Translated from French to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

com

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University ofDjillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel-Abbès

Facultyof Technology
Departmenthydraulics

Structuring and planning of the course" Notions of Fluid Mechanics"with a view to a

hybrid teaching

for the benefit of studentsL1 and L2, specialty Hydraulics and Civil Engineering as well

Mechanical Engineering "

Portfolio presented by
Mr MAHFOUD Zakaria

As part of the trainingPedagogical Support"Djillali Liabes from Sidi Bel-Abbès

Digital week September 10-20, 2017

Academic year 2016-2017

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 CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics ............................................... 1
1 Introduction ................................................ .................................................. ......... 2 1
Definitions ....................................... .................................................. .................... 2.1 1
Perfect fluid ...................... .................................................. ............................ 2
2.2 Actual fluid ............................................... .................................................. ............ 2
2.3 Incompressible fluid ............................................... ............................................ 3
2.4 Compressible fluid ............................................... ............................................... 3
3 Physical characteristics ............................................... ....................................... 3
3.1 Density ............................................... .................................................. 3
3.2 Density weight ............................................... .................................................. .. 3
3.3 Density ................................................ .................................................. ................ 3
3.4 Viscosity ................................................ .................................................. ............. 4

Chapter 2: Statics of fluids ............................................ ................................. 6

1 Introduction ................................................ .................................................. ........... 6
2 Notion of pressure at a point of a fluid ........................................... ....................... 6
3 Fundamental relationship of hydrostatics ................................................ ................... 7
4 Pascal's theorem .............................................. .................................................. 9
4.1 Statement ................................................ .................................................. ................ 9
4.2 Demonstration ................................................ .................................................. .... 9
5 Push of a fluid on a vertical wall .................................................. ..................... 9
5.1 Assumptions ................................................ .................................................. .......... 9
5.2 Elements of reduction of the torsor of the forces of pressure ..................................... 9
5.2.1 Resultant .............................................. .................................................. .......... 10
5.2.2 Timing................................................ .................................................. .............. 10
5.3 Center of thrust ............................................... .................................................. 10
6 Archimedes' theorem .............................................. ............................................... 10

Chapter 3: Dynamics of Perfect Incompressible Fluids ............................ 11

1 Introduction ................................................ .................................................. ........... 11
2 Steady Flow ...................................................... .............................................. 11
3 Continuity Equation.................................................. ............................................... 11
4 Notion of Flow ...................................... .................................................. ....... 13
4.1 Mass flow ............................................... .................................................. .... 13
4.2 Volume flow ............................................... .................................................. .. 13
4.3 Relationship between mass flow and volume flow ............................................ ..... 13
5 Bernoulli's theorem – Case of a flow without exchange of work ............................ 14
6 Bernoulli's theorem – Case of a flow with exchange of work ............... 15

7 Euler's theorem: ............................................ .................................................. .... 16

Chapter 4: Dynamics of Real Incompressible Fluids .............................. 17
1 Introduction ................................................ .................................................. ........ 17
2 Real Fluid ............................................... .................................................. .......... 17
3 Flow regimes - Reynolds number .................................................. ........... 17
4 Load losses .............................................. .................................................. .. 19
4.1 Definition ................................................ .................................................. ......... 19
4.2 Singular pressure drops .................................................. .................................. 21
4.3 Linear pressure losses: .................................................. ................................... 21
5 Bernoulli's theorem applied to a real fluid.............................................. ...........22

Chapter 5: Dynamics of Compressible Fluids ............................................... 23

1 Introduction ................................................ .................................................. ........ 23
2 Equations of state of an ideal gas ............................................ .................................. 23
2.1 Ideal gas laws ........................................... .............................................. 23
2.2 Thermodynamic transformations ............................................... .................. 23
3 Classification of flows ...................................................... ............................... 24
3.1 Velocity of sound.................................... .................................................. .... 24
3.2 Mach number ............................................... ................................................. 24
3.3 Subsonic flow .................................................. .................................. 24
3.4 Supersonic flow ............................................... ................................... 24
4 Continuity equation ................................................ ............................................ 25
5 Saint-Venant equation ............................................ ........................................ 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Chapter 1 :INTRODUCTION TO THE MECHANICS OF
FLUIDS
1. INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is the science of the laws of fluid flow. It is the basis for the dimensioning of
fluid lines and fluid transfer mechanisms. It is a branch of physics that studies the flow of
fluids, that is to say liquids and gases when they are subjected to forces or constraints. It
includes two large sub-branches:
- the statics of fluids, or hydrostatics which studies fluids at rest. This is historically the beginning of
fluid mechanics, with Archimedes' thrust and the study of pressure.
- fluid dynamics, which studies fluids in motion. Like other branches of fluid mechanics.
There are also other branches related to fluid mechanics: hydraulics, hydrodynamics,
aerodynamics, mechanics.

2. DEFINITIONS
A fluid can be considered as a substance made up of a large number of material particles, very small
and free to move relative to each other. It is therefore a continuous material medium, deformable,
without rigidity and which can flow. The forces of cohesion between elementary particles are very
weak so that the fluid is a body without its own form which takes the shape of the container which
contains it, for example: molten metals are fluids which make it possible by molding to obtain parts
raw in complex shapes. We insist on the fact that a fluid is supposed to be a continuous medium:
even if we choose a very small element of volume, it will always be much larger than the size of the
molecules that constitute it. For example, a mist droplet, as small as it is on our scale, is still
immense on a molecular scale. It will always be considered as a continuous medium. Among fluids, a
distinction is often made between liquids and gases. Fluids can also be classified into two families
relatively by their viscosity. Viscosity is one of their physico-chemical characteristics which will be
defined later in the course and which defines the internal friction of fluids. Fluids can be classified
into two large families: The family of "Newtonian" fluids (such as water, air and most gases) and that
of "non-Newtonian" fluids (almost everything else...blood , gels, muds, pastes, suspensions,
emulsions, etc.). "Newtonian" fluids have a constant viscosity or one that can only vary depending on
the temperature. The second family is made up of "non-Newtonian" fluids which have the
particularity of having their viscosity which varies according to the speed and the stresses they
undergo.

1
when these flow. This course is limited only to Newtonian fluids which will be classified as
follows

2.1 Perfect fluid

Consider a fluid system, that is to say a volume delimited by a closed surface Σ fictitious or not.

ConsiderdFConsiderdFthe interaction force at the elementary surface dS of

normalnotbetween the fluid and the external environment. We can always decomposedFinto two components:

* a componentdFTtangential to dS.
* a componentdFNnormal to dS.
In fluid mechanics, a fluid is said to be perfect if it is possible to describe its motion without taking

into account the effects of friction. That is to say when the componentdFT

is zero. In other words, the strengthdFis normal to the surface element dS.

2.2 Real fluid

Unlike a perfect fluid, which is only a model to simplify the calculations, practically non-existent
in nature, in a real fluid the tangential forces of internal friction which oppose the relative
sliding of the fluid layers are taken into consideration. This phenomenon of viscous friction
appears during the movement of the fluid.
It is only at rest that the real fluid will be admitted to behave like a perfect fluid, and it is
assumed that the contact forces are perpendicular to the surface elements on which they are
exerted. The statics of real fluids merges with the statics of perfect fluids.

2
2.3 Incompressible fluid
A fluid is said to be incompressible when the volume occupied by a given mass does not
vary according to the external pressure. Liquids can be considered as incompressible
fluids (water, oil, etc.).

2.4 Compressible fluid

A fluid is said to be compressible when the volume occupied by a given mass varies according to
the external pressure. Gases are compressible fluids. For example, air, hydrogen, methane in the
gaseous state, are considered as compressible fluids.

3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
3.1 Density

ρ = m/V
Or :
ρ: Density in (kg/m3), m: mass
in (kg),
V: volume in (m3).

3.2 Specific weight

ϖ = m. g/V

ϖ: Volume weight in (N/m3).

m: mass in (kg),
g: acceleration due to gravity in (m/s2),
V: volume in (m3)

3.3 Density

d= ρ/ ρreffluid density/density of a reference fluid

In the case of liquids, water will be taken as the reference fluid. In the case of
gases, air will be taken as the reference fluid.

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3.4 Viscosity

It is a quantity that characterizes the internal friction of the fluid, in other words its ability
to flow. It characterizes the resistance of a fluid to its flow when it is subjected to the
application of a force. That is, high viscosity fluids resist flow and low viscosity fluids flow
easily. It can be measured by a falling ball viscometer, in which it measures the time
elapsed for the fall of a ball in the fluid. It can also be measured by a container whose
bottom has an orifice of standardized size. The rate at which the fluid flows through this
orifice is used to determine the viscosity of the fluid.

- Dynamic viscosity
Dynamic viscosity expresses the proportionality between the force to be exerted

on a plate when it is immersed in a current and the variation in speed of the fluid veins
between the 2 faces of the plate. It is expressed by a coefficient representing the shear
stress necessary to produce a flow velocity gradient of one unit in the material.
Consider two adjacent fluid layers Δz apart. The friction force F which is exerted on the
surface separating these two layers opposes the sliding of one layer on the other. It is
proportional to the difference in speed of the layers, i.e. Δv, to their surface S and
inversely proportional to Δz:
The proportionality factor μ is the dynamic viscosity coefficient of the fluid.

F=μ.S. ΔV/ΔZ
Or :
F: sliding force between the layers in (N),
μ: Dynamic viscosity in (kg/ms),
S: contact surface between two layers in (m2), ΔV:

Velocity difference between two layers in (m/s), ΔZ:

Distance between two layers in (m).

Noticed : In the international system (SI), the unit of dynamic viscosity is the
Pascal second (Pa⋅s) or Poiseuille (Pl): 1 Pa⋅s = 1 pl = 1 kg/m⋅s

-Kinematic viscosity
υ= μ/ ρ

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The unit of kinematic viscosity is (m2/s).
Note 1 (unit):The Stokes (St) is often used as a unit of measurement for kinematic
viscosity.1 St= 10-4m2/s
Note 2 (Temperature influence):When the temperature increases, the viscosity of a fluid decreases
because its density decreases.

Note 3 (difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity): The kinematic viscosity
characterizes the flow time of a liquid. On the other hand, the dynamic viscosity corresponds
to the physical reality of the behavior of a fluid subjected to a stress (force).

5
 Chapter 2: STATICS OF FLUIDS
1. INTRODUCTION
During a scuba dive, we find that the water pressure increases with depth. The water
pressure exerted on a submarine at the bottom of the ocean is considerable. Similarly,
the water pressure at the bottom of a dam is significantly greater than near the surface.
The effects of pressure must be taken into consideration when designing structures such
as dams, submarines, reservoirs, etc. Students must calculate the forces exerted by fluids
before designing such structures. This chapter is devoted to the study of fluids at rest.
The fundamental laws and theorems in statics of fluids are stated there. The concept of
pressure, Pascal's theorem, Archimedes' principle and the fundamental relation of
hydrostatics are explained there. The calculation of hydraulic presses,

2. CONCEPT OF PRESSURE AT A POINT OF A FLUID

Pressure is a scalar quantity. It is the intensity of the normal component of the force exerted by
the fluid on the unit area. It is defined at a point A of a fluid by the following expression:

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PAT=dFNOT/dS

Or :
dS: Elementary surface of the facet with center A (in square meter),
not : Unit vector in A of the external normal to the surface,
dFNOT: Normal component of the elementary force of pressure exerted on the
surface (in Newton),
PAT: pressure in A (in Pascal),
On the surface with center A, area dS, oriented by its exterior normalnot, the
elementary pressure forcedFis expressed by: dFNOT=PAT. dS.NOT

Noticed :
The international unit of pressure is the Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m². This unit is very small. Its multiples
are most often used. In mechanical construction, resistance of materials, etc., the unit used is the
mega pascal: 1 MPa= 1 N/mm2=106 Pa.
In fluid mechanics, the bar is still very often used. The bar is approximately equal to the average
atmospheric pressure: 1 bar = 105 Pa.

3 .FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIP OF HYDROSTATICS

Consider a volume element of an incompressible fluid (homogeneous liquid of density ϖ). This volume

element has the shape of a cylinder with axis (G, u ) which forms an angle α with the vertical axis (O, Z ) of a

reference R(O, X, Y, Z). Let l be the length of the cylinder and let dS be its cross section.

7
Let G1 be altitude Z1and G2altitude Z2, the centers of the extreme cross sections. Let us

study the balance of the elementary cylinder, this one is subjected to:

- remote actions: its weight:dPO-= -ϖl.dS. Z.

- contact actions: pressure forces exerted on:
* the lateral surface: ΣdFI

* the two extreme flat surfaces:dF1= -P1. dS.(-u ) anddF2=-P2. dS.(u)

with P1and P2the fluid pressures respectively in G1and in G2.

The elementary cylinder being in equilibrium in the fluid, let us write that the resultant of

the external forces which are applied to it is zero:

dPO+dFi+dF1+dF2 =0

In projection on the axis of symmetry (G,a) of the cylinder: -ϖ.I.dS cosα +P1.dS-P2 .dS=0

Express the pressure difference P1–P2after dividing by dS and noticing thatl.cosα=Z1-Z2

P1-P2=ϖ (Z2-Z1)= ρ.g.(Z2-Z1):Fundamental relationship of hydrostatics

Another more general form:

P1/ϖ+Z1=P2/ϖ+Z2
As G1 and G2 have been chosen arbitrarily inside a fluid of density ϖ , we can write at
any point of altitude Z, where the pressure p reigns:

P/ϖ+ Z=P/ρ.g + Z=cst

4. PASCAL'S THEOREM
4.1 Statement:In an incompressible fluid in equilibrium, any pressure change at one point
causes the same pressure change at any other point.

4.2 Demonstration:Suppose that at point G1a pressure variation occurs such that it becomesP
1+ΔP1.ΔP1being an algebraic number. Let's calculate the pressure variationΔP2which results in

G1.

Let us apply the fundamental relationship of hydrostatics between G1and G2for the fluid

- in the initial state:P1–P2=ϖ (Z2-Z1) (1)

- in final state :(P1+ΔP1)-(P2+ΔP2)=ϖ (Z2-Z1) (2)

8
 By making the difference between equations (2) and (1) we obtain:ΔP1=ΔP2

5. PUSH OF A FLUID ON A VERTICAL WALL

5.1 Assumptions:

The vertical wall has an axis of symmetry (G,Y). G is its center of area. On one side of the wall there
is a fluid of density ϖ , on the other side there is air at atmospheric pressure PATM. PG is the
pressure at the center of the surface G on the fluid side.

5.2 Elements of reduction of the torsor of the forces of pressure

Knowing the pressure PG at point G, the pressure PM at point M is determined by applying the
fundamental relationship of hydrostatics:PM–PG= ϖ (YG- YM) In the frame (G,X,Y,Z)

defined in the figure: YG=0 and YM=y , soPM=PG-ϖ y

Express the force of pressure in M:dF =( PG-ϖy).dS.X

the torsor associated with the relative pressure forces: τthrust = R=∫(s)dF

MG =∫(s) GM dF (G)

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5.2.1 Resultant

We take note that∫ (s)dS = S (area of the wall),∫(s)y.dS= yG. S =0: Static moment of the surface S by
relative to the axis (G,Z), so R=PG. S.X

5.2.2 Timing

MG=∫GM dF , We know that∫ (s)dS = y. dS=yG. S=0 and∫(s)there2.dS= I(G, Z): Quadratic moment of the
surface S with respect to the axis (G,Z) passing through the center of surface G. So

MG=ϖ.I(G, Z).Z

5.3 Center of thrust

We seek to determine a point G0 where the moment resulting from the pressure forces is zero. Then we

obtain:

there0= - ϖ.I(G, Z)/PG.S

6. ARCHIMEDES THEOREM

6.1 Statement:

Any body immersed in a fluid receives from this fluid a vertical force (thrust), upwards, the intensity of

which is equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced (this volume is therefore equal to the

submerged volume of the body). PARCH=ρfluid.Vimm.g

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 Chapter 3:FLUID DYNAMICS
PERFECT INCOMPRESSIBLES

1 .INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will study fluids in motion. Unlike solids, moving parts of a fluid can
move at different speeds. Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon.

We are interested in the fundamental equations which govern the dynamics of perfect incompressible

fluids, in particular:

- the continuity equation (conservation of mass),

- Bernoulli's theorem (conservation of energy) and,
- Euler's theorem (conservation of momentum) from which the equations giving the
dynamic force exerted by moving fluids (eg water jets) are established.

2. PERMANENT FLOW

The flow of a fluid is said to be permanent if the velocity vector field of the fluid particles is
constant over time. Note however that this does not mean that the field of velocity vectors is
uniform in space.
The permanent flow of an incompressible perfect fluid is the only one that we will have to consider in

this course. A non-permanent flow would lead to consider the effects of inertia of the fluid masses.

3. CONTINUITY EQUATION

Let us consider a vein of an incompressible fluid of density ρ animated

by a permanent flow.

11
We denote by:

- S1and S2respectively the inlet section and the outlet section of the fluid at
time t,
- if1and S'2respectively the inlet and outlet sections of the fluid at time
t'=(t+dt),
- V1AndV2the flow velocity vectors respectively through the sections S1and
S2in the vein.
- dx1and dx2respectively the displacements of the sections S1and S2during
the time interval dt,
- dm1: incoming elementary mass between the sections S1and S'1,
- dm2: outgoing elementary mass between the sections S2and S'2,
- M: mass between S1and S2,
- dV1: incoming elementary volume between the sections S1and S'1, dV2:
- outgoing elementary volume between the sections S2and S'2,

At time t: the fluid between S1and S2has a mass equal to (dm1+ M) At time
t+dt: the fluid between S'1and S'2has a mass equal to (M+ dm2).
By conservation of mass:dm1+M=M+ dm2by simplifying by M we will havedm1=dm2So ρ.
dV1= ρ.dV2or even ρ.S1.dx1= ρ.S2.dx2, dividing by dt.

Since the fluid is incompressible: ρ = ρ1= ρ2We can simplify and arrive at the
following continuity equation: S1.V1=S2.V2

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4. CONCEPT OF DEBIT

4.1 Mass flow

The mass flow rate of a fluid vein is the limit of the ratiodm /dtwhen dt tends to 0.

qm= dm /dt

Or :
qm: is the mass of fluid per unit time that passes through any straight section of the
pipe.
dm: elementary mass in (kg) which crosses the section during a time interval
dt . dt: time interval in (s)

Let in any straight section S of the fluid vein through which the fluid flows at the mean
velocity v:qm=ρ.SV

Or :
qm: Mass flow in (kg/s) ρ : Density
in (kg/m3) S: Section of the fluid
vein in (m2)
V: Average fluid velocity through (S) in (m/s).

4.2 Volume flow

The volume flow rate of a fluid vein is the limit of the ratiodV/dtwhen dt tends to 0.

Or :
qv: Volume of fluid per unit time that passes through any straight section of the pipe.
dV: Elementary volume, in (m3), having crossed a surface S during a time interval dt, dt:
Time interval in seconds (s),

qv=SV
4.3 Relationship between mass flow and volume flow

From the previous relations we can easily deduce the relation between the mass flow and the
volume flow:qm= ρ.qv.

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5. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM – CASE OF A FLOW WITHOUT
EXCHANGE OF WORK
Let us take again the diagram of the fluid vein with the same notations and the following assumptions:

- The fluid is perfect and incompressible.

- The flow is permanent.

- The flow is in a perfectly smooth pipe.

We consider an axisZvertical pointing upwards.

We note Z1, Z2and Z respectively the altitudes of the centers of gravity of the masses dm1, dm2and M.

We denote by F1and F2respectively the standards of the fluid pressure forces acting at the sections S1

and S2.

By conservation of mass:dm=dm1=dm2and since the fluid is incompressible: ρ =ρ1= ρ2, We

arrive at Bernoulli's equation:

V2-V21/2 + P22-P1/2ρ+g (Z2-Z1)=0

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6. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM – CASE OF A FLOW WITH EXCHANGE OF
WORK
Let us take again the diagram of the fluid vein with the same notations and the same assumptions. It is

further assumed that a hydraulic machine is placed between sections S1 and S2. This machine is

characterized by a net power Pnet exchanged with the fluid, a power on the shaft Pa and a certain

efficiency η. This machine can be either a turbine or a pump.

In the case of a pump: the efficiency is given by the following expression:

η = Pnet/PTo

In the case of a turbine: the efficiency is given by the following expression:

η = PTo/Pnet

Between times t and t'=(t+dt), the fluid has exchanged net workWnet=Pnet.dtwith the hydraulic
machine. Wnetis assumed to be positive if it is a pump and negative if it is a turbine.

We denote by F1and F2respectively the standards of the fluid pressure forces acting at the
sections S1and S2.
At time t the mass fluid (dm1+ M) is between S1and S2. His energy

mechanical is:Edude=Ejar+Efive=(dm1.gZ1+MgZ)+1/2 dm1.V2 1+∫ . ,

15
We apply the mechanical energy theorem to the fluid between t and t': “The variation of the

mechanical energy is equal to the sum of the works of the external forces. »,considering this time the

work of the hydraulic machine and simplifying we will have:

dm2.gZ2+1/2 dm2.V2 2-dm1.gZ2+1/2 dm1.V1 2=P1/ρ1. dm1-P2/ρ2. dm2+Pnet.dt

mass:dm=dm1=dm2and since the fluid is incompressible: ρ = ρ1= ρ2, we end up with

Bernoulli's equation:V2-V
22 1/2 +P2-P1/ ρ+ g (Z2-Z1)= Pnet/qm

7. EULER'S THEOREM:
A direct application of Euler's theorem is the evaluation of the forces exerted by water
jets. These are used in various fields: production of electrical energy from hydraulic
energy thanks to turbines, cutting of materials, etc. Euler's theorem results from the
application of the momentum theorem to the flow of a fluid:

∑Foutside=dP/dt; with P=mVG: : amount of movement. This theorem makes it possible to determine the
forces exerted by the fluid in motion on the objects which surround them.

States :

The resultant (∑Fext) external mechanical actions exerted on an isolated fluid (fluid

contained in the envelope limited by S1and S2) is equal to the change in momentum of the

fluid entering S1at a speedV1and exits by S2at a speedV2. ∑Fext=qm(V2-V1).

16
 Chapter 4:FLUID DYNAMICS
REAL IMMRESSIBLES
1.INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter we assumed that the fluid was perfect to apply the energy
conservation equation. The flow of a real fluid is more complex than that of an ideal fluid.
Indeed, there are frictional forces, due to the viscosity of the fluid, which are exerted between
the particles of fluid and the walls, as well as between the particles themselves. To solve a
problem of flow of a real fluid, one appeals to experimental results, in particular those of the
British engineer and physicist Osborne Reynolds.
A simplified method for calculating head losses based on these experimental results is
proposed. It is essential for the dimensioning of the various hydraulic installations
(pumping, turbines, hydraulic and thermal machines in which a real fluid is conveyed, etc.)

2. REAL FLUID

A fluid is said to be real if, during its movement, the contact forces are not perpendicular to
the surface elements on which they are exerted (they therefore have tangential components
which oppose the sliding of the fluid layers on each other ). This resistance is characterized
by the viscosity.

3. FLOW REGIMES - REYNOLDS NUMBER

The experiments carried out by Reynolds in 1883 during the flow of a liquid in a rectilinear
cylindrical pipe in which also arrives a trickle of colored liquid, showed the existence of
two flow regimes: laminar regime and turbulent regime:

Laminar regime:
The fluid nets are regular lines, substantially parallel to each other.

17
Turbulent regime:

The fluid nets tangle, roll up on themselves.

More detailed studies have shown that there is still a subdivision between:

- smooth and turbulent flows

- rough turbulent flows.
The limit between these different types of flow is obviously difficult to grasp. By using various
fluids with different viscosities, varying the flow rate and the diameter of the pipe, Reynolds
showed that the parameter which allowed to determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent is a
dimensionless number called Reynolds number given by l following expression:

Re=Vd/ν
- V: Average flow velocity through the considered section in (m/s)
- d: Diameter of the pipe or width of the fluid stream in (m).
- ν: Kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m /s).
2

Empirical results for information only:

If < 2000Rethe flow is laminar

If > 2000Rethe flow is turbulent:

- Smooth if 2000<Re<100000
- Rough if Re>100000

18
4. LOSS OF CHARGES

4.1 Definition

Consider a flow between two points (1) and (2) of a real fluid in a pipe, such that
between points (1) and (2) there is no hydraulic machine.

Let us take again the diagram of the fluid vein of chapter 3 with the same notations and the following

assumptions:

- The fluid is real and incompressible: this supposes the existence of elementary forces of
viscous friction dτ which contributes in the balance equation by a negative work and give rise to
pressure drops.
- The flow is permanent.

We consider an axisZvertical pointing upwards. We denote by Z1, Z2and Z respectively the altitudes of
the centers of gravity of the masses dm1, dm2and M.

We define the head loss between points (1) and (2) byJ1.2= ∑Wdτ/dmwhich is the energy loss
by viscous friction per unit mass that passes.

V2-V21/2 +P2-P1/ ρ+ g (Z2-Z1)= J1.2It can be interpreted graphically as follows:

19
Let us carry on the vertical, from the center of gravity G1 of the section S1 a distance equal toP1/ϖ.

The locus of all the extremities of these segments is called the piezometric line.

Let us carry on the vertical above the piezometric line the quantityV2 1/2g.The place of all
ends of these segments represents the load line. In the absence of pressure drops, the load line
coincides with the load plane. This load plan gives a graphical representation of the constancy
derived from Bernoulli's equation for an ideal fluid. The total head loss, expressed in height of
liquid since the start of the flow, is equal to the distance between the head line and the head
plane, measured on the vertical passing through point G1. The head loss between two points G1
and G2 of the flow is given by the difference in elevation of the head line on the verticals passing
through the preceding points.
The J12 pressure drop can be due to a linear pressure drop and a singular pressure drop:

J1.2=Js+JI
For example, in the circuit represented in the figure below, the sections BC, DE, FG, HI and
JK are elbows of different angles, therefore they present singular pressure drops. Sections
AB, CD, EF, GH, IJ and KL are straight pipes, so they have linear pressure drops.

20
4.2 Singular pressure drops

When the pipe undergoes a sudden change in section or direction, so-called singular pressure
drops occur, they are generally measurable and are part of the characteristics of the pipe.

installation. They are expressed by:Js=-Ks.V2/2where s: index of the shape accident of the

conduct.
Ks: Coefficient (unitless) of head losses. It depends on the nature and the geometry of the
accidental form. The values ofKsare given by the manufacturers in their catalogues.

4.3 Linear head losses

Linear head losses are head losses distributed regularly along the pipes. At each point
of a permanent flow, the characteristics of the flow are well defined and do not
depend on time. The graphical representation of the flow looks like below.

The speed being constant, the piezometric line and the head line are parallel. The piezometric
height variation, evaluated in liquid height is equal to the linear head loss between the two
measurement points. The linear pressure drops are proportional to the length L of the pipe,
inversely proportional to its diameter d, proportional to the square of the flowing speed V of the
fluid.

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JI=-λ.V2/2g.(L/d)

- V: average flow velocity in the pipe (m/s)

- L: length of the pipe (m)
- d: pipe diameter (m)
- λ: linear pressure drop coefficient. It depends on the flow regime and in particular on the

Reynolds numberRe.

In a laminar flow regime:Re< 2000

λ =64/ Re(Poiseuille formula)

In a smooth turbulent flow regime: 2000<Re< 105

λ=0.316.R-0.25
e (Blasius formula)

In a rough turbulent flow regime:Re> 105

λ=0.79(/)

with :

- ε: roughness of the internal surface of the pipe (mm)

- d: inside diameter of the pipe (mm)

Sometimes, we read the value of λ on an abacus established by Moody.

5. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM APPLIED TO A REAL FLUID

Consider a flow between two points (1) and (2) of a real fluid in a pipe. It is possibly
assumed that there are between (1) and (2) hydraulic machines.
We notice :
J12: Sum of all head losses, singular and linear between sections (1) and (2).

Pn: Mechanical power exchanged between the fluid and the machines possibly placed between (1) and

(2). Bernoulli's Theorem takes the following general form:

V2-V2 1/2 +P2-P1/ ρ+ g (Z2-Z1)= J1.2+ Pnot/qm

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 Chapter 5: FLUID DYNAMICS
COMPRESSIBLES
1.INTRODUCTION
In this last chapter, we approach the compressible fluids which present certain particularities.
The density of a gas varies with its pressure. The study of the flow of a compressible fluid
becomes more complicated than that of an incompressible fluid. Indeed, the variations in
temperature or pressure which may appear in the flow of a liquid do not in any way modify the
volumes involved because the expansion or compression are generally negligible. On the other
hand, these phenomena take on great importance when dealing with vapors or gases.

The study of the flow of compressible fluids cannot be approached without having first fixed a certain

number of simplifying hypotheses (nature of the gas: perfect, type of evolution: isothermal or adiabatic,

etc.).

2. EQUATIONS OF STATE OF AN IDEAL GAS

2.1 Ideal gas laws

P/ρ=rTwith :
- P: pressure.
- ρ: density in (kg/m3).
- r: perfect gas constant (r=R/M=287 J/Kg.0K).
- T: temperature in (0K).

2.2 Thermodynamic transformations

- Transformation at constant pressure: The heat recovered by an ideal gas at constant pressure is:

ΔH=Cp. ΔT
with :
- Δ H: enthalpy change per unit mass in (KJ/Kg)
- VSp: specific heat at constant pressure in (KJ/Kg. K)
oh

- Δ T: temperature variation ( K)0

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- Transformation at constant volume: The heat recovered by an ideal gas at constant volume is:

ΔU= Cv. ΔT
with :
- Δ U: variation of internal energy per unit mass in (KJ/Kg)
- VSv: specific heat at constant volume in (KJ/Kg.ohK)
- Δ T: temperature variation in (0K)

Noticed :

H=U+ P/ρequalsΔH=Δ(U+ P/ρ)= Δ U+ Δ (rT)=(Cv+r). ΔT=Cp. ΔT

SO :VSp=Cv+r: Mayer's relation

We define: γ=VSp/VSv

3. FLOW CLASSIFICATION
3.1 Speed of sound

For an isentropic flow, the speed of sound, also called the speed of sound, is given by the
following expression:

C=./=..

3.2 Mach number

The Mach number is the ratio:M=V/C

- V: Flow velocity in (m/s)

- C: Speed of sound in (m/s)

The Mach number varies from one point to another in the flow, not only because the speed varies, but

also because the state of the fluid varies, therefore the celerity.

3.3 Subsonic flow

The flow is said to be subsonic if the flow velocity is less than the speed of sound. Or
again: if M < 1

3.4 Supersonic flow

The flow is said to be subsonic if the flow velocity is greater than the speed of sound. Or
again: if M > 1

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4. CONTINUITY EQUATION

The continuity equation of a compressible fluid is: ρ1.S1.V1= ρ2.S2.V2

5. SAINT-VENANT EQUATION
The energy balance equation of an open system is:

ΔEvs+ΔEp+ΔH=Q+Wa
Or :
- Δ Ec: Variation of kinetic energy.
- Δ EP: Variation of potential energy of the fluid.

- Δ H: Enthalpy change.
- Q: heat exchanged with the external environment.

- Wu: useful work exchanged.

If we assume:
- that there is no useful labor exchange, Wu = 0

- that the potential energy is negligible, Δ EP =0

- that the flow is adiabatic and reversible, Q=0 The
energy balance equation becomes: ΔH+ΔE c= 0

Hence the relationship of Saint-Venant: (−).P/ρ+1/2.V2=Cte

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Mechanics of incompressible fluids Mohamed MAALEJ Publication Center

University (CPU) 2001

2. Fluid mechanics. Comolet (Masson)

3. Series schaume Fluid mechanics and hydraulics

4. Fluid mechanics course and corrected exercise (ed.DUNOD).Pr Sakir Amiroudine univ

Burgundy1

5. Fluid mechanics course (F.HAMMAD) Univ A.MIRA of BEJAIA 2010-2011

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