General Topics for the Exam

1. Global problems of youth.

2. Current global climate challenges. Ecological situation in
Ukraine.
3. The realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms in
Ukraine.
4. The participation of Ukraine in UNO, UNESCO and OSCE.
5. Mass media.
6. Global hotbeds of tension.
7. Russia-Ukraine war.
8. Contribution of Ukraine into world global heritage.
9. Ukraine and Great Britain.
10. Ukraine and the USA.

1. Global problems of youth.

Young people face discrimination and obstacles to the enjoyment of their rights
by virtue of their age limiting their potential.
The human rights of youth therefore refer to the full enjoyment of fundamental
rights and freedoms by young people. Promoting these rights entails addressing the
specific challenges and barriers faced.
Human rights are otherwise the rights everyone is entitled to regardless of who
you are or where you are born and live. That means they are universal in nature. In
addition to this, hrs are ineligible, independent and interrelated.
In general human rights can be classified as:
a) civil r. - pertain to rights belonging to a person by reason of citizenship,
b) political r. - enable the people to participate in running and influencing
the administration of the government
c) economic r. - pertain to access to resources that are essential for the
creation, legal appropriation and market exchange of goods and services.
d) social r. - relate to living together or enjoying life in communities,
e) cultural r. - ensure the well-being(welfare) of the individual and foster
the preservation, enrichment and dynamic evolution of culture.
Pursuant to HR Council Resolution 35/14, the Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights published a report on youth and human rights:
● Youth are under-represented in political institutions
 ● Young people worldwide are three times more likely than adults to be
unemployed, or they often face precarious working conditions and thus lack
quality jobs and access to social protection
● In some countries, parental notification is required for young people to access
sexual and reproductive health services. Therefore adolescents’ ability to take
measures to prevent unwanted pregnancy or sexually transmitted infections is
hindered
● Some states do not recognise or fully implement the rights to conscientious
objection to military service
● Youth in vulnerable situations face additional challenges due to their specific
situation. (eg. young migrants including asylum seekers and refugees, young
people in conflict with the law and youth with disabilities)

Age is one characteristic that often intersects with, adds to and multiplies
discrimination based on other grounds, thus preventing many young people from
enjoying equal opportunities and substantive equality.

How to cope with issues of youth? What can member states do?
The Human Rights Council shall consider measures that would most
effectively advance the rights of young people at the international level, with options
including:
1. Mainstreaming the human rights of youth through existing mechanisms,
policies and programmes;
2. Creating a special procedure mandate under the auspices of the Council;
3. Considering the possibility of an international instrument;
4. Introducing a mechanism that would ensure permanent, structured youth
participation in the Council's work, such as an annual youth forum as an
ongoing component of the Council.

Member States can also take measures at the national level to ensure the
protection and realisation of young people's rights, while involving youth
organisations or youth-led structures in the development, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of policies, programmes or strategies affecting young people's rights,
and in decision-making more broadly. Measures may include, for example: (Member
States are encouraged to)

1. enact legislation, prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of age in all areas

of life
2. provide straightforward, accessible mechanisms for reporting discrimination
and seeking redress.
3. by enacting and amending legislation to align the minimum voting age and
minimum age of candidacy to run for office
 4. ensure access to sexual and reproductive health services without parental
consent
5. refrain from prosecuting young people, providing a non-punitive and non-
discriminatory alternative service for conscientious objectors

2. Current global climate challenges. Ecological situation in

Ukraine.
The current global climate challenges have led to increased environmental concerns
worldwide, including in Ukraine, where the ecological situation has been exacerbated
by the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war.
Ukraine faces a range of ecological challenges, including deforestation, air and
water pollution, soil degradation, and biodiversity loss. These issues have been
further compounded by the Russia-Ukraine war, which has resulted in significant
environmental damage and posed additional risks to human health and ecosystems.
The conflict has led to the destruction of critical infrastructure, leading to the release
of hazardous substances into the environment. Oil spills, chemical leaks, and the
improper handling of industrial waste have contaminated water sources and soil,
posing threats to human and ecological health. These environmental disasters have not
only immediate consequences but also long-term effects on the sustainability and
resilience of ecosystems.
Furthermore, the conflict has disrupted environmental management and conservation
efforts in Ukraine. Protected areas and natural habitats have been affected, leading to
habitat loss and endangering vulnerable species. The displacement of communities
and the disruption of livelihoods have also resulted in increased pressure on natural
resources, exacerbating the strain on ecosystems.
The Russia-Ukraine war has also contributed to an increase in greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily due to military activities, the destruction of infrastructure, and
the displacement of people. These emissions further contribute to global climate
change, aggravating the already critical global environmental situation.
Efforts to address the ecological challenges in Ukraine and mitigate the environmental
problems caused by the war are underway. The Ukrainian government, in
collaboration with international partners and organisations, is working towards
environmental restoration, pollution control, and the implementation of sustainable
practices. These measures aim to restore ecosystems, protect biodiversity, and
improve the overall environmental quality in affected regions.
In conclusion, the current global climate challenges have raised ecological
concerns globally, and Ukraine is not exempt from these issues. The Russia-Ukraine
war has exacerbated the ecological situation in Ukraine, resulting in environmental
damage, pollution, and biodiversity loss. Addressing these challenges requires
collaborative efforts from the international community, support for environmental
restoration, and sustainable practices to mitigate the impact of the conflict and work
towards a more resilient and sustainable future.

3. The realisation of human rights and fundamental freedoms

in Ukraine.
The protection and promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms in Ukraine
have been significant challenges in recent years. Despite the country's efforts to
establish a democratic society following its independence from the Soviet Union,
many human rights violations persist.

Ukraine has enacted a number of positive reforms since the protest-driven

ouster of President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. However, corruption remains
endemic, and initiatives to combat it are only partially implemented.

The armed conflict in eastern Ukraine continues to take a high toll on civilians,
from threatening their physical safety to limiting access to food, medicines, adequate
housing, and schools. Russia-backed terrorists abduct people who come to visit their
relatives who stay in the territory which is not controlled by the Ukrainian
government. These Ukrainian citizens are in custody for absolutely nonsense
prosecutions. They are kept in terrible, unsanitary conditions and prisoners often don’t
have necessary sustenance and beverage, also they are often beaten to serious traumas.
The most notable example is a concentration camp located in ex-artplace “Isolation”
in occupied Donetsk

One of the most pressing issues facing Ukraine is the protection of freedom of speech
and the press. While the country's constitution guarantees freedom of expression and
prohibits censorship, media outlets in Ukraine face constant pressure from
government officials and powerful business interests. Journalists who report on
corruption, political scandals, or other sensitive topics often face harassment, physical
violence, or even death threats.

Another area of concern is the protection of the rights of minority groups. Ukraine has
a diverse population, including significant Russian-speaking communities in the
eastern regions of the country. However, the government has been criticized for
failing to protect the rights of these minorities, particularly during the ongoing conflict
with Russia. The government's efforts to promote Ukrainian language and culture
have sometimes resulted in discrimination and marginalisation of non-Ukrainian
groups.
In addition to these issues, Ukraine also faces challenges in protecting the rights of
women, children, and vulnerable groups such as refugees, migrants, and the homeless.
The country's economy has struggled in recent years, leading to widespread poverty
and social inequality, which have contributed to human rights violations.

Despite these challenges, Ukraine has made significant strides in promoting human
rights and fundamental freedoms. The country has established a number of institutions
and mechanisms for protecting human rights, including the National Human Rights
Commission and the Ombudsman's Office. Ukraine has also ratified a number of
international human rights treaties and conventions, demonstrating its commitment to
upholding the principles of human dignity, equality, and justice.

Moving forward, Ukraine must continue to address the ongoing challenges to

human rights and fundamental freedoms. The government must take decisive steps to
protect the rights of journalists, minorities, and vulnerable groups, and promote social
and economic policies that address poverty and inequality. By working to establish a
society based on respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, Ukraine can
build a more prosperous and equitable future for all its citizens.

Ukraine is a party of the following international treaties:

· International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

· Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women (CEDAW)
· Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
· Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishmen
· Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
There are some fundamental rights, which are being realised successfully in Ukraine.

First of them is the right to fair trial, which also mentioned in the UDHR

Ukraine has long suffered from corrupt and politicised courts, and recent reform
initiatives aimed at addressing the issue have stalled or fallen short of expectations.
Although due process guarantees exist, in practice individuals with financial resources
and political influence can escape prosecution for wrongdoing. According to statistics
from the World Prison Brief published in April 2020, about 37 percent of prisoners
are in pretrial detention

The government has made little progress in meeting domestic and international
demands to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during the last months of the
Yanukovych administration in late 2013 and early 2014, which included the shooting
of protesters. Also, according to civil society organizations involved in the reform, 44
of 193 judges appointed to the new Supreme Court have a tainted reputation.

The next is a right to Media freedom and freedom of information

The constitution guarantees freedoms of speech and expression, and libel is not a
criminal offense. The media landscape features considerable pluralism and open
criticism of the government and investigation of powerful figures. However, business
magnates own and influence many outlets, using them as tools to advance their
agendas Journalists continued to face threats of violence and intimidation in 2020, and
Ukraine’s courts and law enforcement agents often fail to protect their rights.

Freedom of belief

The constitution and a 1991 law define religious rights in Ukraine, and these are
generally respected. However, smaller religious groups continue to report some
discrimination. Vandalism of Jewish structures and cemeteries continues.
Acknowledging one’s atheism may result in discrimination. However, existing
tensions between the new Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian branch of
the Russian Orthodox Church have decreased in recent years.

Besides that, Ukraine, as the democracy State, tries to ensure equal suffrage to all the
citizens and to promote the development and observance of other political rights.

Political pluralism

With the exception of a ban on the Communist Party, there are no formal barriers to
the creation and operation of political parties. New political parties organize
frequently.A law that came into force in 2016 provides parliamentary parties with
state funding, but the provision effectively favors established parties over newcomers.
Party financing in Ukraine remains opaque, despite robust laws to regulate it.
Ukraine’s oligarchs exert significant influence over politics through their financial
support for various political parties, and lobby for the appointment of loyalists to key
institutional positions

Electoral Process

The president is directly elected for a maximum of two five-year terms. The 450
members of the unicameral Supreme Council, or Verkhovna Rada, have been elected
to five-year terms through a mixed system in which half of the members are chosen by
closed-list proportional representation and the other half in single-member districts.
The elections were deemed generally competitive and credible, despite some
problems. An Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) election
monitoring mission cited some irregularities, including “widespread vote-buying,
misuse of incumbency, and the practice of exploiting all possible legislative
loopholes” that contributed to inequalities among competitors

4. UNO, UNESCO and OSCE.

UNO
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1945 with
the aim of promoting international cooperation and resolving conflicts between nations. The
UN currently has 193 member states, and its main activities include maintaining international
peace and security, promoting human rights, and providing humanitarian assistance.

The UN is composed of six main organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council,
the International Court of Justice, the Secretariat, the Economic and Social Council, and the
Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). The General Assembly is the main
deliberative body of the UN and is responsible for setting the agenda for the organisation's
work. The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security,
and it can authorise military action and impose economic sanctions on countries that threaten
international peace and security.

UNO MISSIONS
The United Nations (UN) has conducted various missions throughout its history to promote
peace, protect human rights, and provide humanitarian aid in countries facing conflict or
natural disasters. Some of the notable UN missions include:
1. United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO): Established in 1948,
UNTSO's mission is to supervise the ceasefire between Israel and its Arab
neighbors.
2. United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP): Established in 1964,
UNFICYP's mission is to prevent a recurrence of fighting between the Greek
Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities and maintain law and order in the
buffer zone.
3. United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC): Established in
1992, UNTAC's mission was to ensure the implementation of the Paris Peace
Accords and to conduct free and fair elections in Cambodia.
4. United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH): Established in
1995, UNMIBH's mission was to assist the Bosnian authorities in building a
sustainable police force and promote the rule of law in the country.
 5. United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL): Established in 1999,
UNAMSIL's mission was to monitor the implementation of the Lomé Peace
Agreement and to assist in the disarmament and demobilization of combatants in
Sierra Leone.
6. United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH): Established in 2004,
MINUSTAH's mission was to help restore a secure and stable environment,
promote the rule of law and human rights, and facilitate political dialogue in Haiti.
7. United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNAMI): Established in 2007,
UNAMI's mission is to help the Iraqi government promote political dialogue and
national reconciliation, as well as to support the country's reconstruction and
development.

UNO IN UKRAINE
One of the most significant UN missions in Ukraine is the United Nations Monitoring
Mission in Ukraine (UNMMU), which was established in March 2014 in response to the
crisis in eastern Ukraine. The mission is tasked with monitoring the ceasefire between
Ukrainian government forces and Russian-backed separatists in the Donetsk and Luhansk
regions. The UNMMU also monitors the withdrawal of heavy weapons from the conflict
zone, helps facilitate dialogue between the parties to the conflict, and supports local ceasefire
monitoring mechanisms.
In addition to the UNMMU, other UN agencies and organisations are involved in activities in
Ukraine. For example, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) works to
promote sustainable development and economic growth in Ukraine, while the United
Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) supports programs to improve the lives of children in
the country. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) also
provides humanitarian assistance to internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Ukraine who have
been affected by the conflict in the east.

UNESCO
UNESCO MISSIONS

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a

specialised agency of the UN founded in 1945 with the aim of promoting international
cooperation in education, science, culture, and communication. UNESCO works to improve
access to education, preserve cultural heritage sites, promote freedom of expression and the
press, and support scientific research and collaboration.

UNESCO has a variety of specialised programs and initiatives, including promoting literacy
and teacher training, preserving world heritage sites, promoting freedom of the press and
media development, and supporting scientific research and cooperation. UNESCO also
provides a forum for the exchange of ideas and best practices among member states.

UNESCO IN UKRAINE

UNESCO's activities in Ukraine have focused on promoting education, cultural preservation,

and freedom of expression. UNESCO has supported the preservation of historic landmarks in
Ukraine, including the ancient city of Kyiv and the Lviv Historic Centre, which are both
UNESCO World Heritage Sites. UNESCO has also worked to promote media development
and freedom of expression in Ukraine through initiatives such as the Media and Information
Literacy (MIL) program.

1. Preserving cultural heritage: UNESCO is working with Ukrainian authorities to

safeguard and promote the country's rich cultural heritage. This includes
preserving historic sites, protecting cultural artefacts, and promoting traditional
crafts and practices.
2. Improving access to education: UNESCO is working to improve access to
education for children and adults in Ukraine. This includes supporting teacher
training programs, promoting non-formal education, and advocating for policies
that promote equal access to education for all.
3. Promoting freedom of expression: UNESCO is working to promote freedom of
expression and press freedom in Ukraine. This includes supporting independent
media, promoting media literacy, and advocating for policies that protect
journalists and their work.
4. Encouraging scientific research: UNESCO is supporting scientific research and
innovation in Ukraine, with a particular focus on areas such as sustainable
development, climate change, and renewable energy.

OSCE
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is an
intergovernmental organisation founded in 1975 with the aim of promoting security
and stability in Europe. The OSCE has 57 member states, and its main activities
include conflict prevention and resolution, arms control and disarmament, and
promoting human rights and democracy.

The OSCE has a variety of specialised agencies and bodies, including the Office for
Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, the High Commissioner on National
Minorities, and the OSCE Secretariat. The OSCE works to prevent conflicts and
promote stability in Europe through activities such as election monitoring, arms
control and disarmament, and promoting human rights and democracy.

OSCE MISSIONS

1. Monitoring and reporting: OSCE has a Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) in

Ukraine, which was established in 2014 to monitor and report on the situation in
Ukraine. The SMM monitors the ceasefire, human rights situation, and the
implementation of the Minsk agreements.
2. Electoral observation: OSCE deploys observation missions to monitor the conduct
of elections in participating states, including Ukraine. The OSCE Election
Observation Mission (EOM) assesses the legal framework for elections, the
conduct of campaigns, the media environment, and the voting and counting
process.
 3. Conflict resolution: OSCE supports conflict resolution efforts in Ukraine,
including facilitating dialogue and negotiations between parties to the conflict in
eastern Ukraine. OSCE also supports confidence-building measures and monitors
the situation along the contact line.
4. Human rights: OSCE promotes respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms in Ukraine, including by supporting the work of civil society
organizations and promoting tolerance and non-discrimination.
5. Arms control and confidence-building measures: OSCE supports arms control and
confidence-building measures in Ukraine, including by monitoring the withdrawal
of heavy weapons from the contact line and supporting the implementation of the
Framework Decision on Disengagement.

OSCE IN UKRAINE

The OSCE has been heavily involved in Ukraine, particularly in the ongoing conflict in the
country's eastern regions. The OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine was established
in 2014 to monitor the security situation and report on ceasefire violations in the conflict
zone. The OSCE has also been involved in efforts to resolve the conflict through the
Trilateral Contact Group, which includes representatives from Ukraine, Russia, and the
OSCE.
In Ukraine, the OSCE has played a critical role in monitoring and facilitating the
implementation of the Minsk agreements, which aim to resolve the conflict in eastern
Ukraine. The OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine (SMM) is the largest and most
visible OSCE mission in the region. The SMM works to monitor the ceasefire, facilitate
dialogue between the parties to the conflict, and report on developments in the region to help
reduce tensions and promote a peaceful resolution to the conflict.

5. Mass media.
There are two main types of media: traditional media and new media.
Traditional media includes print media, such as newspapers and books, and broadcast media,
such as television and radio.
New media includes digital media, such as the Internet and social media.
Traditional media refers to advertising channels that have been used for decades. These are
the tried-and-true methods that businesses have relied on for years. These channels can be
pretty effective, and they account for the entirety of the advertising budget.
● Television advertisements
● Radio advertising
● Print advertising
● Direct mail advertisements
● Billboards and off-site signs
● Cold calling
● Door-to-door sales
● Banner ads
However, as the needs and expectations of consumers evolve, marketing has no choice but to
evolve as well. This is what has led to the rise of new media and digital marketing methods
handheld devices.
New media can best be described as digital channels that have gained popularity in the
advertising space in the last decade or so. As more and more consumers rely on their cell
phones for everything, new media has become an increasingly effective way to advertise.
● Search engine optimization
● Pay-per-click advertising
● Content marketing
● Social media
● Email marketing

the key differences between traditional and new media include…

The way it is produced: Traditional media is typically produced by large media
companies, while new media is often produced by individuals or small groups.
The way it is consumed: Traditional media is generally consumed passively, while
new media is often consumed actively.
The way it is distributed: Traditional media is distributed through channels such as
television and radio, while new media is often distributed online.
The way it is accessed: Traditional media is typically accessed through broadcast or
print, while new media is often accessed through digital channels.
Data-Driven
New media is highly data driven. You have access to exactly how many eyeballs saw your
banner ad, for example, or how many people visited your webpage.

An added bonus of new media is the accuracy of its results. Unlike with TV ratings, new
media allows you to comb over results that show you exactly how many people saw your ad,
how long they viewed your ad for, and whether or not it led to a click-through. When it
comes to new media, the results are highly trackable. You can see exactly what demographics
your ads are scoring big with, and which ones you’re missing.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Traditional & New Media

Both traditional and new media have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Traditional media has the advantage of being well-established and having a wide
reach. It also generally has more credibility than new media, as it is seen as being more
trustworthy and less biased. However, traditional media can be quite expensive to produce
and distribute, and it can be difficult to target a specific audience.
New media has the advantage of being more affordable and easier to produce and
distribute. It is also more accessible, as people can access it from anywhere in the world with
an Internet connection. Additionally, new media is often more engaging than traditional
media, as it encourages active participation and interaction. However, new media can
sometimes be seen as less credible than traditional media, as anyone can produce and
distribute it.
The Future of Media
It’s impossible to predict exactly where the world of media is headed. But one thing is for
sure – it will continue to evolve as new technologies are developed and new ways of
communication are created. So, the best way to stay ahead of the curve is to be open to
change and embrace new technologies as they come. Who knows – you may be the one to
create the next big thing!

6. Global hotbeds of tension.

The world today is marked by several global hotbeds of tension, where geopolitical
dynamics have created complex and volatile situations.
One prominent hotbed of tension is the ongoing conflict between Russia and
Ukraine, which has geopolitical implications extending beyond their borders. The
Russia-Ukraine war, which began in 2014, has led to territorial disputes, political
instability, and heightened regional and global tensions. Efforts to resolve the conflict
diplomatically have faced significant challenges, while economic sanctions and
humanitarian concerns continue to compound the situation.
Another area of tension lies in the South China Sea, where competing territorial
claims between China and neighboring countries have fueled disputes. China's
assertive actions, such as island-building and militarization in the disputed waters,
have raised concerns among regional powers and prompted responses from the
international community. The complex maritime disputes and overlapping economic
and strategic interests make the South China Sea a critical hotbed of tension.
The Middle East remains a long-standing hotbed of tension, marked by
multiple conflicts and power struggles. The ongoing conflicts in Syria, Yemen, and
Libya have generated humanitarian crises, regional destabilization, and proxy warfare.
Tensions between regional powers, sectarian divisions, and the involvement of
external actors have contributed to the complexity and volatility of the region.
The Korean Peninsula represents another global hotbed of tension,
characterized by the unresolved Korean War, North Korea's nuclear ambitions, and
the potential for military escalation. The tension between North Korea and the
international community, particularly the United States and its allies, poses significant
security risks and raises concerns about regional stability.
Additionally, cybersecurity has emerged as a prominent hotbed of tension in
the digital age. State-sponsored cyberattacks, hacking attempts, and disinformation
campaigns have heightened tensions between nations, affecting political, economic,
and social spheres. The vulnerability of critical infrastructure and the potential for
escalating cyber conflicts create an ongoing source of global concern.
In conclusion, global hotbeds of tension represent areas of heightened
geopolitical risk and complexity. The conflicts in Ukraine, disputes in the South China
Sea, conflicts in the Middle East, tensions on the Korean Peninsula, and cybersecurity
challenges are among the key hotspots shaping global dynamics. Addressing these
tensions requires diplomatic efforts, cooperation among international actors, and a
commitment to peaceful resolutions, in order to mitigate risks and promote stability in
an increasingly interconnected world.

7. Russia-Ukraine war.
The Russia-Ukraine war has been an enduring and complex conflict that has
attracted significant global attention due to its geopolitical implications.
The Russia-Ukraine war emerged in 2014 following Russia's annexation of
Crimea, which was met with widespread international condemnation. Subsequently,
pro-Russian separatist movements emerged in eastern Ukraine, leading to a violent
conflict between Ukrainian government forces and these separatist factions, with
Russia providing varying degrees of support.
The war has been characterized by sporadic clashes, intense fighting, and territorial
shifts. Both sides have engaged in offensive and defensive operations, resulting in a
high number of casualties and significant displacement of civilians. The conflict has
witnessed the use of conventional weaponry, including artillery, tanks, and infantry, as
well as allegations of irregular warfare tactics.
The war has had severe humanitarian consequences, with widespread human rights
abuses reported by international organizations. Civilians have been subjected to
indiscriminate shelling, arbitrary detentions, and displacement, exacerbating the
humanitarian crisis in the affected regions. Efforts to address these humanitarian
concerns have been hindered by the volatile security situation and limited access for
aid organizations.
Diplomatic initiatives aimed at resolving the conflict have been ongoing, with various
ceasefire agreements brokered by international actors. However, these agreements
have been repeatedly violated, leading to a cycle of renewed hostilities. The conflict
has also strained relations between Russia and Western countries, resulting in
economic sanctions, political tensions, and an overall deterioration in diplomatic
relations.
The international community, including the European Union and the United States,
has expressed support for Ukraine's territorial integrity and condemned Russia's
actions. Economic sanctions targeting Russia's economy have been implemented to
exert pressure and encourage a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Additionally,
international organizations have provided humanitarian aid and support to affected
populations.
In conclusion, the Russia-Ukraine war is a complex and protracted conflict that
has had significant regional and global implications. It has involved intense fighting,
human rights abuses, and geopolitical tensions. Diplomatic efforts to resolve the
conflict continue, but the situation remains fragile, with periodic escalations of
violence. The war's impact on civilians and the humanitarian crisis necessitate
sustained attention and international cooperation to mitigate the suffering and work
towards a lasting resolution.

8. Contribution of Ukraine into world global heritage.

Ukraine boasts several remarkable UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These sites
serve as invaluable treasures, representing the country's unique legacy and
contributing to the global cultural heritage.

There are seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites listed in Ukraine, six
of which are cultural sites and one of which is a natural site.
First and foremost, Ukraine's historical sites, having received UNESCO
recognition as world heritage sites, serve as poignant reminders of the country's
architectural prowess and historical significance. Noteworthy among these are several
objects in Kyiv: St. Sophia Cathedral and related monastic buildings, Kyiv-Pechersk
Lavra.

In addition to this, its rich cultural traditions form an integral part of the
global heritage. Rooted in folklore, music, dance, and crafts, Ukrainian cultural
expressions have left an indelible mark on the global stage. The intricate artistry of
Pysanky, intricately decorated Ukrainian Easter eggs, serves as a testament to the
meticulous craftsmanship and centuries-old traditions passed down through
generations.

Ukraine's literary legacy is yet another facet of its contribution to global

heritage. The literary luminaries born within its borders have left an indelible mark on
world literature. Taras Shevchenko, widely regarded as the father of modern
Ukrainian literature, crafted verses that spoke of national identity, freedom, and social
justice, resonating with readers far beyond Ukraine's borders. The works of other
Ukrainian literary giants, including Ivan Franko and Lesya Ukrainka, continue to
inspire and provoke thought, leaving an enduring legacy within the realm of literature.

Beyond its cultural and historical contributions, Ukraine's natural wonders

provide a testament to the country's environmental diversity and ecological
significance. Nestled within the Carpathian Mountains, Ukraine's pristine forests,
majestic peaks, and rich biodiversity have earned global recognition as a natural
treasure.

Last but certainly not least, Ukraine's Cossack traditions have profoundly
influenced its historical narrative and cultural identity. The intrepid Cossacks,
celebrated for their bravery, martial skills, and democratic self-governance, have
shaped Ukraine's history and instilled a sense of pride in its people. Their legacy of
independence, community spirit, and military prowess has transcended time, serving
as a testament to Ukraine's enduring spirit and resilience.

To put everything in a nutshell, Ukraine's multifaceted contributions to the

world's global heritage are a testament to its rich cultural, historical, and natural
treasures. Through a wide range of actions, UNESCO has been instrumental in
preserving and promoting these sites, providing technical expertise, financial aid, and
educational initiatives. By safeguarding Ukraine's cultural heritage, UNESCO has not
only contributed to the country's identity but also reinforced the importance of
heritage preservation worldwide.

Kyiv: Saint-Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings,

Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra
The Saint Sophia Cathedral, a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Ukraine,
stands as an exceptional architectural and cultural gem.
Kyiv's Saint-Sophia Cathedral symbolizes the 'new Constantinople', capital of the
Christian principality of Kyiv, which was created in the 11th century in a region evangelized
after the baptism of St Vladimir in 988. The spiritual and intellectual influence of Kyiv-
Pechersk Lavra contributed to the spread of Orthodox thought and the Orthodox faith from
the 17th to the 19th century.

Saint-Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings, Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra

represent two outstanding complexes of cultural heritage monuments from the Middle Ages
and Early Modern period.

The property consists of two separate components: Saint-Sophia Cathedral and its related
monastic buildings and the monastic complex of Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra with the Church of the
Saviour at Berestovo.

Saint-Sophia Cathedral, located in the historic centre of Kyiv, is one of the major monuments
representing the architectural and the monumental art of the early 11th century. The
Cathedral was built with the participation of local builders and Byzantine masters during the
reign of the Great Prince of Kyiv, Yaroslav the Wise.

The Cathedral has preserved its ancient interiors and the collection of mosaics and
frescoes of the 11th century is unique for its integrity. Its masterpieces include the
Pantocrator, the Virgin Orans, the Communion of the Apostles, the Deisis and the
Annunciation. Over the centuries, the Cathedral and monastic buildings have expressed a
unique harmony of architectural and natural forms, and national spirit and have held a
significant place in the traditional historic landscape of Kyiv.

The Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra is an architectural ensemble of monastic buildings situated on the

plateau overlooking the right bank of the Dnieper River. The ensemble was formed over
many centuries in organic combination with the landscape, and acts as a general urban
dominant. Founded by St. Anthony and St. Theodosy in the 11th century, the monastery
became a prominent spiritual and cultural centre that made a significant contribution to the
development of education, art and medicine. The architectural ensemble acquired its modern
aspect as a result of construction activities in the 17th to the 18th centuries in the heyday of
the Ukrainian Baroque.

The main monuments of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra ensemble are the Dormition
Cathedral, the Trinity Gate Church, the Great Bell Tower, the Church of All Saints, the
Refectory Church, the monastery defensive walls with towers, the cave complexes of St.
Anthony (Near) and St. Theodosy (Far) with surface churches, the Exaltation of the Cross
and the Nativity of the Virgin and the Church of the Saviour on Berestovo.

Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1990, the Saint Sophia Cathedral
exemplifies outstanding universal value and stands as an emblem of Ukraine's cultural
heritage. Its significance extends beyond national boundaries, contributing to the collective
heritage of humanity.
Efforts to maintain and conserve this remarkable landmark are ongoing. Restoration
work, guided by meticulous research and expert craftsmanship, ensures the preservation of
the cathedral's architectural integrity and historical authenticity, enabling future generations
to appreciate its splendor.
In conclusion, the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Ukraine represents an exceptional
UNESCO World Heritage site, epitomising the harmonious fusion of Byzantine and
Ukrainian architectural styles. With its striking exterior, captivating interior, and historical
significance, the cathedral serves as a testament to Ukraine's cultural heritage and stands as
an enduring symbol of the country's rich past.
Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra was declared a “State historical and cultural reserve” in 1926 and
Saint-Sophia Cathedral with Related Monastic buildings in 1934.

The property is managed according to the relevant legislation, including the Laws of
Ukraine “On Protection of Cultural Heritage”, “On Protection of Archaeological Heritage”.
In addition, various Decrees of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine are providing the site-
specific legal framework for the protection, conservation and use of the property.

9. Ukraine and Great Britain.

The beginning of the relations between Ukraine and Uk

Throughout the ongoing war, the United Kingdom (UK) has played a vital role in providing
support to Ukraine, offering diplomatic, military, and humanitarian assistance as a testament
to their commitment to upholding international norms and regional stability.
Diplomatically, the UK has consistently condemned Russia's actions and expressed support
for Ukraine's territorial integrity. The UK government has actively engaged in diplomatic
negotiations and multilateral forums, working with international partners to find a peaceful
resolution to the conflict and hold Russia accountable for its aggression. High-level
officials from the UK have maintained regular contact with their Ukrainian counterparts,
demonstrating solidarity and offering guidance on diplomatic strategies.
In terms of military support, the UK has provided valuable assistance to Ukraine. This aid
includes the provision of training programs for Ukrainian armed forces, technical expertise,
and military equipment. The UK has also engaged in intelligence sharing with Ukrainian
counterparts to enhance situational awareness and promote effective defense strategies. Such
military cooperation aims to strengthen Ukraine's defense capabilities and deter further
Russian incursions.
Humanitarian assistance has been another key aspect of the UK's support for Ukraine. The
UK has actively contributed to international efforts in providing aid to those affected by the
conflict, including displaced persons and vulnerable populations. Humanitarian aid from the
UK has encompassed various areas such as medical supplies, food, shelter, and psychosocial
support, with the objective of alleviating the suffering caused by the war.
The UK's support for Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian war reflects its commitment to
international law, democratic values, and the preservation of regional stability. By standing in
solidarity with Ukraine, the UK aims to counter Russian aggression, protect the principles of
sovereignty and self-determination, and promote the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
In conclusion, the UK's involvement in the Russian-Ukrainian war underscores its
dedication to supporting Ukraine diplomatically, militarily, and in providing humanitarian
aid. Through these efforts, the UK aims to help Ukraine defend its sovereignty, enhance its
military capabilities, and mitigate the human suffering caused by the conflict. The partnership
between Ukraine and the UK serves as a testament to international cooperation and solidarity
in the face of regional challenges.

The System of Government in the United Kingdom:

A. Constitutional Monarchy:

The United Kingdom operates under a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch serves as
the ceremonial head of state. However, the monarch's role is largely symbolic, and the day-
to-day governance is conducted by elected representatives.

B. Parliamentary Democracy:

The Parliament:

The UK Parliament is the supreme legislative body, consisting of two houses: the House of
Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is composed of Members of
Parliament (MPs) elected by the public, while the House of Lords comprises appointed
members, including life peers, bishops, and hereditary peers.

The Prime Minister:

The leader of the political party with the majority of seats in the House of Commons becomes
the Prime Minister, who holds significant executive powers. The Prime Minister appoints the
Cabinet, which consists of senior ministers responsible for specific governmental
departments.

II. Key Components of the UK Political System:

A. Devolved Administrations:

The United Kingdom has devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
These administrations possess varying degrees of legislative and executive powers, allowing
them to govern specific domestic affairs while remaining part of the UK.

B. Judiciary:

The UK's legal system is known for its independence and adherence to the rule of law. The
judiciary interprets laws and ensures their application is fair and just. The highest court in the
UK is the Supreme Court, which handles constitutional matters and final appeals.

C. Political Parties:

The UK has a multi-party system, with the Conservative Party and the Labour Party being the
two dominant political forces. Other notable parties include the Liberal Democrats, the
Scottish National Party (SNP), and the Green Party. Elections are held regularly to determine
the composition of the House of Commons.

10. Ukraine and the USA.

The first diplomatic relations between the United States and Ukraine were established
in 1991 almost immediately after the collapse of the USSR.
The United States strongly supports Ukraine and gives asylum to thousands of
Ukrainians. The relations between Ukraine and the U.S. have the status of strategic
partnership.

Since the beginning of the full-scale Russian invasion, Ukraine and the U.S.
have reached the level of a truly meaningful alliance.
Throughout the course of this conflict, the USA has played a crucial role in supporting
Ukraine, providing assistance and demonstrating solidarity with the Ukrainian
government.
The USA's involvement in the Russian-Ukrainian war has primarily focused on
diplomatic, economic, and military support. Diplomatically, the United States has
consistently condemned Russia's aggression towards Ukraine, urging for a peaceful
resolution and respect for Ukraine's territorial integrity. High-level officials from both
countries have engaged in diplomatic negotiations, seeking to de-escalate the conflict
and find a viable solution.
Economically, the United States has implemented various sanctions on Russia,
targeting key sectors of its economy and individuals involved in the conflict. These
economic measures are designed to exert pressure on Russia, highlighting the
international community's disapproval of its actions and reinforcing support for
Ukraine.
In terms of military assistance, the United States has been a significant contributor to
Ukraine's defense capabilities. The USA has provided Ukraine with military aid,
including weaponry, equipment, and training, to enhance its ability to defend itself
against Russian aggression. This support has aimed to bolster Ukraine's defense
capabilities, promote stability, and deter further Russian incursions.
Additionally, the United States has actively engaged in multilateral efforts to address
the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. This includes collaborating with international partners,
such as NATO and the European Union, to coordinate responses, share intelligence,
and ensure a unified stance against Russian aggression.
The USA's support for Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian war reflects its commitment
to international norms, democratic principles, and regional stability. By standing
firmly with Ukraine, the United States aims to deter further acts of aggression,
safeguard the sovereignty of nations, and promote the peaceful resolution of
conflicts.
In conclusion, the United States has been actively supporting Ukraine in the
Russian-Ukrainian war through diplomatic, economic, and military means. This
support underscores the USA's commitment to upholding international norms and
defending the sovereignty of nations in the face of Russian aggression. The
partnership between Ukraine and the United States serves as an important example of
international cooperation and solidarity in maintaining regional stability.

The executive branch

The executive branch is headed by the president, who must be a natural-born citizen of the
United States, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the country for at least 14 years. A
president is elected indirectly by the people through the Electoral College system to a four-
year term and is limited to two elected terms of office by the Twenty-second Amendment.
The executive branch also includes independent regulatory agencies such as the Federal
Reserve System and the Securities and Exchange Commission

The legislative branch

The U.S. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, consists of two houses:
the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Powers granted to Congress under the Constitution include the power to levy taxes, borrow
money, regulate interstate commerce, impeach and convict the president, declare war,
discipline its own membership, and determine its rules of procedure.
The House of Representatives is chosen by the direct vote of the electorate in single-member
districts in each state. The number of representatives allotted to each state is based on its
population as determined by a decennial census

The System of Government in the United States:

A. Constitutional Framework:

The United States operates under a federal system, where power is divided between the
national government and state governments. The US Constitution serves as the supreme law
of the land, outlining the structure of government and the rights of individuals.

B. Separation of Powers:

Executive Branch:

The President, as the head of the executive branch, is elected by the people and serves as both
the head of state and the head of government. The President is responsible for implementing
and enforcing laws, overseeing foreign policy, and commanding the armed forces.

Legislative Branch:

The US Congress, consisting of two chambers—the Senate and the House of Representatives
—is responsible for making laws. The Senate represents the states, with each state having two
senators, while the House of Representatives represents the population, with the number of
representatives based on each state's population.

Judicial Branch:

The US Supreme Court, along with other federal courts, forms the judicial branch. The
Supreme Court, comprising nine justices appointed by the President and confirmed by the
Senate, is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and ensuring the legality of laws and
government actions.

II. Key Components of the US Political System:

A. Checks and Balances:

The US political system incorporates a series of checks and balances to prevent the
concentration of power and ensure accountability. Each branch of government has powers
that limit the actions of the other branches. For example, the President can veto legislation
passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote.

B. Federalism:

The US government operates on the principle of federalism, with powers divided between the
federal government and state governments. This allows states to have autonomy in certain
areas, such as education, healthcare, and criminal justice, while the federal government
handles matters of national concern, such as defense and foreign policy.
C. Political Parties:

The United States has a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party. These parties play a crucial role in shaping policy, advocating for their
platforms, and nominating candidates for elections. Third-party and independent candidates
also participate in the political landscape, albeit with less influence.