
Cafeteria of Interventions for Block Demonstration of Wheat

Lime and liming material for acidic soils, use of Gypsum/Phospho gypsum in moderately
alkaline soils, promotion of micro nutrients i.e Zinc Sulphate, Boron ( Borax deca-hydrate,
Borax penta hydrate), Iron (Ferrous sulphate); Bio-fertilizers such as Azospirillium,
Azotobactor, PSB, Potash mobilizing and zinc solubilizing bacteria, demonstration on use of
sulphur as a nutrient, seed treatment with fungicide, soil treatment for termite control,
promotion of leveling using Laser land leveler, promotion of line sowing using seed drills,
demonstration on use of chemical herbicides, moisture stress chemicals like Potassium
chloride or hydrogel and Green Manuring. The component-wise approved pattern of
assistance is given at Annexure.
Central Sector Programme: Frontline Demonstration (FLDs) on Wheat & Barley

The objectives of FLDs are:
• To demonstrate improved crop production technologies of wheat & barley on the
farmers' fields;
• To popularize the newly notified and improved varieties/technologies for varietal
diversification and efficient management of resources; and
• To bring synergy among planners, researchers, farmers and industry for parable
interface through seminars/symposium on emerging themes of importance in the field
of wheat & barley production for deciding strategies for development of these crops.
Selection of Technology
• ICAR institutes in consultation with SAUs and other stakeholders should develop a
comprehensive plan for organizing the demonstrations.
• The technology so decided should be discussed along with the results of the station
trials in Annual Workshops and the technical programme should be finalized well in
advance.
• The Technology programme should take care of the availability of seed of improved
varieties, drought resistance varieties, resource conservation technologies, method
of sowing, IPM, INM, micro irrigation, farm machines etc.
• The varieties which are within 3 years (5 years for problem areas viz. Hills, Saline,
and Alkaline Soils etc.) period from the date of notification/ release/ identification
should only be included in the demonstration purpose.
Selection of Site and Beneficiary

• To create better and visible impact of a technology the demonstrations may be
conducted in cluster approach of at least 10 hectares.
• No local varieties/farm produced seeds under Frontline demonstrations should be
used.
• Number of demonstrations of a particular variety and package of practices should be
decided keeping in view the scientific requirement for reliability and validated of the
results.
• Selection of the site should be decided in consultation with Department of Agriculture
of the concerned State and demonstrating farmers should be progressive one with
leadership quality and who is easily approachable by other farmers & extension
workers.
Size of Frontline Demonstrations

• The size of one demonstration will be 0.40 hectare to one hectare depending upon
the size of plot available with small and marginal/women farmers who will be given
preference in the selection of beneficiaries.
• The assistance for demonstrations will be decided upon the area. The rate of
assistance is `9000/ ha for wheat and `6000/ ha for barley.
Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI): Wheat

The program of “Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India (BGREI)” was launched in
2010-11 to address the constraints limiting the productivity of “Rice Based Cropping
Systems” the aim of the BGREI is to harness the water potential for enhancing agriculture
production in eastern India comprising ninety-nine districts of five states which are non-
NFSM districts. The main objectives of the programme are yield maximization of wheat per
unit area by improving agronomy; water harvesting and conservation; water utilization. The
programme was extended till the terminal period of XI plan period and is also continued
further on year to year basis as a sub-programme under RKVY. The pattern of assistance is
at par with NFSM-Wheat. Name of States and their number of districts are given below:
BGREI – Wheat: State (5) & District (99)
Bihar (28) Jharkhand (20) West Bengal (19)
Chhattisgarh (27) Uttar Pradesh (5)

Wheat Production Programme under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

To sustain the high productivity of wheat in the districts having higher productivity than the
State’s average productivity, Government is also providing assistance to those districts not
selected under NFSM or BGREI on project basis as proposed by States under RKVY with
similar pattern of assistance of NFSM.
Annexure
Component-wise and Intervention-wise Approved Rate of Assistance under

NFSM-Wheat for 2018-19 to 2019-20
S.N. Interventions Proposed rate of assistance for 2017-18 to 2019-20
Cluster Demonstrations by State Department of Agriculture with the Technical Backstopping of ICAR/SAUs
1
(one cluster of 100 ha)
1.1 Wheat:
Cluster Demonstrations of 100 ha each ` 9,000/- per ha

1.2 Cropping System Demonstrations on Wheat ` 15,000/- per ha
2 Seed Distribution
HYVs seeds of Rice and Wheat 50% of cost or ` 2,000/-Qtl.
2.1
(for varieties less than 10 years of age) Whichever is less
HYVs seeds of Wheat 50% of cost or ` 1,000/-Qtl.
2.2
(for varieties older than 10 years of age) * Whichever is less
3 Plant and Soil Protection Management:
3.1 Soil Management
(a) Micronutrients 50% of cost or ` 500/-per ha. Whichever is less
(b ) Gypsum 50% of cost or ` 750/-per ha. Whichever is less
(c) Bio-fertilisers 50% of cost or ` 300/-per ha. Whichever is less
3.2 Plant Protection Management
(a) Plant Protection Chemicals & bio-agents 50% of cost or ` 500/-per ha. Whichever is less
(b) Weedicides 50% of cost or ` 500/-per ha. Whichever is less
4 Resource Conservation Techniques/Tools:

Manual Sprayer/Knap Sack Sprayer/Foot Operated Sprayer for SC/ST, Small &
50% or ` 750/-
Marginal, Women farmers and NE States
Manual Sprayer/Knap Sack Sprayer/Foot Operated Sprayer for other farmers 40% or ` 600/-
Power operated Sprayers for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE
50% or ` 3100/-
States (8-12 litres)
Power operated Sprayers for other farmers (8-12 litres) 40% or ` 2500/-
50% or ` 3800/-
States (above 12-16 litres)
Power operated Sprayers for other farmers (above 12-16 litres) 40% or ` 3000/-
50% or `10000/-
States (above 16 litres)
Power operated Sprayers for other farmers (above 16 litres) 40% or `8000/-

Proposed rate of
S.No. Interventions assistance for 2017-18
to 2019-20
Chisel Plough for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (below 20
50% or `10,000/-
BHP tractor driven)
Chisel Plough for other farmers (below 20 BHP tractor driven) 40% or `8,000/-
Chisel Plough for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (above
50% or `20,000/-
20-35 BHP tractor driven)
Chisel Plough for other farmers (above 20-35 BHP tractor driven) 40% or `16,000/-
Tractor operated Sprayers (Boom type) for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women
50% or `37,000/-
farmers and NE States
Tractor operated Sprayers (Boom type) for other farmers 40% or `28000/-
Seed Drill for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (Tractor
50% or `15,000/-
Driven above 20-35 BHP)-7 tines
Seed Drill for other farmers (Tractor Driven above 20-35 BHP) )-7 tines 40% or `12,000/-
Seed Drill for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (Tractor
50% or `20,000/-
Driven above 35 BHP)- 9 tines and above
Seed Drill for other farmers (Tractor Driven above 35 BHP) -9 tines and above 40% or `16,000/-
Zero Till Seed cum Fertiliser Drill for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and
50% or `21300/-
NE States (Tractor driven above 35 BHP)- 9 tines
Zero Till Seed cum Fertiliser Drill for other farmers (Tractor driven above 35 BHP)-
40% or `17,000/-
9 tines
50% or `24100/-
11 tines 40% or `19,300/-
50% or `26900/-
13 tines 40% or `21500/-
50% or `28000/-
15 tines 40% or `22400/-
Zero Till Multi Crop Planter for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE
50% or `15,000/-
States (Tractor driven above 20-35 BHP)- 7 tines
40% or `12,000/
Zero Till Multi Crop Planter for for other farmers (Tractor driven above 20-35 BHP)-
7 tines
Zero Till Multi Crop Planter for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE
50% or `75,000/-
States (Tractor driven above 35 BHP)- 9 tines and above

Proposed rate of
S.N. Interventions assistance for 2017-18
to 2019-20
40% or `60,000/
Zero Till Multi Crop Planter for other farmers (Tractor driven above 35 BHP)- 9 tines
and above
Power Weeder for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States –Engine
50% or `25,000/-
operated below 2 BHP
Power Weeder for other Farmers - Engine operated below 2 BHP 40% or `20,000/-
Power Weeder for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States –Engine
50% or `35,000/-
operated above 2 BHP
Power Weeder for other Farmers - Engine operated above 2 BHP 40% or `30,000/-
Rotavator for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States- Tractor
50% or `42,000/-
driven above 35 BHP -5 feet
Rotavator for other farmers- Tractor driven above 35 BHP -5 feet 40% or `34,000/-
50% or `44,800/-
Rotavator for other farmers- Tractor driven above 35 BHP -6 feet 40% or `35,800/-
50% or `47600/-
Rotavator for other farmers- Tractor driven above 35 BHP - 7 feet 40% or `38100/-
50% or `50400/-
Rotavator for other farmers- Tractor driven above 35 BHP - 8 feet 40% or `40300/-
Multi Crop Thresher for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States-
50% or `30,000/-
Tractor driven below 20 BHP
Multi Crop Thresher for other farmers- Tractor driven below 20 BHP 40% or `25,000/-
50% or `40,000/-
Tractor driven above 20-35 BHP
Multi Crop Thresher for other farmers- Tractor driven above 20-35 BHP 40% or `30,000/-
50% or `100,000/-
Tractor driven above 35 BHP upto 4 tonne / hr capacity
Multi Crop Thresher for other farmers- Tractor driven above 35 BHP upto 4 tonne /
40% or `80,000/-
hr capacity
Laser Land Leveler for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States –
50% or `200,000/-
Tractor driven above 20 -35 BHP
Laser Land Leveller for other farmers- Tractor driven above 20 -35 BHP 40% or `1,60,000/-
Laser Land Leveler for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States -
50% or `200,000/-
above 35 BHP
Laser Land Leveller for other farmers- above 35 BHP 40% or `160,000/-
Power Tiller for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States- below 8
50% or `65,000/-
BHP

Proposed rate of
Sl No. Interventions assistance for 2017-18
to 2019-20
Power Tiller for other farmer- below 8 BHP 40% or ` 50,000/-
Power Tiller for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States- 8 BHP &
50% or `85,000/-
above
Power Tiller for other farmer- 8 BHP& above 40% or `70,000/-
Crop Reaper for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States- 50% or `75,000/-
Crop Reaper for other farmers - 40% or `60,000/-
Happy / Turbo seeder for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States—
50% or `72,800/-
20-35 BHP tractor driven -9 tines
Happy / Turbo seeder for other farmers – 20-35 BHP tractor driven -9 tines 40% or `58,200/-
50% or `75600/-
above 35 BHP tractor driven -10 tines
Happy / Turbo seeder for other farmers – above 35 BHP tractor driven -10 tines 40% or `60500/-
50% or `78400/-
above 35 BHP tractor driven -11 tines
Happy / Turbo seeder for other farmers – above 35 BHP tractor driven -11 tines 40% or `62700/-
50% or `1,75,000/-
Reaper cum Binder for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (3
wheel)
40% or `1,40,000/-
Reaper cum Binder for other farmers (3 wheel)
50% or `2,50,000/-
Reaper cum Binder for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States (4
wheel)
Reaper cum Binder for other farmers (4 wheel) 40% or `2,00,000/-
Raised Bed Planter for SC/ST, Small & Marginal, Women farmers and NE States-
50% or `30,000/-
below 20 BHP
Raised Bed Planter for other farmers – below 20 BHP 40% or `24,000/-
50% or `40,000/-
above 20-35 BHP
Raised Bed Planter for other farmers - above 20-35 BHP 40% or `32,000/-
50% or `35,000/-
above above 35 BHP
Raised Bed Planter for other farmers - above 35 BHP 40% or `30,000/-
5 Water Application Tools
The cost for sprinkler irrigation system for 1 ha would be from `19542/- to `21901/- per
Sprinkler
ha depending on diameter of pipe used as per guidelines under PMKSY
Pumpsets 50% of cost or `10,000/-per Number

S.N. Interventions Proposed rate of assistance for 2017-18 to 2019-20
50% of the cost limited to `50/-per meter for HDPE, `35/-per meter for PVC pipe and
Water Carrying Pipe `20/-per meter for HDPE laminated woven lay flat tube with maximum ceiling of
`15,000/-per beneficiary.
Cropping systems based training (Four Sessions i.e one before

`3500/ per session,
6 Kharif and Rabi seasons, one each during Kharif and Rabi crops
`14000/per training for four sessions
for a group of 30 farmers)
7 Local Initiatives 25% fund is proposed for Flexi interventions including local initiatives.
8 Project Management Team (PMT)

* The allocation for seed distribution for varieties older than 10 years of age of Wheat should not be more than 20% of the total
allocation for seed distribution.

ICAR-INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WHEAT AND BARLEY RESEARCH
Karnal-132001, Haryana
Model Training Course (MTC) on
STRENGTHENING VALUE CHAIN IN WHEAT AND BARLEY FOR DOUBLING FARMERS INCOME
Patron : Dr. GP Singh, Director, ICAR-IIWBR

Course Director : Dr. Sendhil R
Programme Coordinators : Dr. Anuj Kumar, Dr. Satyavir Singh and Dr. Amit Kumar Sharma
Date : September 18-25, 2018 (8 days)
Venue : Farmers Training Centre, ICAR-IIWBR, Karnal – 132001 (Haryana)
List of Participants
S.No. Name Position & Organization Phone & Email

Assistant Professor (Plant Breeding) 9419035566
1. Dr.SHABIR HUSSAIN WANI MRCFC-Khudwani 7006907220
SKUAST-Kashmir shabirhussainwani@gmail.com
Assistant Director of Agriculture
Vidisha District 9826543901
2. Sh.N.P. PRAJAPATI
Vidisha – 464001
Madhya Pradesh
Technical Assistant
8755507559
Department of Agriculture
3. Sh.BIJENDRA SINGH
Badaun (U.P.)
patelbijendra255@gmail.com
Pin code-243601
Technical Officer A
Agharkar Research Institute
G.G. Agarkar Road 9860111284
4. Sh.BAGWAN JUNED HANIF
Pune jhbagwan@aripune.org
Maharashtra
Technical Assistant
Department of Agriculture 9795202152
5. Sh.SHALENDRA KUMAR
Muzzafarnagar skshalendra@gmail.com
(Uttar Pradesh)
Block Technology Manager
6. Sh.ASHOK KUMAR
Baghpat
9411980119
(Uttar Pradesh)
Scientist (Agronomy)
CRDE - KVK 8827176184
7. Sh.DEVENDRA PATIL
Sehore dpatil889@gmail.com
(Madhya Pradesh)
Block Technical Manager
8. Sh.SHASHANK KATARA
Rajapur (Meerut), UP shashankkatara2015@gmail.com
Pin 250002
S.No. Name Position & Organization Phone & Email
Technical Assistant
9457741070
9. Sh.RAJDEEP PANWAR
Shamli (U.P.)
panwar48raj@gmail.com
Pin 247776
Technical Assistant
10. Sh.PRAVEEN KUMAR
Shamli (U.P.)
9568989701
Pin 247776
Senior Technical Assistant
Directorate of Wheat Development 9917024347
11. Sh.RAJAT CHAUHAN
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare crajatjs@gmail.com
C.G.O. Complex-1, Ghaziabad 2012002
Technical Assistant
Directorate of Pulses Development 8878490760
12. Sh.SATEESH DWIVEDI Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, satishdpd@gmail.com
DAC&FW
Bhopal-4620041(M.P.)
Farm Manager
9368651430
KVK
13. Dr.BHUPENDRA KUMAR
(SVPAU&T, Meerut)
bkdheeraniya75@gmail.com
Baghpat-250609
Assistant Technology Manager
9557767794
14. Sh.HARNAM SINGH Department of Agriculture
harnamyaduvansi@gmail.com
Baghpat (UP)
Block Technology Manager

15. Sh.FATEH SINGH Department of Agriculture 9897641285
Baghpat (UP)
Technical Assistant
16. Dr.AMIT KUMAR
Muzaffarnagar amitkk68@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Technical Assistant
9927575137
17. Sh.SADAB HASAN
Muzaffarnagar
sadabhasan786@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Technical Assistant
18. Dr.ANIL KUMAR
Muzaffarnagar anilaayan1974@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Technical Assistant
8006002332
19. Dr.VINUJ KUMAR
Shamli
vinujsvpuat@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Technical Assistant
20. Sh.SANNI MALIK
Shamli sannimalikgpb@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Technical Assistant
21. Sh.DIVESH BHARTI
Muzaffarnagar dkb.gpb@gmail.com
Uttar Pradesh
Assistant Chief Technical Officer
9416860536
22. Dr.MANGAL SINGH ICAR-IIWBR
Mangal.singh1@icar.gov.in
Karnal

Strengthening Value Chain in Wheat and B

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Strengthening Value Chain in Wheat and B

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compendium

Model Training Course (MTC)

September 18-25, 2018

Course Director : Sendhil R

Sponsor : Directorate of Extension, DAC&FW, GoI

Compilation and Editing

ICAR-INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WHEAT AND BARLEY RESEARCH

Date : 18.09.2018 (GP Singh)

S.N. Topic Page

1. Value Chain in Wheat and Barley: Scope and Opportunities 1

3. Conservation Agriculture Practices for Wheat based Cropping Systems 12

4. Micro Irrigation System: Importance and Economic Benefits to Farmers 21

5. Major Weeds of Wheat and their Management 28

6. Nutrients Management in Wheat 35

7. Identification and Integrated Management of Wheat Diseases 42

8. Insect Pests of Rice-Wheat System and their Management 46

10. Production and Consumption Trends of Wheat Based Products in India 59

11. AgriNutri Smart Villages (A2N): An Approach to Fight Malnutrition 64

13. Potential and Prospects of Malt Barley Cultivation in India 73

14. Registration and Protection of Farmers’ Varieties under PPV&FRA 78

17. Diversification of Enterprises: A Supplementary Source of Farm Income 98

19. Participatory Technology Development: Evidence from Farmer’s Field 108

22. Role of e-NAM in Realizing Remunerative Price to Farmers 128

1. Value Chain in Wheat and Barley: Scope and Opportunities

Value Chain: Conceptual Clarification

Value chain on the other hand, is a full range of

Wheat and Barley Value Chain

Core process and actors in wheat and barley value chain

3 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Opportunities for Strengthening Wheat Value Chain

Opportunities for Strengthening Barley Value Chain

4 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

5 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Sendhil R, Ramasundaram P, SJ Balaji (2017). Transforming Indian agriculture: is doubling

Sendhil R, Shweta B, Mahida D, Das J, Sinha M, Das A and Kumareswaran T (2018).

Surendra S, R Chand, R Sendhil, R Singh (2017). Tracking the performance of Indian

6 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

2. Varietal Cafeteria for Diverse Wheat Producing Zones and

Wheat Improvement in Different Phases

7 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Green Revolution Era (1965 onwards)

Recently Released Varieties for Different Zones

8 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

III North Eastern Plains Zone

Recent Wheat Varieties for NWPZ

Irrigated Timely Sown Conditions

9 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Irrigated Late Sown Conditions

10 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Restricted Irrigated Conditions

11 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

3. Conservation Agriculture Practices for Wheat based

Laser Land Levelling

12 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Resource Conservation Technologies in Wheat

Eco-friendly Tillage Options

Resource Conservation Technologies in Rice

15 ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research

Direct Wet Seeded Rice

Leaf Colour Chart

GreenSeeker for Need based Nitrogen Application

Why seeding into crop residues?

What is not CA?

Direct planting/seeding: This is only a technique that refers to seeding/planting without