Mathematics 0

Mathematics 0
For
First Year Students
Prepared by
Prof. Dr. Mohammed Mahmoud Tharwat

Contents
• Chapter1: Fundamentals
• Chapter2: Functions and Their Graphs
• Chapter3: Limits
• Chapter4: Continuity
• General Revision on Mathematics 0

Chapter 1: Fundamentals
1. Some Basic Concepts of the Theory of Sets

Definition 1.1 A set is any well-defined collection of objects which are called the
elements of the set.
Sets will usually be denoted by capital letters such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, … , 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 and elements are
designated by lower-case letters 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, … , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧. We use the special notation 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 to
mean that 𝑥 is an element of 𝐴 or 𝑥 belongs to 𝐴. If 𝑥 does not belong to 𝐴, we write
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Ways to Describe Sets
There are two main ways to specify a set:

1. List notation: In this case, begin with a left brace {, list each element of the set only
once, separate them by commas, and then end with a right brace }. For example,
{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 } is the set consisting of the elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑘 . In particular,
{𝑎, 𝑏} is the set consisting of the elements 𝑎 and 𝑏. Note that {𝑎, 𝑏} and {𝑏, 𝑎} are
the same set.
2. Set builder notation: Often it is possible to identify a set by describing properties
that are possessed by its elements. That is, if 𝑃(𝑥) is a property possessed by an
element 𝑥, then we write {𝑥: 𝑃(𝑥)} to describe the set that consists of all objects
𝑥 for which the property 𝑃(𝑥) is true. Note that, : is read such that. For example
we can define set 𝐵 by
{𝑥: 𝑥 is a letter in the word Mathematics}
The way to read this notation is: 𝐵 is the set of all 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is a letter in the word
Mathematics .
Definition 1.2 The set without any elements is called the empty set and is denoted by ∅
or { }.
Note that the set {∅} is not empty, but is a set which contains the empty set.
Example 1.3 Some examples for empty set:
1. The set of squares with 5 sides.
2. 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 is a month containing 32 days}.
3. 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 is a positive number less than − 5}.
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Definition 1.3 A set 𝐴 is called a subset of a set 𝐵, in symbols 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if every element of
𝐴 is also a member of 𝐵.
Remark 1.1
1. Every set is a subset of itself : 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 for every set 𝐴.
2. The empty set is a subset of every set : ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 for any set 𝐴.
3. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.
4. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵, then 𝐴 is called a proper subset of 𝐵 and write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 to
denote this.
5. 𝐴 = 𝐵 holds if and only if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 both hold.
Operations on sets:
Definition 1.4 The union of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵,

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵},
whose elements are just the elements of 𝐴 or 𝐵 or of both.
Some properties of union:

For any sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
1. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴,
2. 𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴,
3. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴,
4. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶,
5. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
Definition 1.5 The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵,

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵},
is the set of elements common to both 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Some properties of intersection:

1. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴,
2. 𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅,
3. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴,
4. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶,
5. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐵,
6. Two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are called disjoint if 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅.
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If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 any three sets, then the following two laws
1. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
2. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
is called distributive laws.
Definition 1.6 The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵;

𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵},
is the set of all elements of 𝐴 which are not in 𝐵.
Some properties of difference:

1. 𝐴 − 𝐴 = ∅,
2. 𝐴 − ∅ = 𝐴,
3. 𝐴 − 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 − 𝐴; 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵,
4. 𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐶) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐵),
5. 𝐴 − (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐶) ∩ (𝐴 − 𝐵).
Universal set and complement:
Definition 1.12 A universal set, symbolized by 𝒰, is the set that contains all elements for
any specific discussion.
When a universal set is given, only the elements in the universal set may be considered
when working the problem. If, for example, the universal set for a particular problem is
defined as 𝒰 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, then only the natural numbers 1 through 10 may
be used in that problem.
Definition 1.13 Let 𝒰 be a universal set. If 𝐴 subset of 𝒰, then its complement, denote
𝐴𝑐 , is defined by
𝐴𝑐 = 𝒰 − 𝐴 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝒰 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
Some properties of complement:
If 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝒰, then
1. (𝐴𝑐 )𝑐 = 𝐴,
2. ∅𝑐 = 𝒰,
3. 𝒰𝑐 = ∅,
4. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝑐 = ∅,
5. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝑐 = 𝒰,
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6. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 ,
7. 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝐵𝑐 ⊆ 𝐴𝑐 .
De Morgan laws: If 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝒰, then

1. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∪ 𝐵𝑐 ,
2. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝑐 .
Remark 1.3
1. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
2. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
Real Numbers
Real numbers are used in almost every human endeavor. Whenever we need to quantify
objects, we use numbers. Prices, interest rates, blood pressure, height, age, voltage, and
wind velocity are a few of the everyday objects that are quantified by real numbers. Let’s
review the types of numbers that make up the real number system.
1. The set of natural numbers: is the set of all positive integers
ℕ = {1,2,3, … }.
2. The set of whole numbers: is the set of all non-negative integers
𝕎 = {0,1,2,3, … }.
3. The set of integers:
ℤ = {… − 3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }.
𝑚
4. The set of rational numbers: is the set of all numbers of the form where 𝑚, 𝑛
𝑛
are integers numbers and 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑚
ℚ = { : 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑛 ≠ 0}.
𝑛
5. The set of irrational numbers: ℙ = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}. Said
another way, an irrational number is a decimal which neither repeats nor
terminates.
6. The set of real numbers: is the set of all rational numbers in addition to irrational
numbers, and is denoted by ℝ.
Then, we have the following inclusions:
ℕ ⊂ 𝕎 ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ ℝ.
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2. Interval Notation and Inequalities
An inequality is a mathematical expression involving one of the symbols <, ≤, > or ≥:
Symbol Meaning
< less than
≤ less than or equal to
> greater than
≥ greater than or equal to
An inequality looks just like an equation, except that in the place of the equal sign is one
of the symbols <, ≤, > or ≥. To solve an inequality that contains a variable means to
find all values of the variable that make the inequality true. Unlike an equation, an
inequality generally has infinitely many solutions, which form an interval or a union of
intervals on the real line.
Interval notation:
If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑏, then:

1. The open interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏 consists of all real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏 and is
denoted (𝑎, 𝑏). Using set builder notation, we can write
(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏}.
Region on the real number line
2. The closed interval from 𝑎 to 𝑏 consists of all real numbers between 𝑎 and 𝑏 and
includes the endpoints. The closed interval is denoted [𝑎, 𝑏],
[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}.
3. The interval [𝑎, 𝑏) includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is greater than or equal
to 𝑎 and less than 𝑏,
[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}.
4. The interval (𝑎, 𝑏] includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is greater than 𝑎 and
less than or equal to 𝑏,
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(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}.
5. The interval (−∞, 𝑎) includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is less than 𝑎,
(−∞, 𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑎}.
6. The interval (−∞, 𝑎] includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is less than or equal
to 𝑎,
(−∞, 𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎}.
7. The interval (𝑏, ∞) includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is greater than 𝑏,
(𝑏, ∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑏 < 𝑥}.
8. The interval [𝑏, ∞) includes all real numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is greater than or equal
to 𝑏,
[𝑏, ∞) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑏 ≤ 𝑥}.
9. The interval (−∞, ∞) includes all real numbers. Region on the real number line
Example 2.1 Express the following sets of numbers using interval notation:
1. {𝑥: −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 5} 2. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ −3}

3. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ −3 or 𝑥 ≥ 3} 4. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 7}
5. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ ±4} 6. {𝑥: 𝑥 = −3 or 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6}
Solution:
1. {𝑥: −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 5} = (−1,5].
2. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ −3} = [−3, ∞).
3. The inequality 𝑥 ≤ −3 corresponds to the interval (−∞, −3] and the inequality
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𝑥 ≥ 3 corresponds to the interval [3, ∞). Since we are looking to describe the
real numbers 𝑥 in one of these or the other, we have
{𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ −3 or 𝑥 ≥ 3} = (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞).
4. For the set {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 7}, we shade the entire real number line except 𝑥 = 7, where
we leave an open circle. This divides the real number line into two intervals,
(−∞, 7) and (7, ∞). Since the values of 𝑥 could be in either one of these
intervals or the other, we have that
{𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 7} = (−∞, 7) ∪ (7, ∞).
5. For the set {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ ±4}, we proceed as before and exclude both 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑥 =
−4 from our set. This breaks the number line into three intervals, (−∞, −4),
(−4,4) and (4, ∞). Since the set describes real numbers which come from the
first, second or third interval, we have
{𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ ±4} = (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4,4) ∪ (4, ∞).
6. {𝑥: 𝑥 = −3 or 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6} = {−3} ∪ [0,6).
Example 2.2 Find the union and intersection of two intervals (−1,4) and [3,8].
Solution: First, we sketch each interval on the real number line:
1. The intersection of two intervals consists of the numbers that are in both intervals.
Therefore
(−1,4) ∩ [3,8] = [3,4).
2. The union of two intervals consists of the numbers that are in either one interval
or the other (or both). Therefore
(−1,4) ∪ [3,8] = (−1,8].
Linear inequalities:
An inequality is linear if each term is constant or a multiple of the variable. To solve
inequalities, we use the following rules to isolate the variable on one side of the
inequality sign. The symbol ⟺ means is equivalent to . The rules are stated below for
the inequality ≤. The rules hold if we replace ≤ by any of the inequalities <, >, or ≥.
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Rules for inequalities:
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, then we have the following rules:
Rule Description
1) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑐 Adding the same quantity to each side of
an inequality gives an equivalent inequality.
2) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎 − 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 − 𝑐 Subtracting the same quantity from each side
of an inequality gives an equivalent inequality.
3) If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑑 Inequalities can be added.
4) If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 Inequality is transitive.
5) If 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 𝑏𝑐 Multiplying each side of an inequality by the
same positive quantity gives an equivalent
inequality.
𝑎 𝑏 Dividing each side of an inequality by the
6) If 𝑐 > 0, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ ≤
𝑐 𝑐
same positive quantity gives an equivalent
inequality.
7) If 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎𝑐 ≥ 𝑏𝑐 Multiplying each side of an inequality by
the same negative quantity reverses the
direction of the inequality.
𝑎 𝑏 Dividing each side of an inequality by the
8) If 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ ≥
𝑐 𝑐
same negative quantity reverses the
direction of the inequality.
9) If 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0, Taking reciprocals of each side of an
1 1
then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⟺ ≥ inequality involving positive quantities
𝑎 𝑏
reverses the direction of the inequality.
Example 2.3 Solve the inequality 2𝑥 − 7 < 5, and sketch the solution set.
Solution:
2𝑥 − 7 < 5 Given inequality
2𝑥 − 7 + 7 < 5 + 7 Add 7 to both sides
2𝑥 < 12 Simplify
2𝑥 12
< Divide both sides by 2
2 2
𝑥<6 Simplify
The solution set consists of all real numbers less than 6. In other words, the solution of
the inequality is the interval (−∞, 6). The graph of the solution is sketched below.
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Example 2.4 Solve the inequality 5𝑥 + 9 ≤ 7𝑥 + 12, and sketch the solution set.
Solution:
5𝑥 + 9 ≤ 7𝑥 + 12 Given inequality
5𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 9 ≤ 7𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 12 Subtract 𝟕𝒙 from both sides
−2𝑥 + 9 ≤ 12 Simplify
−2𝑥 + 9 − 9 ≤ 12 − 9 Subtract 9 from both sides
−2𝑥 ≤ 3 Simplify
−2𝑥 3
≥ Divide both sides by −𝟐 and reverse inequality
−2 −2
3
𝑥≥− Simplify
2
3
The solution set consists of all real numbers greater than or equal to − . In other words,
2
3
the solution of the inequality is the interval [− , ∞). The graph of the solution is
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sketched below.
Example 2.5 Solve the inequality 3 < 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 15, and sketch the solution set.
Solution: The solution set consists of all values of 𝑥 that satisfy both of the inequalities
3 < 4𝑥 − 1 and 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 15. To solve the inequality 3 < 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 15, use the rules for
inequalities to isolate 𝑥 in the middle.
3 < 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 15 Given inequality
3 + 1 < 4𝑥 − 1 + 1 ≤ 15 + 1 Add 1 to both sides

4 < 4𝑥 ≤ 16 Simplify
4 4𝑥 16
< ≤ Divide both sides by 𝟒
4 4 4
1<𝑥≤4 Simplify
Then the solution of the inequality is the interval (1,4]. The graph of the solution is
sketched below.
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2𝑥−1 3𝑥+1
Example 2.6 Solve the inequality > , and sketch the solution set.
3 2
Solution:
2𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 + 1 Given inequality
>
3 2
6(2𝑥−1) 6(3𝑥+1) Multiply both sides by 𝟔
>
3 2
4𝑥 − 2 > 9𝑥 + 3 Simplify
4𝑥 − 9𝑥 − 2 > 9𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 3 Subtract 𝟗𝒙 from both sides
−5𝑥 − 2 > 3 Simplify
−5𝑥 − 2 + 2 > 3 + 2 Add 2 to both sides
−5𝑥 > 5 Simplify
−5𝑥 5 Divide both sides by −𝟓 and reverse
<
−5 −5
inequality
𝑥 < −1 Simplify
The solution set consists of all real numbers less than −1. In other words, the solution
of the inequality is the interval (−∞, −1). The graph of the solution is sketched below.
Non-linear inequalities:
To solve inequalities involving squares and other powers of the variable, we can
sometimes use factorization and the following rule:
The sign of a product or quotient:
1. If a product or a quotient has an even number of negative factors, then its value is
positive.
2. If a product or a quotient has an odd number of negative factors, then its value is
negative.
Steps for solving nonlinear inequalities:
1. Rewrite the inequality, if necessary, so that all nonzero terms appear on one side
of the inequality sign and 0 on the other. If the nonzero side of the inequality
involves quotients, bring them to a common denominator.
2. Factor the nonzero side of the inequality.
3. Determine the numbers for which each factor is zero.
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4. These numbers will divide the real line into intervals. List the intervals that are
determined by these numbers.
5. In each interval, use a test value to determine the sign (positive or negative) of
the product or quotient in that interval.
6. Choose the intervals on which the inequality is satisfied.
7. Be sure to check whether the inequality is satisfied at some or all of the endpoints
(This may happen if the inequality involves ≤ or ≥).
Example 2.7 Find the solution set of the inequality 𝑥 2 + 20 ≥ 9𝑥.
Solution: First we move all of the terms to the left-hand side:

𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 ≥ 0.
Factoring the left-hand side of the inequality, we obtain
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) ≥ 0.
The factors (𝑥 − 4) and (𝑥 − 5), of the left-hand, are zero when 𝑥 is 4 and 5,
respectively. The numbers 4 and 5 divide the real line into the three intervals (−∞, 4),
(4,5) and (5, ∞). To determine the sign of each factor on each of the intervals that we
found, we use test values. Notice that we need to check only one test value for each
interval because the factors 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑥 − 5 do not change sign on any of the three
intervals we found. We choose a number inside each interval and check the sign of the
factors 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑥 − 5 at the number we chose:
Interval Test point The factor 𝑥 − 4 The factor 𝑥 − 5

(−∞, 4) 0 0 − 4 = −4 < 0 0 − 5 = −5 < 0
9 9 1 9 1
(4,5) −4= >0 −5=− <0
2 2 2 2 2
(5, ∞) 6 6−4=2>0 6−5=1>0
Then the sign of each factor on each interval is given from the following table:
Interval Sign 𝑥 − 4 Sign of 𝑥 − 5 Sign of (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5)

(−∞, 4) − − +
(4,5) + − −
(5, ∞) + + +
We can represent this information on a real line, as in the following sign diagram:
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We read from the table or the diagram that (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) is positive on the intervals
(−∞, 4) and (5, ∞). The endpoints 4 and 5 satisfy the inequality, so the solution set is
(−∞, 4] ∪ [5, ∞).
Example 2.8 Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 < −3.
Solution: First we move all of the terms to the left-hand side:

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 < 0.
Factoring the left-hand side of the inequality, we get
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) < 0.
The factors (𝑥 − 1) and (𝑥 − 3), of the left-hand, are zero when 𝑥 = 1,3. The numbers
1 and 3 divide the real line into the three intervals (−∞, 1), (1,3) and (3, ∞). Now, we
make the following table and diagram, using test points to determine the sign of each
factor in each interval
Interval Sign 𝑥 − 1 Sign of 𝑥 − 3 Sign of (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
(−∞, 1) − − +
(1,3) + − −
(3, ∞) + + +
We read from the table or the diagram that (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5) is negative on the interval
(1,3). Since this inequality involves <, the endpoints of the intervals do not satisfy the
inequality. Then the solution set is (1,3).
Example 2.9 Solve the inequality 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 ≤ 0.
Solution: All nonzero terms are already on one side of the inequality. Factoring the left-
hand side of the inequality, we obtain
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𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) ≤ 0.
The factors 𝑥, (𝑥 + 1) and (𝑥 − 4), of the left-hand, are zero when 𝑥 = −1,0,4. The
numbers −1, 0 and 4 divide the real line into the four intervals (−∞, −1), (−1,0), (0,4)
and (4, ∞). Now, we make the following table and diagram, using test points to
determine the sign of each factor in each interval
Interval Sign 𝑥 + 1 Sign of 𝑥 Sign of 𝑥 − 4 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)

(−∞, −1) − − − −
(−1,0) + − − +
(0,4) + + − −
(4, ∞) + + + +
We read from the table or the diagram that 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4) is negative on the intervals
(−∞, −1) and (0,4). Since this inequality involves ≤, the endpoints of the intervals
satisfy the inequality. Then the solution set is (−∞, −1] ∪ [0,4].
13
Exercises
In problems 1-8, express the following sets of numbers using interval notation and then
graph the interval:
1) {𝑥: 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 9} 2) {𝑥: 𝑥 < 1}
3) {𝑥: 𝑥 > 4 or 𝑥 ≤ 3} 4) {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −3}
5) {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0,2} 6) {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2 or 5 < 𝑥 ≤ 11}

7) {𝑥: 𝑥 > 2 or 𝑥 = ±1} 8) {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0, ±3}
In problems 9-12, find the union and intersection of the following two intervals:
9) (−2,0), (−1,1) 10) [−4,6], [0,8)

11) (−∞, 6], (2,10) 12) (−∞, 5], [5,8)
In problems 13-24, solve the linear inequality. Express the solution using interval
notation and graph the solution set;
13) 2𝑥 − 5 < 3 14) 3𝑥 + 11 > 5

15) 8 − 𝑥 ≤ 6 16) 7 − 3𝑥 ≥ −17
17) 4𝑥 − 7 < 8 + 9𝑥 18) 5 − 3𝑥 ≥ 8𝑥 − 7
19) 4 − 3𝑥 ≤ −(1 + 8𝑥) 20) 2(7𝑥 − 3) ≥ 12𝑥 + 16
21) 2 ≤ 𝑥 + 5 < 4 22) 1 < 3𝑥 + 4 ≤ 16
1 2𝑥−13 2 1 4−3𝑥 1
23) < ≤ 24) − ≤ ≤
6 12 3 2 5 4
In problems 25-38, solve the nonlinear inequality. Express the solution using interval
notation and graph the solution set:
25) (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 11) > 0 26) (𝑥 + 7)(𝑥 − 4) < 0
27) 𝑥(3𝑥 + 5) ≤ 0 28) 𝑥(3 − 2𝑥) ≥ 0
2
29) 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 18 ≥ 0 30) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6 < 0
31) 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ≤ 1 32) 𝑥 2 < 𝑥 + 2
33) 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 > 2𝑥 2 + 4 34) 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 ≤ 3𝑥 2 + 2
35) 𝑥 2 < 4(𝑥 + 4) 36) 𝑥 2 ≥ 9
37) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) < 0 38) (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1) > 0
14
3. The Straight Line in The Plane
If we have two distinct points in the Cartesian plane, there is a unique line which passes
through the two points. We can construct it by joining the points with a straight edge
and extending the line.
Slope of Line
The measure of the steepness of a line is called the slope of the line. The slope of a line
in the 𝑥𝑦-plane is the ratio of the rise (the change in 𝑦-coordinates) to the run (the
change in 𝑥-coordinates) between two points on the line:
rise the change in 𝑦−coordinates
Slope = = .
run the change in 𝑥−coordinates
If (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are two the coordinates of two points, then the change in 𝑦-
coordinates is 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 and the change in 𝑦-coordinates is 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 .
Definition 1 If (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two arbitrary points on the coordinate plane. The
slope of the line that passes through these two points, denoted by 𝑚, is given by
rise the change in 𝑦−coordinates 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 == = = 2 1,
run the change in 𝑥−coordinates 𝑥2 −𝑥1
provided that 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ≠ 0, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The slope of a line that passes through two points
Remark 1 The figures in the box below show several lines labeled with their slopes.
• The slope of a line is the same number regardless of which two points on the line
are used in the calculation of the slope.
• Positive slope: Lines with positive slope slant upward to the right.
• Negative slope: lines with negative slope slant downward to the right.
15
• Zero slope: The line, with slope equal to zero, is a horizontal line.
• No slope: If the slope is undefined, then the line is a vertical line (this occurs when
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 0). So we say that a vertical line has no slope.
As shown in Figures 2,3,4,5, the figures below show several lines labeled with their
slopes.
Figure 2: Positive slope Figure 3: Negative slope
Figure 4: Zero slope Figure 5: No slope
Example 1 In each case find the slope of the line that contains the two given points. Tell
whether the slope is positive, negative, zero, or undefined.
1. (−2, −5) and (3,4).
2. (1, −3) and (−2,3).
3. (6,4) and (−5,4).
4. (−2,7) and (−2,10).
16
Solution:
1. Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−2, −5) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (3,4). Then
𝑦 −𝑦 4−(−5) 9
𝑚= 2 1= = .
𝑥2 −𝑥1 3−(−2) 5
The slope is positive. Notice that if we had switched the selection of (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ),
we would obtain the same result: Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (3,4) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2, −5). Then
𝑦 −𝑦 −5−4 −9 9
𝑚= 2 1= = = .
𝑥2 −𝑥1 −2−3 −5 5
2. Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (1, −3) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,3). Then

𝑦2 −𝑦1 3−(−3) 6
𝑚= = = = −2.
𝑥2 −𝑥1 −2−1 −3
The slope is negative.
3. Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (6,4) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−5,4). Then
𝑦 −𝑦 4−4 0
𝑚= 2 1= = = 0.
𝑥2 −𝑥1 −5−6 −11
The slope is equal to zero. Recall that if the slope of a line is zero, the line is a horizontal
line.
4. Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−2,7) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,10). Then
𝑦 −𝑦 10−7 3
𝑚= 2 1= = , 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑏𝑦𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑.
𝑥2 −𝑥1 −2−(2) 0
The slope is undefined. Recall that if the slope of a line is undefined, the line is a vertical
line.
Remark 2
1. If the 𝑦-coordinates are equal for any two points on a horizontal line, then 𝑦2 −
𝑦1 = 0 and the slope is equal to zero.
2. If the 𝑥-coordinates are equal for any two points on a vertical line, then 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =
0 and the slope is undefined.
Various Forms of the Equation of a Line
(1) Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line

Suppose that a line passes through a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and has a slope 𝑚. Every other point
(𝑥, 𝑦) on the line must satisfy the equation, see Figure 6,
𝑦−𝑦1
𝑚= , 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥1 ,
𝑥−𝑥1
because any two points can be used to find the slope. This equation can be rewritten in
the form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), which is the point-slope form of the equation of a line.
17
Figure 6: Point-slope form
Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line:

The equation of the line that passes through the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and has slope m is given
by
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
Example 2 Find the equation of the line that has a slope −2 and passes through the
point (−2,1). Sketch the line.
Solution: Using the point-slope form with 𝑚 = −2 and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−2,1), we obtain
an equation of the line as
𝑦 − 1 = −2(𝑥 − (−2)) ⟹ 𝑦 − 1 = −2(𝑥 + 2) ⟹ 𝑦 − 1 = −2𝑥 − 4 ⟹ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 +
3 = 0.
The graph of the equation of the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 = 0 is in Figure 7.
Figure 7: The graph of the equation 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 = 0
18
(2) Two-Points Form of the Equation of a Line
The point-slope form can be used to find an equation of the line passing through two
points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). To do this, first find the slope of the line
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 2 1 , 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ,
𝑥2 −𝑥1
and then use the point-slope form to obtain the equation
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ),
𝑥2 −𝑥1
which is the two-points form of the equation of a line, see Figure 8.
Figure 8: Two-points form
Two-Points Form of the Equation of a Line:

The equation of a line passing through two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by
𝑦 −𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
𝑥2 −𝑥1
Example 3 Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, −1) and
(−2,3). Sketch the line.
Solution:
Using the two-points form with (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2, −1) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,3), we obtain an
equation of the line as
3−(−1)
𝑦+1= (𝑥 − 2) ⟹ 𝑦 + 1 = −(𝑥 − 2) ⟹ 𝑦 + 1 = −𝑥 + 2 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
−2−2
The graph of the equation of the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0 is in Figure 9.
19
Figure 9: The graph of the equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0
(3) Slope-Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line
Suppose a non-vertical line has slope 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏. This means that the line
intersects the 𝑦-axis at the point (0, 𝑏), so the point-slope form of the equation of the
line, with 𝑥1 = 0 and 𝑦1 = 𝑏, becomes
𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0) ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,
which is called the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, see Figure 10.
Figure 10: Slope-intercept form
20
Slope-Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line:
The equation of the line that has slope 𝑚 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏 is given by
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
Example 4 Find the equation of the line that has slope 4 and 𝑦-intercept 3. Sketch the
line.
Solution:
From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, with slope 4 and 𝑦-intercept 3,
we get
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 ⟹ 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0.
The graph of the equation of the line 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0 is in Figure 11.
Figure 11: The graph of the equation 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0
Example 5 Find the slope and 𝑦-intercept of the line 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0. Sketch the line.
Solution:
We first write the equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
5
5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 ⟹ 4𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 12 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3.
4
5
From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, we see that the slope is 𝑚 =
4
and the 𝑦-intercept is −3. The graph of the equation of the line 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 is in
Figure 12.
21
Figure 12: The graph of the equation 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
(4) Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line
Suppose a non-vertical line has 𝑥-intercept 𝑎 and 𝑦-intercept 𝑏. This means that the line
intersects the 𝑥-axis at the point (𝑎, 0) and intersects the 𝑦-axis at the point (0, 𝑏), so
the two-point form of the equation of the line, with (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (𝑎, 0) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) =
(0, 𝑏), becomes
𝑏−0 𝑥 𝑦
𝑦−𝑏 = (𝑥 − 0) ⟹ −𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏 ⟹ + = 1,
0−𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
which is called the intercept form of the equation of a line, see Figure 13.
Figure 13: Intercept form
22
Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line:
The equation of the line making intercepts 𝑎 and 𝑏 on 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis respectively, is
given by
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
Example 6 Find the equation of the line that has 𝑥-intercept −2 and 𝑦-intercept 4.
Sketch the line.
Solution:
From the intercept form of the equation of a line, with 𝑥-intercept −2 and 𝑦-intercept
4, we get
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1 ⟹ −2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 ⟹ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0.
−2 4
The graph of the equation of the line 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0 is in Figure 14.
Figure 14: The graph of the equation 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0
Example 7 Find the 𝑥-intercept and 𝑦-intercept of the line 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0. Sketch

the line.
Solution:
𝑥 𝑦
We first write the equation in the form + = 1
𝑎 𝑏
7𝑥 2𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
7𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0 ⟹ 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14 ⟹ + = 1 ⟹ + = 1.
14 14 2 7
From the intercept form of the equation of a line, we see that the 𝑥-intercept is 𝑎 = 2
and the 𝑦-intercept is 𝑏 = 7. The graph of the equation of the line 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0 is
in Figure 15.
23
Figure 15: The graph of the equation 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0
(5) Vertical and Horizontal Lines
If a line is horizontal, its slope is 𝑚 = 0, so its equation (from slope-intercept form 𝑦 =

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) is 𝑦 = 𝑏, where 𝑏 is the 𝑦-intercept. A vertical line does not have a slope, but
we can write its equation as 𝑥 = 𝑎, where 𝑎 is the 𝑥-intercept, because the 𝑥-coordinate
of every point on the line is 𝑎, see Figures 16,17.
Figure 16: Vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 Figure 17: Horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏
Vertical and Horizontal Lines:

1. The equation of the vertical line passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is given by
𝑥 = 𝑎.
2. The equation of the horizontal line passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑏) is given by
𝑦 = 𝑏.
24
Example 8
1. Find the equation of the vertical line that passes through the point (−2,3).
2. Find the equation of the horizontal line that passes through the point (3,2).
Solution:
1. The equation of the vertical line that passes through the point (−2,3), is 𝑥 = −2.
The graph of the equation 𝑥 = −2 is a vertical line with 𝑥-intercept −2.
2. The equation of the horizontal line that passes through the point (3,2), is 𝑦 = 2.
The graph of the equation 𝑦 = 2 is a horizontal line with 𝑦-intercept 2.
The lines are graphed in Figures 18,19.
Figure 18: Vertical line 𝑥 = −2 Figure 19: Horizontal line 𝑦 = 2
(6) General equation of a Line

A linear equation in the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 is an equation of the form
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0,
where where 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are constants and 𝐴 and 𝐵 are not both 0.
General equation of a Line: The graph of every linear equation
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0, 𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝐵 ≠ 0,
is a line. Conversely, every line is the graph of a linear equation.
Remark 3
1. If 𝐵 ≠ 0, the general equation of a Line becomes, divide by 𝐵,
𝐴 𝐶
𝑦=− 𝑥− ,
𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 𝐶
and this is the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, with 𝑚 = − and 𝑏 = − .
𝐵 𝐵
2. If 𝐵 = 0 and 𝐴 ≠ 0, the general equation of a Line becomes
25
𝐶
𝑥=− ,
𝐴
which represents a vertical line.
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Slope can be used to decide whether two nonvertical lines in a plane are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.
Parallel Lines
Two lines in a plane are said to be parallel if they have no points in common.
Parallel lines: Two non-vertical lines with slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are parallel if and only if
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 , that is, their slopes are equal.
Example 9 Find the equation of the line that has 𝑦-intercept 4 and is parallel to the line
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0.
Solution:
First we write the equation of the given line in slope-intercept form:
1 5
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0 ⟹ 2𝑦 = −𝑥 + 5 ⟹ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + .
2 2
1
So the line has slope 𝑚 = − . Since the required line is parallel to the given line, it also
2
1
has slope 𝑚 = − . From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line we get
2
1
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 4 ⟹ 2𝑦 = −𝑥 + 8 ⟹ 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0.
2
Then the equation of the required line is 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0, see the Figure 20.
Figure 20: Two parallel lines 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0
26
Example 10 Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0
and passes through the point (−1,3).
Solution:
2
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0 ⟹ 3𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 6 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.
3
2
So the line has slope 𝑚 = . Since the required line is parallel to the given line, it also has
3
2
slope 𝑚 = . From the point-slope form of the equation of a line we get
3
2
𝑦 − 3 = (𝑥 − (−1)) ⟹ 3(𝑦 − 3) = 2(𝑥 + 1) ⟹ 3𝑦 − 9 = 2𝑥 + 2 ⟹ 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 +
3
11 = 0.
Then the equation of the required line is 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 11 = 0, see the Figure 21.
Figure 21: Two parallel lines 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 11 = 0, 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect at a right angle. Slope can be used to
determine whether lines are perpendicular.
Perpendicular lines: Two non-vertical lines with slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are perpendicular if
and only if 𝑚1 ⋅ 𝑚2 = −1, that is, their slopes are negative reciprocals:
1
𝑚1 = − .
𝑚2
Example 11 Find the equation of the line that has 𝑦-intercept 4 and is perpendicular to
the line 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0.
27
Solution:
1 5
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0 ⟹ 2𝑦 = −𝑥 + 5 ⟹ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + .
2 2
1
So the line has slope 𝑚 = − . Thus the slope of a perpendicular line is the negative
2
reciprocal, that is, 2. From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line we get
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 4 ⟹ 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0.
Then the equation of the required line is 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0, see the Figure 22.
Figure 22: Two parallel lines 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0
Example 12 Find the equation of the line that is perpendicular to the line 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 +
6 = 0 and passes through the point (−1,3).
Solution:

2
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0 ⟹ 3𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 6 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2.
3
2
So the line has slope 𝑚 = . Thus the slope of a perpendicular line is the negative
3
3
reciprocal, that is, − . From the point-slope form of the equation of a line we get
2
3
𝑦 − 3 = − (𝑥 − (−1)) ⟹ 2(𝑦 − 3) = −3(𝑥 + 1) ⟹ 2𝑦 − 6 = −3𝑥 − 3 ⟹ 3𝑥 +
2
2𝑦 − 3 = 0.
Then the equation of the required line is 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0, see the Figure 23.
28
Figure 23: Two parallel lines 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3 = 0, 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0
29
Exercises
In problems 1-10, find the slope of the line through the given points:
1) (−2,3), (5,4) 2) (−1,2), (3,6)
3) (1,3), (3, −5) 4) (2, −1), (5, −3)
5) (5,2), (−3,2) 6) (0,0), (5,0)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7) ( , ), ( , ) 8) (− , ), ( , )
8 4 4 2 3 2 6 3
9) (5, −1), (5,3) 10) (−7,2), (−7,6)
In problems 11-14, find the value of 𝑎 in each case.

11. The line through (−3,2) and (8,5) is perpendicular to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 2.
2
12. The line through (3,4) and (7, 𝑎) has slope .
3
1
13. The line through (−2, 𝑎) and (𝑎, 3) has slope − .
2
14. The line through (−1, 𝑎) and (3, −4) is parallel to 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥.
In problems 15-37, find an equation of the line that satisfies the given conditions.
15. Through (−2,2) and (−1,7).
16. Through (−3, −1) and (4,3).
1
17. Slope and 𝑦-intercept −2.
3
4
18. Slope − and 𝑦-intercept 3.
5
19. Through (−2,4) and slope −1.

7
20. Through (−3, −5) and slope − .
2
21. 𝑥-intercept 5 and 𝑦-intercept 3.

22. 𝑥-intercept −3 and 𝑦-intercept 4.
30
23. Through (2,5) and slope 0.
24. Through (−7,3) and slope 0.
25. Through (−2,9) and slope undefined.
26. Through (2, −1) and slope undefined.
27. Through (6,1) and parallel to the line 5𝑥 − 7𝑦 = 35.
28. Through (−4,2) and parallel to the line 4𝑥 + 9𝑦 = 5.
29. Through (2,3) and parallel to the 𝑥-axis.
30. Through (2,3) and parallel to the 𝑦-axis.
31. Through (2,3) and perpendicular to the line 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3.
32. Through (0,0) and perpendicular to the line 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 9.
32. Through (−1,3) and perpendicular to the line 𝑦 = 9.
33. Through (2,5) and perpendicular to the line 𝑥 = 4.
34. Through (3,4) and parallel to the line passing through (−5,1) and (3, −2).
35. Through (−3, −5) and perpendicular to the line passing through (−2,6) and (5,3).
36. Through (1,7) and perpendicular to the line passing through (2,5) and (−2,1).
37. Through (−2, −11) and parallel to the line passing through (1,1) and (5, −1).
In problems 38-42, the equations of two lines are given. Determine whether the lines
are parallel, perpendicular, or neither.
38. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3, 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 5 = 0.
1
39. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4, 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1.
2
40. −3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 4, 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5.
41. 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 10, 3𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 7 = 0.
42. 7𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 2, 9𝑦 + 21𝑥 = 1.
31
Chapter 2: Functions and Their Graphs
1. Cartesian Product and Relations
Given two elements 𝑎 and 𝑏, we define an ordered pair as (𝑎, 𝑏).
We should not confuse (𝑎, 𝑏) and {𝑎, 𝑏}. In particular, {𝑎, 𝑏} = {𝑏, 𝑎} while (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠
(𝑦, 𝑥) (unless 𝑥 = 𝑦).
Remark 1.1 Two ordered pairs are equal when their ordered components are equal:
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑) if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
Definition 1.1 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵,
is the set of ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. That is
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 1.1 Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {4,5}. Find 𝐴 × 𝐵. Represent 𝐴 × 𝐵 in an arrow

diagram.
Solution:
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,4), (1,5), (2,4), (2,5), (3,4), (3,5)}.
The arrow diagram of 𝐴 × 𝐵, see Figure 1.
Figure 1: 𝐴 × 𝐵 in an arrow diagram
Definition 1.2 If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are any sets and ℛ ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵, we call ℛ a binary relation from
𝐴 to 𝐵 or a binary relation between 𝐴 and 𝐵. A relation ℛ ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐴 is called a relation
in or on 𝐴.
Definition 1.3 Let ℛ be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. The set of all elements 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ, denoted by 𝐷𝑜𝑚(ℛ), is called the domain of the relation ℛ. That is
32
𝐷𝑜𝑚(ℛ) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ}.
Definition 1.4 Let ℛ be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. The set of all elements 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 such that
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ, denoted by 𝑅𝑎𝑛(ℛ), is called the range of the relation ℛ. That is
𝑅𝑎𝑛(ℛ) = {𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ}.
Definition 1.5 Let ℛ be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. The inverse of a relation ℛ, denoted by

ℛ −1 , is a relation from 𝐵 to 𝐴. That is ℛ −1 ⊆ 𝐵 × 𝐴 and
𝑅−1 = {(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}.
Note that: (ℛ −1 )−1 = ℛ, 𝐷𝑜𝑚(ℛ) = 𝑅𝑎𝑛(ℛ −1 ) and 𝑅𝑎𝑛(ℛ) = 𝐷𝑜𝑚(ℛ −1 ).
2. Definition of Function
Definition 2.1 Let 𝑋 and 𝑌 be two nonempty sets. A function from 𝑋 into 𝑌 is a relation
that associates with each element of 𝑋 exactly one element of 𝑌.
That is, a function is a relation in which no two different ordered pairs have the same
first component (Let (𝑥, 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥, 𝑦2 ) be two members in 𝑓, then 𝑓 is a function from
𝑋 into 𝑌 if 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 ).
Before we can talk about functions, we need names for the objects we want to talk
about. Let 𝑓 be a function from 𝑋 into 𝑌.
• We usually consider functions for which the sets 𝑋 and 𝑌 are sets of real numbers.
• The set 𝑋 is called the domain of the function 𝑓 and is denoted by 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓), that is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = 𝑋.
• The set 𝑌 is called the codomain of the function 𝑓.
• For each element 𝑥 in 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓), the corresponding element 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝑌 is called the
value of the function at 𝑥, or the image of x.
• The symbol 𝑓(𝑥) is read 𝑓 of 𝑥 or 𝑓 at 𝑥 .
• The set of all images of the elements in the domain is called the range of the
function and is denoted by 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓).
• Since there may be some elements in 𝑌 that are not the image of some 𝑥 in
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓), it follows that the range of a function may be a subset of 𝑌.
• The symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function 𝑓 is
called an independent variable.
• The symbol that represents a number in the range of 𝑓 is called a dependent
variable. So if we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑥 is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the
dependent variable.
• The orderer pairs of a function can be written in the form (𝑥, 𝑦) or (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)).
Not all relations between two sets are functions. The next example shows how to
33
determine whether a relation is a function.
Example 2.1 In Figures 2-5, list the members of the relations 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 and 𝑓4 .
Determine which of the following relations represent a function. If the relation is a
function, then state its domain and range.
Figure 2: The relation 𝑓1 Figure 3: The relation 𝑓2
Figure 4: The relation 𝑓3 Figure 5: The relation 𝑓4
Solution:
1. In Figure 2, 𝑓1 = {(1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑑), (4, 𝑏)}. The relation 𝑓1 is a function because
each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one element in the range. The
domain of the function is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {1,2,3,4}. The range of the function is
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}.
2. In Figure 3, 𝑓2 = {(1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑑), (4, 𝑎)}. The relation 𝑓2 is not a function because
the element 3 in 𝑋 has no image in 𝑌.
3. In Figure 4, 𝑓3 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑑), (3, 𝑐), (4, 𝑐)}. The relation 𝑓3 is not a
function because each element in the domain does not correspond to exactly one
element in 𝑌.
34
4. In Figure 5, 𝑓4 = {(1, 𝑐), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑎), (4, 𝑐)}. The relation 𝑓4 is a function because
each element in the domain corresponds to exactly one element in the range. The
domain of the function is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {1,2,3,4}. The range of the function is
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = {𝑎, 𝑐}.
The Domain of a Function:

The domain of a function is the set of all inputs for the function. Then, the domain of a
function 𝑓 is the largest set of real numbers for which the value 𝑓(𝑥) is a real number.
That is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑓(𝑥) is defined}.
The Range of a Function:
The set of all images of the elements in the domain is called the range of the function
and is denoted by 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓), that is
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓)}.
The Graph of a Function
Definition 2.2 If 𝑓 is a function with domain 𝑋, then the graph of 𝑓 is the set of ordered
pairs
{(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)): 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}
plotted in a 𝑥𝑦–plane. In other words, the graph of 𝑓 is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦) such
that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥); that is, the graph of 𝑓 is the graph of the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
Not every collection of points in the 𝑥𝑦–plane represents the graph of a function.
Remember, for a function, each number 𝑥 in the domain has exactly one image 𝑦 in the
range. This means that the graph of a function cannot contain two points with the same
𝑥–coordinate and different 𝑦–coordinates.Therefore, the graph of a function must
satisfy the following vertical line test.
Vertical Line Test:

A set of points in the 𝑥𝑦–plane is the graph of a function if and only if every vertical line
intersects the graph in at most one point.
We can see from Figures 6, 7 why the vertical line test is true. If each vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎
intersects a curve only once at (𝑎, 𝑏), then exactly one functional value is defined by
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏, see Figure 6. But if a line 𝑥 = 𝑎 intersects the curve twice, at (𝑎, 𝑏) and at
(𝑎, 𝑐), then the curve cannot represent a function because a function cannot assign two
different values to 𝑎, see Figure 7.
35
Figure 6: Graph of a function Figure 7: Not a graph of a function
3. Some Basic Functions

3.1 Polynomial Functions
Three of the families of functions studied thus far: constant, linear and quadratic, belong
to a much larger group of functions called polynomials. We begin our formal study of
general polynomials with a definition and some examples.
Definition 3.1 A polynomial function of degree 𝑛 is a function of the form

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where
1. 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers; 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer.
2. 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 is called the coefficients of the polynomial 𝑓.
3. The term 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 is called the leading term of the polynomial 𝑓.
4. The real number 𝑎𝑛 is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial 𝑓.
5. The real number 𝑎0 is called the constant term of the polynomial 𝑓.
6. The domain of the polynomial 𝑓 is ℝ = (−∞, ∞).
Remark 3.1
1. A polynomial function is a function whose rule is given by a polynomial in one
variable.
2. A polynomial function is in if its terms are written in descending order of
exponents from left to right.
3. The degree of a polynomial function is the largest power of 𝑥 that appears.
4. The zero polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) = 0𝑥 𝑛 + 0𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 0𝑥 + 0 is not assigned
a degree.
36
Example 3.1 Determine if the following functions are polynomials. For those that are,
state the degree; for those that are not, tell why not.
3
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3. ℎ(𝑥) = 0
4
4. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 −2 − 𝑥 + 7 5. 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 + √𝑥 6. 𝑟(𝑥) =
7𝑥+3
.
5
Solution:
1. The function 𝑓 is a polynomial function of degree 2.

2. The function 𝑔 is not a polynomial function because the term 5𝑥 does not have a
variable base and an exponent that is a nonnegative integer.
3. ℎ is the zero polynomial function; it is not assigned a degree.
4. The function 𝑝 is not a polynomial function because the term 𝑥 −2 has an
exponent that is not a nonnegative integer.
1
5. The function 𝑞 is not a polynomial function because the term √𝑥 = 𝑥 2 has an
exponent that is not a nonnegative integer.
7𝑥+3 7 3
6. We can rewrite 𝑟(𝑥) = as 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 + , then The function 𝑟 is a
5 5 5
polynomial function of degree one.
Example 3.2 Find the domain and range of the following functions:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2 .
Solution:
1. The function 𝑓 is a polynomial function, then 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ. Since −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞,

then
a. −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ ⟹ 0 ≤ 𝑥 2 < ∞ ⟹ 4 ≤ 𝑥 2 + 4 < ∞ ⟹ 4 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) < ∞.
Then 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = [4, ∞).
2. The function 𝑔 is a polynomial function, then 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = ℝ. Since −∞ < 𝑥 <
∞, then
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ ⟹ 0 ≤ 𝑥 2 < ∞ ⟹ −∞ < −𝑥 2 ≤ 0 ⟹ −∞ < 1 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 1.
Then −∞ < 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 1 and so 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑔) = (−∞, 1].
37
Special Cases of Polynomial Function of Degree 𝒏
We have already discussed in detail polynomial functions of degrees 0, 1, and 2.
(1) Constant Functions:
A constant function is a function f that is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, where c is a constant (a real number).
For a constant function, we have the following:
1. The constant function is a polynomial function of degree zero.
2. The domain of every constant function is ℝ, that is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ.
3. The range of the constant function 𝑓 is {𝑐}, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = {𝑐}.
Example 3.3 Sketch a graph of the following functions. Also, find the domain and
range of each function.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = −2.
Solution:
1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 is a constant function. The domain of 𝑓 is is the set of all
real numbers (−∞, ∞). From the graph of 𝑓 we see that the range of 𝑓 is {3}, see
Figure 8.
2. The function 𝑔(𝑥) = −2 is a constant function with domain 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = ℝ and
range 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑔) = {−2}, see Figure 9.
Figure 8: a constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 Figure 9: a constant function 𝑔(𝑥) = −2
38
(2) Linear Functions:
A linear function is a function f that is given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
For a linear function, we have the following:
1. The linear function is a polynomial function of degree one.
2. The domain of every linear function is ℝ, that is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ.
3. The range of the linear function 𝑓 is ℝ, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = ℝ.
Example 3.4 Sketch a graph of the following functions. Also, find the domain and
range of each function. 1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 2.
Solution:
1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4 is a linear function. The domain of 𝑓 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ
and the range of 𝑓 is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = ℝ, see Figure 10.
2. The function 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 2 is a linear function with domain 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = ℝ and
range 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑔) = ℝ, see Figure 11.
Figure 10: a linear function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4 Figure 11: a linear function 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 2
(3) Quadratic Functions:
A quadratic function is a function f given by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
For a quadratic function, we have the following:
1. The quadratic function is a polynomial function of degree two.
2. The domain of every quadratic function is ℝ, that is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ.
3. A quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be expressed in the standard form
39
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘
by completing the square. The graph of 𝑓 is a parabola with vertex (ℎ, 𝑘); the parabola
opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 or downward if 𝑎 < 0, see Figures 12, 13.
4. The range of the quadratic function 𝑓 is [𝑘, ∞) if 𝑎 > 0 and (−∞, 𝑘] if 𝑎 < 0
where 𝑘 is the 𝑦-coordinate of the vertex, that is
[𝑘, ∞), 𝑎 > 0;
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = {
(−∞, 𝑘], 𝑎 < 0.
Figure 12: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘, 𝑎 > 0 Figure 13: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘, 𝑎 < 0
Example 3.5 Find the range of the following functions.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .
Solution: By using completing the square method:

1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) + 5 = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 1 + 5 = (𝑥 + 1)2 + 4.
Then the range of the function 𝑓 is [4, ∞).
2. The function 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑔(𝑥) = 1 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = (−𝑥 2 − 4𝑥) + 1 = −(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥) + 1 = −(𝑥 + 2)2 + 4 + 1
= −(𝑥 + 2)2 + 5
Then the range of the function 𝑔 is (−∞, 5].
3.2 Rational Functions
Definition 3.2 A rational function is a function that can be written as a quotient of two
polynomial functions. In symbols, the function
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛 +⋯+𝑎1 𝑥+𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = =
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑥+𝑏0
is called a rational function.
40
Example 3.6 Determine if the following functions are rational function. For those that
are not, tell why not.
𝑥 2 +4 𝑥−4 2−𝑥+3𝑥 3
1) 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 2) 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 3) 𝑓3 (𝑥) =
𝑥+7 √𝑥+9 2 4+5𝑥+7𝑥
𝑥 2 +8𝑥−17 √5𝑥 4 +√3
4) 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 5) 𝑓5 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15
1
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 +5𝑥 2 +2 √7𝑥 2 +√2 6) 𝑓6 (𝑥) = √ .
4𝑥 2 −3𝑥+12
Solution:
𝑥 2 +4
1. The function 𝑓1 (𝑥) = is a rational function, because the numerator and
𝑥+7
denominator of 𝑓1 is a valid polynomial.
𝑥−4
2. The function 𝑓2 (𝑥) = is not a rational function, because the denominator of
√𝑥+9
𝑓2 is not a polynomial.
2−𝑥+3𝑥 3
4+5𝑥+7𝑥 2
1
𝑥 2 +5𝑥 2 −17
4. The function 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 3 2 is not a rational function, because the numerator
𝑥 −𝑥 +𝑥+2
of 𝑓4 is not a polynomial.
√5𝑥 4 +√3
√7𝑥 2 +√2
𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15 √𝑥 2 +8𝑥+15
6. The function 𝑓6 (𝑥) = √ = is not a rational function, because
4𝑥 2 −3𝑥+12 √4𝑥 2 −3𝑥+12
the the numerator and denominator of 𝑓6 are not polynomials.
Definition 3.3 The domain of a rational function of 𝑥 includes all real numbers except
𝑥-values that make the denominator zero. That is, if
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)
is a rational function, then the domain of 𝑓 is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ − {𝑥: 𝑞(𝑥) = 0} 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑞(𝑥) ≠ 0}.
To determine the domain of a rational function:

1. Set the denominator equal to zero.
2. Solve the resulting equation for 𝑥.
3. These values are excluded from the domain.
Note that: if the function has no variable in the denominator or the solutions of the
denominator when set equal to zero are not real numbers, then the domain of the
5𝑥+7
function is all real numbers, for example, the domain of the rational function 2 is ℝ
𝑥 +16
2
because 𝑥 + 16 ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
41
Example 3.7 Find the domain of the following functions.
3𝑥+8 2𝑥 2 +3 𝑥+9
1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2) 𝑔(𝑥) = 3) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥+5 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 +4
7𝑥+3 9𝑥 2 +7𝑥+10 𝑥 2 −16
4) 𝑝(𝑥) = 5) 𝑞(𝑥) = 6) 𝑟(𝑥) =
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −2𝑥 24−5𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑥−4
Solution:
1. Set the denominator equal to zero and solve the resulting equation for 𝑥,
𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −5.
The domain of the function 𝑓 is all real numbers except 𝑥 = −5, that is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ − {−5} = (−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, ∞).
2
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 − 1 = 0, 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 2.
The domain of the function 𝑔 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≠ 1, 𝑥 ≠ 2}, that is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = ℝ − {1,2}.
3. Since 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 4 ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, then the domain of the function ℎ is

𝐷𝑜𝑚(ℎ) = ℝ.
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 =
−1, 𝑥 = 2.
The domain of the function 𝑝 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑝) = ℝ − {−1,0,2}.
24 − 5𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 24 = 0 ⟹ (𝑥 + 8)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = −8, 𝑥 = 3.
The domain of the function 𝑞 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑞) = ℝ − {−8,3}.
𝑥 − 4 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = 4.
The domain of the function 𝑟 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑟) = ℝ − {4}.
𝑥 2 −16
Although reduces to 𝑥 + 4 it is important to observe that the functions
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 −16
, 𝑥 + 4,
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 −16
are not equal, since the domain of the function is ℝ − {4} and the domain of the
𝑥−4
function 𝑥 + 4 is the set of all real numbers.
42
3.3 The 𝐧𝐭𝐡 Root Functions
Definition 3.4 Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√𝑔(𝑥), where 𝑔 be a polynomial function and 𝑛 be a

positive integer; 𝑛 > 1. The function 𝑓 is called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root function.
1. If 𝑛 is an even, then the domain of 𝑓 is
𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑔(𝑥) ≥ 0}.
2. If 𝑛 is an odd, then the domain of 𝑓 is

𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ = (−∞, ∞).
Example 3.8 Find the domain of the following functions.
1) 𝑓1 (𝑥) = √3𝑥 − 2 2) 𝑓2 (𝑥) = √6 − 3𝑥 3) 𝑓3 (𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 9

3 4
4) 𝑓4 (𝑥) = √25 − 16𝑥 2 5) 𝑓5 (𝑥) = √3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 6) 𝑓6 (𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 12.
Solution:
1. The domain of the function 𝑓1 (𝑥) = √3𝑥 − 2 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 3𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0}. Now, we
solve the inequality 3𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 as follows:
2
3𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ 3𝑥 ≥ 2 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ .
3
2
Then the domain of 𝑓1 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓1 ) = [ , ∞).
3
2. The domain of the function 𝑓2 (𝑥) = √6 − 3𝑥 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 6 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0}. Now, we
solve the inequality 6 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0 as follows:
6 − 3𝑥 ≥ 0 ⟹ −3𝑥 ≥ −6 ⟹ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
Then the domain of 𝑓2 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓2 ) = (−∞, 2].
3. The domain of the function 𝑓3 (𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 9 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 2 − 9 ≥ 0}. Now, we
solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 9 ≥ 0 as follows:
𝑥 2 − 9 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 ≥ 9 ⟹ |𝑥| ≥ 3 ⟹ 𝑥 ≤ −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 3.
Then the domain of 𝑓3 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓3 ) = (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, ∞).
4. The domain of the function 𝑓4 (𝑥) = √25 − 16𝑥 2 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 25 − 16𝑥 2 ≥ 0}.
Now, we solve the inequality 25 − 16𝑥 2 ≥ 0 as follows:
25 5 5 5
25 − 16𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ −16𝑥 2 ≥ −25 ⟹ 𝑥 2 ≤ ⟹ |𝑥| ≤ ⟹ − ≤ 𝑥 ≤ .
16 4 4 4
5 5
Then the domain of 𝑓4 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓4 ) = [− , ].
4 4
3
5. The domain of the function 𝑓5 (𝑥) = √3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 1 is ℝ.
4
6. The domain of the function 𝑓6 (𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 12 is ℝ, because 𝑥 2 + 12 > 0 for all
𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
43
Example 3.9 Find the domain and the range of the following functions.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 .
Solution:
1. The domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0}. Now, we solve
the inequality 𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0 as follows:
𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ 5.
Then the domain of 𝑓 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = [5 ∞). To find the range of the function 𝑓:
5 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞ ⟹ 0 ≤ 𝑥 − 5 < ∞ ⟹ 0 ≤ √𝑥 − 5 < ∞ ⟹ 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) < ∞.
The the range of the function 𝑓 is [0, ∞).
2. The domain of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 is {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0}. Now, we
solve the inequality 4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 as follows:
4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 ≤ 4 ⟹ |𝑥| ≤ 2 ⟹ −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.
Then the domain of 𝑔 is 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑔) = [−2, 2]. To find the range of the function 𝑔:
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 ⟹ 0 ≤ 𝑥 2 ≤ 4 ⟹ −4 ≤ −𝑥 2 ≤ 0 ⟹ 0 ≤ 4 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 4 ⟹ 0 ≤
√4 − 𝑥 2 ≤ 2.
The the range of the function 𝑔 is [0, 2].
4. Some Important Basic Qualities of Functions

4.1 Even and Odd Functions
Definition 4.1 A function 𝑓 is an even if and only if

𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓).
• If point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph of an even function 𝑓, then point (−𝑥, 𝑦) is on the
graph of 𝑓.
• A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is even if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the
𝑦-axis.
Definition 4.2 A function 𝑓 is an odd if and only if

𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓).
• If point (𝑥, 𝑦) is on the graph of an odd function 𝑓, then point (−𝑥, −𝑦) is on the
graph of 𝑓.
• A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to
the origin.
The examples, below, are given the graphs of a variety of functions.

44
Figure 14: Even function Figure 15: Odd function
Figure 16: Odd function Figure 17: Even function
Properties of even and odd functions:
1. The function 𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant, is an even function.

2. The product of two even functions is even.
3. The product of two odd functions is even.
4. The product of an even function and an odd function is odd.
5. The quotient of two even functions is even.
6. The quotient of an even function and an odd function is odd.
7. The sum or difference of two even functions is even.
8. The sum or difference of an even function and an odd function is neither even or
odd.
45
We can decide algebraically if a function is even, odd or neither by replacing 𝑥 by −𝑥 and
computing 𝑓(𝑥):
If 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥); the function is even.
If 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥); the function is odd.
Example 4.1 Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.
1. 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 14 2. 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 3. 𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥+1
4. 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 √3 − 𝑥 2 5. 𝑓5 (𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −5
6. 𝑓6 (𝑥) = .
𝑥 3 +7
Solution:
1. Since 𝑓1 (−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 + 14 = 𝑥 2 + 14 = 𝑓1 (𝑥), then 𝑓1 is an even function, and
the graph of 𝑓1 is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦-axis.
2. Since 𝑓2 (−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = −(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = −𝑓2 (𝑥), then 𝑓2 is an
odd function, and the graph of 𝑓2 is symmetric with respect to the origin.
3. 𝑓3 (−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 + (−𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥. Since 𝑓3 (−𝑥) ≠ 𝑓3 (𝑥) and 𝑓3 (−𝑥) ≠ −𝑓3 (𝑥),
we conclude that 𝑓3 is neither even nor odd. The graph of 𝑓3 is not symmetric with
respect to the 𝑦-axis nor is it symmetric with respect to the origin.
4. Since 𝑓4 (−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 √3 − (−𝑥)2 = 𝑥 2 √3 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑓4 (𝑥), then 𝑓4 is an even
function, and the graph of 𝑓4 is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦-axis.
−𝑥 𝑥
5. Since 𝑓5 (−𝑥) = 2
= − 2
= −𝑓5 (𝑥), then 𝑓5 is an odd function, and the
(−𝑥) −5 𝑥 −5
graph of 𝑓5 is symmetric with respect to the origin.
−𝑥+1 −𝑥+1
6. 𝑓6 (−𝑥) = 3
= 3 . Since 𝑓6 (−𝑥) ≠ 𝑓6 (𝑥) and 𝑓6 (−𝑥) ≠ −𝑓6 (𝑥), we
(−𝑥) +7 −𝑥 +7
conclude that 𝑓6 is neither even nor odd. The graph of 𝑓6 is not symmetric with respect
to the 𝑦-axis nor is it symmetric with respect to the origin.
4.2 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
It is very useful to know where the graph of a function rises and where it falls.
Definition 4.3
1. A function 𝑓 is increasing on an interval 𝐼 if, for any choice of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in 𝐼, with
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , we have 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ), see Figure 18.
2. A function 𝑓 is decreasing on an interval 𝐼 if, for any choice of 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in 𝐼, with
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , we have 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ), see Figure 19.
3. A function 𝑓 is constant on an interval 𝐼 if, for any 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in 𝐼,
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
46
Figure 18: 𝑓 is increasing function Figure 19: 𝑓 is decreasing function
By convention we write the intervals on which a function is increasing or decreasing

as open intervals. It would also be true to say that the function is increasing or decreasing
on the corresponding closed interval.
Example 4.2 Find the intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing and on which 𝑓 is decreasing.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2.
Solution:
1. The domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 is ℝ. For all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 2𝑥1 < 2𝑥2 ⇒ 2𝑥1 + 3 < 2𝑥2 + 3 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 is an increasing function on ℝ.
2. The domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is ℝ. For all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (0, ∞), we have
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥12 < 𝑥22 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is an increasing function on (0, ∞). For all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈
(−∞, 0), we have
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥12 > 𝑥22 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is an decreasing function on (−∞, 0).
3. The domain of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2 is ℝ. For all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥13 < 𝑥23 ⇒ 𝑥13 − 2 < 𝑥23 − 2 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Then the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2 is an increasing function on ℝ.
4.3 One-to-One Functions
Some functions never assign the same value to two different domain elements. These
functions are said to be one-to-one or injective.
47
Definition 4.4 If a function is such that no two ordered pairs have different 𝑥-
coordinates and the same 𝑦-coordinate, then the function is called one-to-one function.
That is, if 𝑓 is a function and, (𝑥1 , 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 and (𝑥2 , 𝑦) ∈ 𝑓 then 𝑓 is a one-to-one
provided 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . More formally, we can restate this definition as:
1. Either: 𝑓 is one-to-one provided, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓),
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
2. Or 𝑓 is one-to-one provided, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓),

𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 implies 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).
Example 4.3 Determine whether each function, in arrow diagram, is one-to-one.
Figure 20: 𝑓1 is not one-to-one Figure 21: 𝑓2 is a one-to-one
Figure 22: 𝑓3 is not one-to-one Figure 23: 𝑓4 is a one-to-one
Solution:
1. In arrow diagram 20, the function 𝑓1 is not one-to-one function because 𝑓1 (1) =
48
𝑓1 (4) = 𝑏 but 1 ≠ 4.
2. In arrow diagram 21, the function 𝑓2 is a one-to-one function because for every
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋 we have
𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 implies 𝑓2 (𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓2 (𝑥2 ).
3. In arrow diagram 22, the function 𝑓3 is not one-to-one function because, for
instance, 𝑓2 (3) = 𝑓3 (4) = 𝑑 but 2 ≠ 4.
4. In arrow diagram 23, the function 𝑓4 is a one-to-one function because for every
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋 we have
𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 implies 𝑓4 (𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓4 (𝑥2 ).
In looking at the graph of the function we can determine if a function is a one-to-one

function or not by applying the Horizontal Line Test.
Horizontal Line Test:

A function is a one-to-one function if there is no horizontal line that intersects the graph
of the function at more than one point.
4.4 Onto Functions
For some functions the range and the codomain are equal. That is, every member of the
codomain is the image of some element of the domain. Functions with this property are
called onto functions.
Definition 4.5 A function 𝑓 from 𝑋 to 𝑌 is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for
every element 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 there is an element 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 with 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. This can be restated as:
A function is onto if the range of 𝑓 is equal to the codomain of 𝑓, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓) = 𝑌.
Example 4.4 Determine whether each function, in arrow diagram, is onto.
Figure 24: 𝑓1 is onto Figure 25: 𝑓2 is not onto

49
Figure 26: 𝑓3 is not onto Figure 27: 𝑓4 is onto
Solution:
1. In arrow diagram 24, the function 𝑓1 is onto function because all three elements
of the codomain 𝑌 are images of elements in the domain 𝑋.
2. In arrow diagram 25, the function 𝑓2 is not onto function because the elements 𝑏
and 𝑐 in codomain 𝑌 are not images of elements in the domain 𝑋, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓2 ) ≠ 𝑌.
3. In arrow diagram 26, the function 𝑓3 is not onto function because the element 𝑐 in
codomain 𝑌 is not image of element in the domain 𝑋, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓3 ) ≠ 𝑌.
4. In arrow diagram 27, the function 𝑓4 is onto function because all three elements
of the codomain 𝑌 are images of elements in the domain 𝑋.
4.5 One-to-One Correspondence (Bijection) Functions

Definition 4.6 The function 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection, if it is
both one-to-one and onto.
Example 4.5 Determine whether each function, in arrow diagram, is one-to-one
correspondence.
Figure 28: 𝑓1 Figure 29: 𝑓2

50
Figure 30: 𝑓3 Figure 31: 𝑓4
Solution:
𝑓1 (3) = 𝑎 but 1 ≠ 3. The function 𝑓1 is onto function because all three elements
of the codomain 𝑌 are images of elements in the domain 𝑋. Hence, 𝑓1 is not one-
to-one correspondence.
2. In arrow diagram 29, the function 𝑓2 is one-to-one function. the function 𝑓2 is not
onto function because the element 𝑐 in codomain 𝑌 is not images of element in
the domain 𝑋, that is 𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓2 ) ≠ 𝑌. Hence, 𝑓2 is not one-to-one correspondence.
𝑓1 (2) = 𝑏 but 1 ≠ 2. The function 𝑓3 is not onto function because the elements 𝑎
and 𝑐 in codomain 𝑌 are not images of elements in the domain 𝑋, that is
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓3 ) ≠ 𝑌. Hence, 𝑓2 is not one-to-one correspondence.
4. In arrow diagram 31, The function 𝑓4 is one-to-one and onto. It is one-to-one
because no two values in the domain are assigned the same function value. It is
onto because all four elements of the codomain are images of elements in the
domain. Hence, 𝑓4 is one-to-one correspondence.
4.6 Inverse Functions
Now consider a one-to-one correspondence 𝑓: 𝑋 ⟶ 𝑌. Because 𝑓 is an onto function,
every element of 𝑌 is the image of some element in 𝑋. Furthermore, because 𝑓 is also a
one-to-one function, every element of 𝑌 is the image of a unique element of 𝑋.
Consequently, we can define a new function from 𝑌 to 𝑋 that reverses the
correspondence given by 𝑓.
Definition 4.7 Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one correspondence from the set 𝑋 to the set 𝑌. The
inverse function of 𝑓 is the function that assigns to an element 𝑦 belonging to 𝑌 the
unique element 𝑥 in X such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. The inverse function of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 −1 .
1
Hence, 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 when 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. Note that, 𝑓 −1 ≠ .
𝑓
51
Exercises
𝑥+1 1
1) If 𝑓(𝑥) = , find 𝑓(2), 𝑓(−1), 𝑓(𝑥 + 3), 𝑓(𝑥 2 ), 𝑓( ).
𝑥−1 𝑥
4𝑥 + 3 𝑥 < −1
2) If 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 − 2 −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5 , find 𝑓(3), 𝑓(−2) , 𝑓(6), 𝑓(5), 𝑓(−5),
4 − 5𝑥 𝑥 > 5
𝑓(−1), 𝑓(8).
In problems 3-14, find the domain of the function:

1 𝑥
3) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥+5 𝑥 −𝑥−6
𝑥 2 +1
5) 𝑓(𝑥) = 6) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4
𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 −12𝑥
7) 𝑓(𝑥) = √6 − 2𝑥 8) 𝑓(𝑥) = √16 − 𝑥 2
9) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 4 10) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
1
11) 𝑓(𝑥) = 12) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 1
√𝑥−3
1 1
13) 𝑓(𝑥) = 14) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 +9 √1−𝑥 2
In problems 15-22, find the domain and the rang of the function:
15) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 8 16) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 − 𝑥 2
17) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4 18) 𝑓(𝑥) = √6 − 𝑥
19) 𝑓(𝑥) = √25 − 𝑥 2 20) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 36
21) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6 22) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
In problems 23-25, find the intervals on which 𝑓 is increasing and on which 𝑓 is

decreasing.
23) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 5 24) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 2𝑥 25) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5.
In problems 26-25, determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.
26) 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 27) 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 28) 𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
29) 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 𝑥2 𝑥 2 −5
30) 𝑓5 (𝑥) = 31) 𝑓6 (𝑥) = .
2−𝑥 2 𝑥 3 +𝑥
52
5. Absolute-Valued Functions
The absolute-valued function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is also a piecewise-defined function, since by

definition
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0;
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| == {
−𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0.
From The absolute-valued function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| we have:
• The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| can be obtained by drawing the part of the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 to
the right of the origin and the part of the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 to the left origin. That is, the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis, see Figure 32.
• The vertex of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is (0,0).
• The The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is all real numbers.
• The range of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is {𝑦: 𝑦 ≥ 0} = [0, ∞).
Figure 32: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|
Definition 5.1 An absolute value function is a function that contains an absolute value
expression. The vertex is the point where the graph changes direction.
Properties of Absolute Value

1. The absolute value of a number is always positive or zero, that is
|𝑥| ≥ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
2. √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
3. A number and its negative have the same absolute value, that is
|𝑥| = | − 𝑥|, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
4. The absolute value of a product is the product of the absolute values, that is
|𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥||𝑦|, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
53
5. The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of the absolute values, that is
𝑥 |𝑥|
| |= , 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
𝑦 |𝑦|
6. Triangle inequality,
|𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦|, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
Definition 5.2 If 𝑥 and 𝑏 are real numbers, then the distance between the points 𝑥 and
𝑏 on the real line is denoted by 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦),
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑦 − 𝑥|.
Remark 5.1 From Property 2 it follows that

|𝑦 − 𝑥| = |𝑥 − 𝑦|.
This confirms that the distance from 𝑥 to 𝑦 is the same as the distance from 𝑦 to 𝑥.
Absolute value equations:
We use the following properties to solve equations that involve absolute value.
Basic absolute value equations
Absolute value equation Equivalent equations Solution set
|𝑥| = 𝑎, 𝑎 > 0 𝑥 = 𝑎 or 𝑥 = −𝑎 {−𝑎, 𝑎}

|𝑥| = 0 𝑥=0 {0}
|𝑥| = 𝑎, 𝑎 < 0 ∅
We can use these ideas to solve more complicated absolute value equation, see the
below. Solving an absolute value equation The absolute value equation |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| =
𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑐 > 0, is equivalent to the compound statement 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑐 or
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = −𝑐.
Example 5.1 Solve the following equations:
(a) |𝑥 − 9| = 4 (b) |2𝑥 − 7| = 11 2𝑥+3 3

(c) | |=
3 2
Solution:
(a) Rewrite the absolute value equation as two linear equations and then solve each
linear equation.
54
|𝑥 − 9| = 4 Write original equation.
𝑥−9=4 or 𝑥 − 9 = −4 Expression can be 𝟒 or −𝟒.
𝑥 = 13 or 𝑥=5 Add 5 to each side.

Then the solution set is {5,13}. The distance from 5 to 9 or from 13 to 9 is 4 units.
(b) First rewrite the absolute value equation |2𝑥 − 7| = 11 without absolute value:
2𝑥 − 7 = 11 or 2𝑥 − 7 = −11 Expression can be 𝟏𝟏 or −𝟏𝟏.
2𝑥 = 18 or 2𝑥 = −4 Add 𝟕 to each side.

𝑥=9 or 𝑥 = −2 Divide each side by 2.
Then the solution set is {−2,9}.
2𝑥+3 3
(c) First rewrite the absolute value equation | | = without absolute value:
3 2
2𝑥+3 3 or 2𝑥+3 3 𝟑 𝟑
= =− Expression can be or − .
3 2 3 2 𝟐 𝟐
4𝑥 + 6 = 9 or 4𝑥 + 6 = −9 Multiply each side by 6.

4𝑥 = 3 or 4𝑥 = −15 Subtract 𝟔 from each side.
3 15
𝑥= or 𝑥=− Divide each side by 4.
4 4
15 3
Then the solution set is {− , }.
4 4
Example 5.2 Solve the equation |4𝑥 − 6| = 0.

Solution:
Since 0 is the only number whose absolute value is 0, the expression within absolute
value bars must be 0.
4𝑥 − 6 = 0 Equivalent expression.
4𝑥 = 6 Add 𝟔 to each side.
3
𝑥= Divide each side by 𝟒.
2
3
Then the solution set is { }.
2
55
Example 5.3 Solve the equation |7𝑥 + 5| + 9 = 3.
Solution:
|7𝑥 + 5| + 9 = 3 Write original equation.

|7𝑥 + 5| = −6 Subtract 𝟗 from each side.
There no solution because no number has a negative absolute value.
Example 5.4 Solve the absolute value equation |3𝑥 − 4| = |𝑥 − 8|.
Solution:
|3𝑥 − 4| = |𝑥 − 8| Write original equation.

3𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 − 8 or 3𝑥 − 4 = −(𝑥 − 8) Equivalent equations.
3𝑥 − 4 = 𝑥 − 8 or 3𝑥 − 4 = −𝑥 + 8
2𝑥 − 4 = −8 or 4𝑥 − 4 = 8
2𝑥 = −4 or 4𝑥 = 12 Add 𝟒 to each side.
𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥=3
Then the solution set is {−2,3}.
Absolute value inequalities:

We use the following properties to solve inequalities that involve absolute value.
Basic absolute value inequalities

For 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 > 0 we have
Absolute value inequality Equivalent inequality Solution set

|𝑥| < 𝑎 −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 (−𝑎, 𝑎)
|𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 [−𝑎, 𝑎]
|𝑥| > 𝑎 𝑥 < −𝑎 or 𝑥 > 𝑎 (−∞, −𝑎) ∪ (𝑎, ∞)
56
|𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 or 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 (−∞, −𝑎] ∪ [𝑎, ∞)
We can use these ideas to solve more complicated absolute value inequality, see the
below.
Transformations of absolute value inequalities:
1. The absolute value equation |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| < 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑐 > 0, is

equivalent to −𝑐 < 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < 𝑐.
2. The absolute value equation |𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| > 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑐 > 0, is
equivalent to 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 < −𝑐 or 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 > 𝑐.
In the first transformation, < can be replaced by ≤. In the second transformation, >
can be replaced by ≥.
Example 5.5 Solve the inequality |2𝑥 − 7| < 5 and write solutions in both inequality
and interval notation.
Solution:
|2𝑥 − 7| < 5 Given inequality
−5 < 2𝑥 − 7 < 5 Equivalent inequality
−5 + 7 < 2𝑥 − 7 + 7 < 5 + 7 Add 𝟕 to both sides
2 < 2𝑥 < 12 Simplify

2 2𝑥 12 Divide both sides by 𝟐
< <
2 2 2
1<𝑥<6 Inequality notation
(1,6) Interval notation
The solution set (1,6). The graph of the solution is sketched below.
57
Example 5.6 Solve the inequality |11 − 3𝑥| ≤ 2 and write solutions in both inequality
Solution:
|11 − 3𝑥| ≤ 2 Given inequality
−2 ≤ 11 − 3𝑥 ≤ 2 Equivalent inequality
−2 − 11 ≤ 11 − 11 − 3𝑥 ≤ 2 − 11 Subtract 𝟏𝟏 from both sides
−13 ≤ −3𝑥 ≤ −9 Simplify

−13 −3𝑥 −9 Divide both sides by −𝟑 and reverse
≥ ≥
−3 −3 −3
inequality
13 Inequality notation
3≤𝑥≤
3
13 Interval notation
[3, ]
3
13
The solution set [3, ]. The graph of the solution is sketched below.
3
Example 5.7 Solve the inequality |2𝑥 + 9| ≥ 3 and write solutions in both inequality
Solution:
|2𝑥 + 9| ≥ 3 Given inequality
2𝑥 + 9 ≤ −3 or 2𝑥 + 9 ≥ 3 Equivalent inequality
2𝑥 + 9 − 9 ≤ −3 − 9 or 2𝑥 + 9 − 9 ≥ 3 − 9 Subtract 𝟗 from each side
2𝑥 ≤ −12 or 2𝑥 ≥ −6 Simplify
2𝑥 −12 2𝑥 −6
≤ or ≥ Divide both sides by 𝟐
2 2 2 2
𝑥 ≤ −6 or 𝑥 ≥ −3 Inequality notation
(−∞, −6] ∪ [−3, ∞) Interval notation
The solution set (−∞, −6] ∪ [−3, ∞). The graph of the solution is sketched below.
58
Exercises
In problems 1-6, simplify, and write without absolute value signs:
9
1) |− | 2) |√6|
5
3) |−6 − (−2)| 4) |2 − (−6)|
5) |√12 − 3| 6) |3 − √12|
7. Find the distance between the given two numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.

(a) 𝑎 = −7, 𝑏 = 5 (b) 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 12 (c) 𝑎 = 5, 𝑏 = −7 (d) 𝑎 = −9, 𝑏 = −17
In problems 8-17, solve each absolute value equation:
8) |3𝑥 − 4| = 12 9) |5𝑥 + 2| = −3
2 3 1
10) | 𝑥 − 8| = 0 11) |3 − 𝑥| =
3 4 4
12) |2(𝑥 − 4) + 3| = 5 13) 2 − |𝑥 + 3| = −6
14) 4 − 3|𝑥 − 2| = −8 15) |𝑥 − 5| = |2𝑥 + 1|
1 1 3 5 𝑥
16) |𝑥 − | = | 𝑥 − | 17) | − 𝑥| = |2 − |
4 2 4 2 2
In problems 18-23, solve the inequality. Then graph your solution:
18) |𝑥 + 1| < 1 19) |12 − 𝑥| ≤ 19

20) |𝑥 + 5| > 12 21) |16 − 𝑥| ≥ 10
22) |𝑥 − 8| ≤ 5 23) |𝑥 − 16| > 24
59
6. Exponential Functions
To study exponential functions, we must first define what we mean by the exponential
expression 𝑎 𝑥 when 𝑥 is any real number.
Definition 6.1 An exponential function with base 𝑎 is defined for all real numbers 𝑥 by
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 ,
where where 𝑎 is a positive real number (𝑎 > 0), 𝑎 ≠ 1.
Properties of the exponential function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 (𝒂 > 𝟎), 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏:

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers or (−∞, ∞).
2. The range is the set of positive real numbers or (0, ∞).
3. There are no 𝑥-intercepts.
4. The 𝑦-intercept is 1.
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1 is an increasing function and is one-to-one, see Figure 33.
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1 is a decreasing function and is one-to-one, see Figure 34.
Figure 33: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1 Figure 34: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1
Rules of the exponential functions:

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two positive real numbers. Then for every real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, we have
1. 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑎 𝑦 .
𝑎𝑥
2. 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 = 𝑦 .
𝑎
3. (𝑎 ) = (𝑎 𝑦 )𝑥 =.
𝑥 𝑦
4. (𝑎 × 𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 × 𝑏 𝑥 .
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
5. ( ) = 𝑥 .
𝑏 𝑏
1
6. 𝑎−𝑥 = , 𝑎0 = 1.
𝑎𝑥
60
Exponential equations:
An exponential equation is one in which the variable occurs in the exponent. Some
exponential equations can be solved by using the fact that exponential functions are one-
to-one. This means that
𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
We use this property in the next example.
Example 6.1 Solve each exponential equation.

1. 23𝑥+2 = 32 2. 272𝑥−1 = 81𝑥+2
3. (√5)2𝑥+3 = 253−𝑥
Solution:
1. 23𝑥+2 = 32 ⇒ 23𝑥+2 = 25 ⇒ 3𝑥 + 2 = 5 ⇒ 3𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1.
The solution set is {1}.
2. 272𝑥−1 = 81𝑥+2 ⇒ (33 )2𝑥−1 = (34 )𝑥+2 ⇒ 33(2𝑥−1) = 34(𝑥+2) ⇒ 36𝑥−3 =
11
34𝑥+8 ⇒ 6𝑥 − 3 = 4𝑥 + 8 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 11 ⇒ 𝑥 = .
2
11
The solution set is { }.
2
1 3
3. (√5)2𝑥+3 = 253−𝑥 ⇒ (51/2 )2𝑥+3 = (52 )3−𝑥 ⇒ 52(2𝑥+3) = 52(3−𝑥) ⇒ 5𝑥+2 =
3 9 3
56−2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 + = 6 − 2𝑥 ⇒ 3𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 = .
2 2 2
3
The solution set is { }.
2
The Natural exponential function:
Definition 6.2 If 𝑎 = 𝑒, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is called the natural exponential

function, where the irrational number 𝑒 ≃ 2.71828182845904523536 is called the
1 𝑛
natural base. The number 𝑒 is defined as the value that (1 + ) approaches as 𝑛
𝑛
gets larger and larger.
Properties of the exponential function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 :
1. The domain is the set of all real numbers or (−∞, ∞).
2. The range is the set of positive real numbers or (0, ∞).
3. There are no 𝑥-intercepts.
4. The 𝑦-intercept is 1.
61
5. The function is an increasing function and is one-to-one, see Figure 35.
Figure 35: The graph of 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥

2 (𝑒 −𝑥 )3
Example 6.2 Solve the exponential equation 𝑒 𝑥 = .
𝑒2
2 (𝑒 −𝑥 )3
Solution: The equation 𝑒 𝑥 = can be written as
𝑒2
2 (𝑒 −𝑥 )3 𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 = 2 = 2 = 𝑒 −3𝑥−2 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3𝑥 − 2 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 +
2
𝑒 𝑒
2) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 = 0 or 𝑥 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = −2,
then the solution set is {−2, −1}.
62
Exercises
In problems 1-20, solve each equation:
1) 8𝑥 = 85 2) 7𝑥 = 7−3 3) 2−𝑥 = 32 4) 3−𝑥 = 27

1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 7) 22𝑥−1 = 8 1
5) ( ) = 6) ( ) = 8) 5𝑥+4 =
5 25 4 64 5
3 2
9) 3𝑥 = 9𝑥 10) 25𝑥 = 5𝑥 11) 27−𝑥+5 = 81𝑥 12) 16−𝑥+6 = 64𝑥
2 −7 2 +8 2 2 1
13) 3𝑥 = 272𝑥 14) 5𝑥 = 1252𝑥 15) 4𝑥 × 2𝑥 = 162 16) 92𝑥 × 27𝑥 =
3
17) 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥+8 18) 𝑒 3𝑥 = 𝑒 2−𝑥 2

19) 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ×
1 2
20) (𝑒 4 )𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 12
𝑒2
63
7. Logarithmic Functions
Recall that a one-to-one correspondence function 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 is

defined by
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑥.
The exponential function 𝑓: ℝ ⟶ ℝ+ ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 with 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, is one-to-one
correspondence function, because 𝑓 is a one-to-one function by the Horizontal Line Test
and onto (co-domain equal to range). Then 𝑓 has an inverse function 𝑓 −1 . The inverse
function 𝑓 −1 is called the logarithmic function with base 𝑎 and is denoted by log 𝑎 .
Definition 7.1 Let 𝑎 be a positive number with 𝑎 ≠ 1. The logarithmic function with
base 𝑎, is denoted by 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 and is defined by
𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Figure 36: Graph of 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 with 𝑎 > 1
Example 7.1 Change each exponential statement to an equivalent statement involving

a logarithm.
1 8
1. 𝑎10 = 50 2. 57 = 𝑏 3. ( ) = 𝑎.
3
Solution: By using the fact that 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, are equivalent.
1. Since 𝑎10 = 50, then log 𝑎 50 = 10.
2. Since 57 = 𝑏, then log 5 𝑏 = 7.
1 8
3. Since ( ) = 𝑎, then log1/3 𝑎 = 8.
3
Example 7.2 Change each logarithmic statement to an equivalent statement involving

an exponent. 1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 = 2 2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔1/2 9 = 𝑎 3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 8 = 𝑏.
64
Solution: By using the fact that 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, are equivalent.
1. Since log 𝑏 𝑎 = 2, then 𝑏 2 = 𝑎.
1 𝑎
2. Since log1/2 9 = 𝑎, then ( ) = 9.
2
3. Since log 6 8 = 𝑏, then 6𝑏 = 8.
When we apply the Inverse Function Property to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, we
obtain
log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 > 0.
Properties of the logarithmic function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 (𝒂 > 𝟎), 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏:

1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers or (0, ∞).
2. The range is the set of all real numbers or (−∞, ∞).
3. There are no 𝑦-intercepts.
4. The 𝑥-intercept is 1.
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑎 > 1 is an increasing function and is one-to-one, see Figure 37.
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 0 < 𝑎 < 1 is a decreasing function and is one-to-one, see Figure
38.
Figure 37: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑎 > 1 Figure 38: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 0 < 𝑎 < 1
Example 7.3 Find the domain of each logarithmic function.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 − 5) 2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 |𝑥| 3. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔1/3 (1 − 𝑥 2 ).
Solution:
1. The domain of 𝑓 consists of all 𝑥 for which 𝑥 − 5 > 0, that is, 𝑥 > 5. Then the
domain of 𝑓 is (5, ∞).
2. The domain of 𝑔 consists of all real numbers except zero or, using interval
65
notation, (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
3. The domain of ℎ consists of all 𝑥 for which 1 − 𝑥 2 > 0, that is,
1 − 𝑥 2 > 0 ⟹ 𝑥 2 < 1 ⟹ |𝑥| < 1 ⟹ −1 < 𝑥 < 1.
Then the domain of ℎ is (−1, 1).
Rules of the logarithmic functions: Let 𝑎, 𝑥 and 𝑦 be positive real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 1.

1. log 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦.
𝑥
2. log 𝑎 ( ) = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦.
𝑦
3. log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟log 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ.
4. log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1, log 𝑎 1 = 0.
Note that there is no logarithm law for either the product or quotient of logarithms or
for expressions such as log 𝑎 (𝑥 ± 𝑦).
Definition 7.2 The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is
denoted by omitting the base:
log𝑥 = log10 𝑥.
Definition 7.3 The logarithm with base 𝑒 is called the natural logarithm and is denoted
by 𝑙𝑛:
log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln𝑥.
The natural logarithmic function 𝑦 = ln𝑥 is the inverse function of the natural
exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . By the definition of inverse functions we have
ln𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Rules of the natural logarithms:
1. ln𝑒 = 1, ln1 = 0.
2. ln𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
3. 𝑒 ln𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 > 0.
ln𝑥
4. log 𝑎 𝑥 = , 𝑎 > 0 with 𝑎 ≠ 1.
ln𝑎
Example 7.4 Combine each expression into a single logarithm.

1
1. 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 − 2) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 2 + 7) − 3𝑙𝑜𝑔3 (𝑥 3 + 11)
3
1 1
2. 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑙𝑛(11 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑙𝑛(5𝑥 3 + 3).
4 2
66
Solution:
1
1. 2log 3 (𝑥 − 2) + log 3 (𝑥 2 + 7) − 3log 3 (𝑥 3 + 11) = log 3 (𝑥 − 2)2 +
3
3 3
log 3 √𝑥 2 + 7 − log 3 (𝑥 3 + 11)3 = log 3 ((𝑥 − 2)2 √𝑥 2 + 7) − log 3 (𝑥 3 + 11)3 =
3
(𝑥−2)2 √𝑥 2 +7
log 3 ( ).
(𝑥 3 +11)3
1 1 4
2. ln(𝑥 + 1) + ln(11 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) − (5𝑥 3 + 3) = ln √𝑥 + 1 + ln(11 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) −
4 2
4
4 2 √𝑥+1(11+𝑥−𝑥 2 )
ln√5𝑥 3 + 3 = ln( √𝑥 + 1(11 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 )) − ln√5𝑥 3 + 3 = ln ( ).
√5𝑥 3 +3
Example 7.5 Simplify the following.

1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 125 2. 74𝑙𝑜𝑔7 3 3. 𝑙𝑜𝑔0.0001
5 1
4. 𝑙𝑛(√𝑒 3 ) 5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 ( ) 6. 𝑙𝑜𝑔√3 9 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔√2 8 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔√5 5
27
7. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 80 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 5 8. 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 6 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 20 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 15
Solution:
1. log 5 125 = log 5 53 = 3log 5 5 = 3 × 1 = 3.
4
2. 74log7 3 = 7log73 = 34 = 81.
1 1
3. log0.0001 = log (
10000
) = log (104 ) = log(10−4 ) = −4log10 = −4 × 1 = −4.
5 3 3 3
4. ln(√𝑒 3 ) = ln𝑒 3/5 = ln𝑒 = × 1 = .
5 5 5
1 1
5. log 3 ( ) = log 3 ( 3 ) = log 3 3−3 = −3log 3 3 = −3 × 1 = −3.
27 3
4 6 2
6. log √3 9 + log √2 8 + log √5 5 = log √3 (√3) + log √2 (√2) + log √5 (√5)
= 4log √3 √3 + 6log √2 √2 + 2log √5 √5 = 4 + 6 + 2 = 12.

80
7. log 2 80 − log 2 5 = log 2 ( ) = log 2 16 = log 2 24 = 4log 2 2 = 4 × 1 = 4.
5
8. log 2 6 + log 2 20 − log 2 15 = log 2 (6 × 20) − log 2 15 = log 2 120 − log 2 15 =

120
log 2 (
15
) = log 2 8 = log 2 23 = 3log 2 2 = 3 × 1 = 3.
Logarithmic equations:
A logarithmic equation is one in which a logarithm of the variable occurs. Some
logarithmic equations can be solved by using the fact that logarithmic functions are one-
to-one. This means that
log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
67
We use this property in the next example. Note that, to avoid extraneous solutions with
logarithmic equations, we determine the domain of the variable first.
Example 7.6 Solve each logarithmic equation.
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 1) − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔4 3 = 0 2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔8 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔8 (𝑥 + 3) = 1
3. 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 2) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 6) − 𝑙𝑛𝑥.
Solution:
1. The domain of the variable requires that 𝑥 + 1 > 0, so 𝑥 > −1.
log 4 (𝑥 + 1) − 2log 4 3 = 0 ⇒ log 4 (𝑥 + 1) = 2log 4 3 ⇒ log 4 (𝑥 + 1) = log 4 32 ⇒
log 4 (𝑥 + 1) = log 4 9 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥 = 8. The solution set is {8}.
2. The domain of the variable requires that 𝑥 + 1 > 0 and 𝑥 + 3 > 0, so 𝑥 > −1
and 𝑥 > −3. This means any solution must satisfy 𝑥 > −1. To obtain an exact solution,
we need to express the left side as a single logarithm.
log 8 (𝑥 + 1) + log 8 (𝑥 + 3) = 1 ⇒ log 8 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) = log 8 8.
Then
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 8 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 8 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 5 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 1) = 0.
So 𝑥 + 5 = 0 or 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −5 or 𝑥 = 1. Only 𝑥 = 1 satisfies the restriction that
𝑥 > −1, so 𝑥 = −5 is extraneous. The solution set is {1}.
3. The domain of the variable requires that 𝑥 + 2 > 0, 𝑥 + 6 > 0 and 𝑥 > 0, so 𝑥 >
−2, 𝑥 > −6 and 𝑥 > 0. This means any solution must satisfy 𝑥 > 0. To obtain an exact
solution, we need to express the left side as a single logarithm.
𝑥+6
ln(𝑥 + 2) = ln(𝑥 + 6) − ln𝑥 ⇒ ln(𝑥 + 2) = ln ( ).
𝑥
Then
𝑥+6
𝑥+2= ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 + 6 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2) = 0.
𝑥
So 𝑥 + 3 = 0 or 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −3 or 𝑥 = 2. Only 𝑥 = 2 satisfies the restriction that

𝑥 > 0, so 𝑥 = −5 is extraneous. The solution set is {2}.
The method of Example 7.6 is not suitable for solving an equation like log5 log𝑥 = 11
because the right-hand side is not expressed as a logarithm (base 10). To solve such
equations, we use the following steps.
The steps for solving logarithmic equations:
1. Isolate the logarithmic term on one side of the equation; you might first need to
combine the logarithmic terms.
68
2. Write the equation in exponential form (or raise the base to each side of the
equation).
3. Solve for the variable.
Example 7.7 Solve each logarithmic equation.

1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 1) − 3 = 0 2. 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3) − 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 2.
Solution:
1. log 4 (𝑥 + 1) − 3 = 0 ⇒ log 4 (𝑥 + 1) = 3 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 = 43 ⇒ 𝑥 = 63. The solution
set is {63}.
𝑥+3 𝑥+3
2. ln(𝑥 + 3) − ln𝑥 = 2 ⇒ ln (
𝑥
)=2⇒( 𝑥
) = 𝑒 2 ⇒ 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑒 2 𝑥 ⇒ (𝑒 2 −
3 3
1)𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑥 = . The solution set is { }.
𝑒 2 −1 𝑒 2 −1
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Exercises
In problems 1-8, find the exact value of each logarithm. Do not use a calculator:
1 9
1) log 3 27 2) ln ( ) 3) log 3√5 25 4) log√107
√𝑒
5) log 5 (3log3125 ) 6) 8log8 9 7) log(𝑒 ln100 ) 8) log 3 ( 5
1
).
√81
In problems 9-18, without using a calculator simplify each of the following:

1
9) log16 + 2log5 10) log 2 16 + log 2 8
2
11) log8 + log125 12) log 2 92 − log 2 3
13) log 2 128 + log 3 45 − log 3 5 14) log 4 32 − log 3 27
15) log 𝑏 𝑏 3 − log 𝑏 √𝑏 16) 𝑥log 2 8 + log 2 81−𝑥

17) log √7 49 − log √8 8 + log 3√3 3 1
18) log √2 24 − log √2 3 − log √5 ( ).
25
In problems 19-70, solve each equation.
19) log 3 𝑥 = 2 20) log0.01 = 𝑥

21) log 4 2 = 𝑥 22) log 𝑥 4 = 2
1
23) log 𝑥 ( ) = 𝑥 24) ln𝑒 −2𝑥 = 8
8
25) log 2 (2𝑥 + 1) = 3 26) log 3 (3𝑥 − 2) = 2
27) ln(𝑥 − 3) = 0 28) log 5 (𝑥 − 5) = 3
29) ln(𝑥 + 1) = −2 30) log 4 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥) = 1
31) log 5 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4) = 2 32) ln(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1) = 0
33) ln(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1) = 0 34) 𝑒 −2𝑥 =

1
3
2𝑥+3 −2𝑥+1
35) 𝑒 =8 36) 𝑒 =9
1 2−3𝑥
37) 72𝑥−5 = 4 38) 5 =8
3
4𝑥+3
39) 10 = 16 40) log(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8) = 2log𝑥
70
41) log 3 5𝑥 − log 3 (3 − 2𝑥) = 1 42) log 6 𝑥 − log 3 (𝑥 − 1) = 2
43) ln(2𝑥 − 3) − ln(𝑥 + 4) = 0 44) ln(𝑥 + 5) + ln𝑥 = ln(3𝑥 + 8).
71
8. Trigonometric Functions
In this section we study the properties the six trigonometric functions and its graph of
each one of trigonometric functions.
Since we want to graph the trigonometric functions in the 𝑥𝑦-plane, we shall use the
traditional symbols 𝑥 for the independent variable (or argument) and 𝑦 for the
dependent variable (or value at 𝑥) for each function. So we write the six trigonometric
functions as
sin𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = sin𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cos𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = tan𝑥 =
cos𝑥
cos𝑥 1 1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cot𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = sec𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = csc𝑥 = .
sin𝑥 cos𝑥 sin𝑥
Here the independent variable 𝑥 represents an angle,measured in radians. In calculus, 𝑥

will usually be treated as a real number.
Definition 8.1 A function 𝑓 is called periodic if there is a positive number 𝑝 such that,
whenever 𝑥 is in the domain of f, so is 𝑥 + 𝑝, and
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥)
If there is a smallest such number 𝑝, this smallest value is called the period of 𝑓.
Sine function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒙:
1. The domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers.
2. The range of the sine function consists of all real numbers between −1 and 1,
inclusive, that is
|sin𝑥| ≤ 1 𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ sin𝑥 ≤ 1.
3. The sine function is an odd function (sin(−𝑥) = −sin𝑥), see Figure 39, as the
symmetry of the graph with respect to the origin indicates, indeed,
𝑓(−𝑥) = sin(−𝑥) = sin(0 − 𝑥) = sin0 cos𝑥 − sin𝑥 cos0 = −sin𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥).
4. The sine function is periodic, with period 2𝜋, see Figure 39, indeed,
sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin𝑥 cos2𝜋 + sin2𝜋 cos𝑥 = sin𝑥.
2𝜋
5. In general, the function 𝑦 = sin𝛼𝑥 with 𝛼 > 0 is periodic, with period because
𝛼
the graph of 𝑦 = sin𝛼𝑥 is obtained from the graph 𝑦 = sin𝑥 by performing a horizontal
1
shrink or stretch by a factor .
𝛼
6. The range of the function 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin𝛼𝑥 is [−|𝑎|, |𝑎|].
7. The 𝑥-intercepts are 𝑥 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, … and the 𝑦-intercept is 0, see Figure
39.
72
Figure 39: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin𝑥
Cosine function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒙:

1. The domain of the cosine function is the set of all real numbers.
2. The range of the cosine function consists of all real numbers between −1 and 1,
inclusive, that is
|cos𝑥| ≤ 1 𝑜𝑟 − 1 ≤ cos𝑥 ≤ 1.
3. The cosine function is an even function (cos(−𝑥) = cos𝑥), see Figure 40, as the
symmetry of the graph with respect to the 𝑦-axis indicates, indeed,
𝑓(−𝑥) = cos(−𝑥) = cos(0 − 𝑥) = cos0 cos𝑥 + sin0 sin𝑥 = −cos𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥).
4. The cosine function is periodic, with period 2𝜋, see Figure 40, indeed,
cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos𝑥 cos2𝜋 − sin𝑥 sin2𝜋 = cos𝑥.
2𝜋
5. In general, the function 𝑦 = cos𝛼𝑥 with 𝛼 > 0 is periodic, with period because
𝛼
the graph of 𝑦 = cos𝛼𝑥 is obtained from the graph 𝑦 = cos𝑥 by performing a
1
horizontal shrink or stretch by a factor .
𝛼
6. The range of the function 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos𝛼𝑥 is [−|𝑎|, |𝑎|].
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
7. The 𝑥-intercepts are 𝑥 = ± , ± , ± , … and the 𝑦-intercept is 1, see Figure
2 2 2
40.
Figure 40: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos𝑥
73
Tangent function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝒙:
1. The domain of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers except
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
{± , ± ,± , … }.
2 2 2
2. The range of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers.
3. The tangent function is an odd function (tan(−𝑥) = −tan𝑥), see Figure 41, as the
sin(−𝑥) −sin𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = tan(−𝑥) = = = −tan𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥).
cos(−𝑥) cos𝑥
4. The tangent function is periodic, with period 𝜋, see Figure 41, indeed,
sin(𝑥+𝜋) sin𝑥 cos𝜋+sin𝜋 cos𝑥 sin𝑥
tan(𝑥 + 𝜋) = = = = tan𝑥.
cos(𝑥+𝜋) cos𝑥 cos𝜋−sin𝑥 sin𝜋 cos𝑥
𝜋
5. In general, the function 𝑦 = tan𝛼𝑥 with 𝛼 > 0 is periodic, with period because
𝛼
the graph of 𝑦 = tan𝛼𝑥 is obtained from the graph 𝑦 = tan𝑥 by performing a
1
𝛼
6. The 𝑥-intercepts are 𝑥 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, … and the 𝑦-intercept is 0, see Figure
41.
Figure 41: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = tan𝑥
Cotangent function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝒙:
1. The domain of the cotangent function is the set of all real numbers except
{0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, … }.
2. The range of the cotangent function is the set of all real numbers.
3. The cotangent function is an odd function (cot(−𝑥) = −cot𝑥), see Figure 42, as
74
the symmetry of the graph with respect to the origin indicates, indeed,
𝑓(−𝑥) = cot(−𝑥) = = = −cot𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥).
4. The cotangent function is periodic, with period 𝜋, see Figure 42, indeed,
cos(𝑥+𝜋) cos𝑥 cos𝜋−sin𝑥 sin𝜋 −cos𝑥
cot(𝑥 + 𝜋) = = = = cot𝑥.
sin(𝑥+𝜋) sin𝑥 cos𝜋+sin𝜋 cos𝑥 −sin𝑥
𝜋
5. In general, the function 𝑦 = cot𝛼𝑥 with 𝛼 > 0 is periodic, with period because
𝛼
the graph of 𝑦 = cot𝛼𝑥 is obtained from the graph 𝑦 = cot𝑥 by performing a
1
𝛼
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
6. The 𝑥-intercepts are 𝑥 = ± , ± ,± , …, see Figure 42.
2 2 2
Figure 42: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = cot𝑥
Secant function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝒙
1. The domain of the secant function is the set of all real numbers except
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
{± , ± ,± , … }.
2 2 2
2. The range of the secant function is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

3. The secant function is an even function (sec(−𝑥) = sec𝑥), see Figure 43, as the
symmetry of the graph with respect to the 𝑦-axis indicates, indeed,
1 1
𝑓(−𝑥) = sec(−𝑥) = = = sec𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥).
4. The secant function is periodic, with period 2𝜋, see Figure 43, indeed,
1 1 1
sec(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = = = = sec𝑥.
cos(𝑥+2𝜋) cos𝑥 cos2𝜋−sin𝑥 sin2𝜋 cos𝑥
75
Figure 43: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = sec𝑥
Cosecant function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝒙:
1. The domain of the cosecant function is the set of all real numbers except
{0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, … }.
2. The range of the cosecant function is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

3. The cosecant function is an odd function (csc(−𝑥) = −csc𝑥), see Figure 44, as the
1 1
𝑓(−𝑥) = csc(−𝑥) = = = −csc𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥).
4. The cosecant function is periodic, with period 2𝜋, see Figure 44, indeed,
1 1 1
csc(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = = = = csc𝑥.
sin(𝑥+2𝜋) sin𝑥 cos2𝜋+sin2𝜋 cos𝑥 sin𝑥
Figure 44: The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = csc𝑥

76
Trigonometric formulas:
Pythagorean identities:
1. sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1.
2. 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃.
3. 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃.
Sum and difference formulas:

1. sin(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = sin𝛼 cos𝛽 ± sin𝛽 cos𝛼.
2. cos(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = cos𝛼 cos𝛽 ∓ sin𝛼 sin𝛽.
tan𝛼±tan𝛽
3. tan(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = .
1∓tan𝛼 tan𝛽
Double angle formulas:

1. sin2𝜃 = 2sin𝜃 cos𝜃.
2. cos2𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃.
3. cos2𝜃 = 1 − 2sin2 𝜃.
4. cos2𝜃 = 2cos 2 𝜃 − 1.
2tan𝜃
5. tan2𝜃 = .
1−tan2 𝜃
Product to sum formulas:

1
1. sin𝛼sin𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)].
2
1
2. cos𝛼cos𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)].
2
1
3. sin𝛼cos𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)].
2
Sum to product formulas:

𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
1. sin𝛼 + sin𝛽 = 2sin cos .
2 2
2. sin𝛼 − sin𝛽 = 2cos sin .
2 2
3. cos𝛼 + cos𝛽 = 2cos cos .
2 2
4. cos𝛼 − cos𝛽 = −2sin sin .
2 2
77
9. Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Recall that for a function to have an inverse, it must be one-to-one. Since the
trigonometric functions are not one-to-one, they do not have inverses. So we restrict the
domain of each of the trigonometric functions to intervals on which they attain all their
values and on which they are one-to-one. The resulting functions have the same range
as the original functions but are one-to-one.
9.1 The Inverse Sine Function
Definition 9.1
𝜋 𝜋
• The sine function is one-to-one on [− , ] and has range [−1, 1] on this domain,
2 2
see Figure 45.
• We define sin−1 (or arcsin) to be the inverse of sine on this domain. It follows
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 (or arcsin) has domain [−1, 1] and range [− , ], see Figure 46. This means that
2 2
−1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = sin𝑦, where − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, − ≤ 𝑦 ≤ .
2 2
• Because of these restrictions, we must be a little careful with the inverse

relationships:
sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 (sin𝑥) = 𝑥 − ≤𝑥≤ .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
Figure 45: 𝑦 = sin𝑥 on [− , ] Figure 46: 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 on [−1, 1]
2 2
78
9.2 The Inverse Cosine Function
Definition 9.2
• The cosine function is one-to-one on [0, 𝜋] and has range [−1, 1] on this domain,
see Figure 47.
• We define cos −1 (or arccos) to be the inverse of sine on this domain. It follows
cos −1 (or arccos) has domain [−1, 1] and range [0, 𝜋], see Figure 48. This means that
𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = cos𝑦, where − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.

relationships:
cos(cos −1 𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
cos −1 (cos𝑥) = 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋.
Figure 47: 𝑦 = cos𝑥 on [0, 𝜋] Figure 48: 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 on [−1, 1]
9.3 The Inverse Tangent Function
Definition 9.3
𝜋 𝜋
• The tangent function is one-to-one on (− , ) and has range (−∞, ∞) on this
2 2
domain, see Figure 49.
• We define tan−1 (or arctan) to be the inverse of tangent on this domain. It follows
𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 (or arctan) has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (− , ), see Figure 50. This means
2 2
that
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = tan𝑦, where − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, − < 𝑦 < .
2 2

79
relationships:
tan(tan−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 (tan𝑥) = 𝑥 − <𝑥< .
2 2
Remark 9.1 Note that, 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 is an odd function, see Figure 50, that is
tan−1 (−𝑥) = −tan−1 𝑥, − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞.
𝜋 𝜋
Figure 49: 𝑦 = tan𝑥 on (− , ) Figure 50: 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 on (−∞, ∞)
2 2
9.4 The Inverse Cotangent Function
Definition 9.4
• The cotangent function is one-to-one on (0, 𝜋) and has range (−∞, ∞) on this
domain, see Figure 51.
• We define cot −1 (or ) to be the inverse of cotangent on this domain. It follows
cot −1 (or ) has domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, 𝜋), see Figure 52. This means that
𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = cot𝑦, where − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, 0 < 𝑦 < 𝜋.

relationships:
cot(cot −1 𝑥) = 𝑥 −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
cot −1 (cot𝑥) = 𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.
80
Figure 51: 𝑦 = cot𝑥 on (0, 𝜋) Figure 52: 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 on (−∞, ∞)
Remark 9.2 For 𝑥 > 0, we have

1 1
tan−1 𝑥 = cot −1 ( ), cot −1 𝑥 = tan−1 ( ).
𝑥 𝑥
9.5 The Inverse Secant Function
Definition 9.5
𝜋 𝜋
• The secant function is one-to-one on [0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋] and has range (−∞, −1] ∪
2 2
[1, ∞) on this domain, see Figure 53.
• We define sec −1 (or ) to be the inverse of secant on this domain. It follows sec −1
𝜋 𝜋
(or ) has domain (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) and range [0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋], see Figure 54. This
2 2
means that
𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = sec𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
where 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞), 𝑦 ∈ [0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋].
2 2

relationships:
sec(sec −1 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
𝜋 𝜋
sec −1 (sec𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ [0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋] .
2 2
81
𝜋 𝜋
Figure 53: 𝑦 = sec𝑥 on [0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋] Figure 54: 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 on (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
2 2
9.6 The Inverse Cosecant Function
Definition 9.6
𝜋 𝜋
• The cosecant function is one-to-one on [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] and has range (−∞, −1] ∪
2 2
[1, ∞) on this domain, see Figure 55.
• We define csc −1 (or ) to be the inverse of cosecant on this domain. It follows csc −1
𝜋 𝜋
(or ) has domain (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) and range [− , 0) ∪ (0, ], see Figure 56. This
2 2
means that
𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = csc𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
where 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞), 𝑦 ∈ [− , 0) ∪ (0, ].
2 2

relationships:
csc(csc −1 𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
𝜋 𝜋
csc −1 (csc𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] .
2 2
82
𝜋 𝜋
Figure 55: 𝑦 = csc𝑥 on [− , 0) ∪ (0, ] Figure 56: 𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 on (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
2 2
Remark 9.3 The function 𝑐𝑠𝑐 −1 𝑥 is odd function, see Figure 56, that is
csc −1 (−𝑥) = −csc −1 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
10. Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions have similar names to the trigonmetric functions, but they are
defined in terms of the exponential function.
Hyperbolic cosine of x:
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = cosh𝑥 =
2
Hyperbolic sine of x:
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = sinh𝑥 =
2
Hyperbolic tangent of x:
sinh𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = tanh𝑥 = = 𝑥 −𝑥
cosh𝑥 𝑒 +𝑒
Hyperbolic cotangent of x:
cosh𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = coth𝑥 = =
Hyperbolic secant of x:
1 2
𝑓(𝑥) = sech𝑥 = =
cosh𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
Hyperbolic cosecant of x:
1 2
𝑓(𝑥) = csch𝑥 = =
83
Basic Identities:
1. sinh𝑥 + cosh𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
2. cosh𝑥 − sinh𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑥
3. cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
4. 1 − tanh2 𝑥 = sech2 𝑥
5. coth2 𝑥 − 1 = csch2 𝑥
6. sinh2𝑥 = 2sinh𝑥 cosh𝑥
7. cosh2𝑥 = sinh2 𝑥 + cosh2 𝑥
8. cosh2𝑥 = 2sinh2 𝑥 + 1
9. cosh2𝑥 = 2cosh2 𝑥 − 1
10. sinh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sinh𝑥 cosh𝑦 ± cosh𝑥 sinh𝑦
11. cosh(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cosh𝑥 cosh𝑦 ± sinh𝑥 sinh𝑦
11. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Logarithm Formulas for Evaluating Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
sinh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) , −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

cosh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) , 𝑥≥1
1 1+𝑥
tanh−1 𝑥 = ln , |𝑥| < 1
2 1−𝑥
−1
1 + √1 − 𝑥 2
sech 𝑥 = ln ( ), 0<𝑥≤1
𝑥
−1
1 √1 + 𝑥 2
csch 𝑥 = ln ( + ), 𝑥≠0
𝑥 |𝑥|
1 𝑥+1
coth−1 𝑥 = ln , |𝑥| > 1
2 𝑥−1
84
Chapter 3: Limits
Definition:
We say that the number L is the limit of f (x ) as x approaches to a and write
lim f (x ) = L if for all   0 there exists   0 (usually depending on  ) such that
x→a
| f (x ) − L |  whenever 0 | x − a |  .
Theorem 1 (Limit Laws):
Suppose that f ( x ) and g (x ) are functions and that C is real number. If both
lim f (x ) and lim g (x ) exist, then
x→a x→a
(1) lim C = C .
x→a
(2) lim (C f (x ) ) = C lim f (x ) .

x→a x→a
(3) lim ( f (x )  g (x ) ) = lim f (x )  lim g (x ) .

x→a x→a x→a
(4) lim ( f (x )  g (x ) ) = lim f (x )  lim g (x ) .

x→a x→a x→a
 f (x )  xlim
→a
f (x )
(5) lim  = , lim g (x )  0 .

x → a g (x )
 xlim
→a
g (x ) x → a
n
(6) lim  f (x ) =  lim f (x )  , n is a positive integer.
n
x→a  x → a 
(7) lim n f (x ) = n lim f (x ) , n is a positive integer. [If n is even, we assume
x→a x→a
that lim f (x )  0 ]
x→a
Example 1:
Find the value of the following limits
5 x +2
( )
10
(1) lim 2 (2) lim (x 2 − 1)(x 2 + 4x + 1) (3) lim x 2 − 8
x → 9 x + x +1 x→2 x→3
Solution:
5 x +2 x→9
(
lim 5 x + 2 )
5  3 + 2 17
(1) lim 2 = = = .
x → 9 x + x +1
( )
lim x 2 + x + 1 81 + 9 + 1 91
x→9
85
(2) lim (x 2 − 1)(x 2 + 4x + 1) = lim (x 2 − 1)  lim(x 2 + 4x + 1) = (4 − 1)  (4 + 8 + 1) = 39 .
x→2 x→2 x→2
10
( ) =  lim (x 2 − 8)  = (9 − 8)10 = 1 .
10
(3) lim x 2 − 8
x→3 x→3 
Theorem 2 (Limits of Polynomials):

If P (x ) = c n x n + c n −1x n −1 + + c1x + c 0 , then
lim P (x ) = P (a ) = c n a n + c n −1a n −1 + + c1a + c 0 .
x →a
Theorem 3 (Limits of Rational Functions):
If P ( x ) and Q ( x ) are polynomials and Q (a )  0 , then
P (x ) P (a )
lim = .
x →a Q (x ) Q (a )
Example 2:
Find the value of the following limits:
x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 2
x → −2
(
(1) lim 2x − 4x + 1
2
) (2) lim
x → 1 3x 2 + 2x + −3
.
Solution:
( )
(1) lim 2x 2 − 4x + 1 = 2(−2)2 − 4(−2) + 1 = 17 .
x → −2
x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 2 (1)3 + 2(1) 2 − 3(1) + 2 2

(2) lim = = = 1.
x →1 3x 2 + 2x − 3 3(1) 2 + 2(1) − 3 2
0
The limit of the function which its value equal to
0
Now we state some examples which explain what do you do when the value of the
0 0
limit function is ( is undefined).
0 0
Example 3:
x 2 −9 x +2 x 2 − 4x
(1) lim (2) lim 2 (3) lim 2
x→3
x −3 x → −2
x +x −2 x→4
x − 3x − 4
x +1 −1 x −4
(4) lim (5) lim
x→0
x x→4
x −2
Solution:
x 2 −9 0
(1) lim =
x→3
x −3 0
86
x 2 −9 (x − 3)(x + 3)
lim = lim = lim(x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6 .
x→3
x − 3 x→3 x −3 x→3
x +2 0
(2) lim =
x → −2
x 2 +x −2 0
x +2 x +2 1 1 1
lim 2 = lim = lim = =− .
x → −2
x + x − 2 x → −2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x → −2 x − 1 −2 − 1 3
x 2 − 4x 0
(3) lim =
x→4
x − 3x − 4 0
2
x − 4x
2
x (x − 4) x 4 4
lim = lim = lim = = .
x→4
x 2 − 3x − 4 x → 4 (x + 1)(x − 4) x → 4 x + 1 4 + 1 5
x +1 −1 0
(4) lim =
x→0
x 0
lim
x +1 −1
= lim
x +1 −1

x +1 +1
= lim
( x +1 −1 )( x +1 +1 )
x→0
x x→0
x x +1 +1 x →0 x ( x +1 +1 )
(x + 1) − 1 x 1 1 1
= lim = lim = lim = = .
x→0
x ( x +1 +1 ) x→0
x ( x +1 +1 ) x→0
x +1 +1 0 +1 +1 2
x −4 0
(5) lim =
x→4
x −2 0
lim
x −4
= lim
x −4

x +2
= lim
( x − 4) ( x + 2) = lim ( x − 4) ( x + 2)
x→4
x − 2 x→4 x − 2 x + 2 x→4 x − 2 ( )( x + 2) x −4
x→4
= lim
x→4
( )
x + 2 = (2 + 2) = 4 .
Another solution:
x −4 ( x −2 )( x +2 ) = lim
lim
x→4
= lim
x − 2 x→4 x −2 x→4
( )
x + 2 = (2 + 2) = 4 .

The limit of the function which its value equal to

p (x )
If f (x ) = , where p ( x ) and q (x ) are polynomial functions and if lim p (x ) = 
q (x ) x →
and lim q (x ) =  , then

x →
87
lim p (x ) 
f (x ) = x → =
lim q (x ) 
x →

where is undefined. To solve the limits of this type, we dividing the numerator

and denominator by the highest power of x in the denominator, and then calculating
the limit as x →  of both numerator and denominator by using the fact that
1
lim n = 0 , n  0 .
x →  x
Example 4:
3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 1 x +5 x 3 + x +1
(1) lim (2) lim (3) lim
x →  4x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2 x →  2x 2 + x + 3 x →  x 2 + 5x + 2
Solution:
3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 1
(1) lim 3
x→ 
4x + x 2 + 3x − 2
dividing the numerator and denominator by x 3
3x 3 2x 2 x 1 2 1 1
+ 3 + 3− 3 3+ + 2 − 3
3x + 2x + x − 1
3 2 3
x x
lim = lim x 3 x 2 x x = lim x
x →  4x + x + 3x − 2
3 2
4x x 3x 2 x→  1 3 2
+ + − 4+ + 2 − 3
x3 x3 x3 x3 x x x
3+ 0+ 0−0 3
= =
4+0+0−0 4
x +5
(2) lim
x →  2x + x + 3
2

x 5 1 5
+ 2 + 2
x +5 x 2
x x x 0+0 0
lim = lim = lim = = = 0.
x →  2x 2 + x + 3 x →  2x 2 x 3 x→  2+ 1 + 3 2+0+0 2
+ +
x2 x2 x2 x x2
x 3 + x +1
(3) lim 2
x →  x + 5x + 2

x3 x 1 1 1
+ + 1 + +
x + x +1
3 3 3
x 3 = lim x 2 x 3 = 1+ 0 + 0 = 1 =  .
lim 2 = lim x 2 x
x →  x + 5x + 2 x→  x 5x 2 x→  1 + 5 + 2 0+0+0 0
+ 3+ 3
x 3
x x x x2 x3
88
Example 5:
(1) lim
3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 1
x →  4x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2
(2) lim
x → 
x 2 +5
x +1
(3) lim
x → 
( x 2 + 4x − x 2 + 3x )
Solution:
3x 3 + 2x 2 + x − 1
(1) lim
x → −
4x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2
3x 3 2x 2 x 1 2 1 1
+ 3 + 3− 3 3+ + 2 − 3
3x + 2x + x − 1
3 2 3
x x
lim = lim x 3 x 2 x x = lim x
x → − 4x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2 x → − 4x x 3x 2 x → − 1 3 2
+ + − 4+ + 2 − 3
x3 x3 x3 x3 x x x
3+ 0+ 0−0 3
= =
4+0+0−0 4
5 5
x 2 1+ 2 | x | 1+ 2
x +5
2
x = lim x
(2) xlim = lim
→ 
x +1 x → 
x +1 x → 
x +1
if x →  , then | x |= x
5 5
| x | 1+ 2
x 1+ 2
 lim x = lim x
x→ 
x +1 x→ 
x +1
dividing the numerator and denominator by x
5 5
x 1+ 2 1+ 2
 lim x = lim x = 1+ 0 =1
x→ 
x +1 x→ 
1+
1 1+ 0
x
if x → −  , then | x |= −x
5 5
| x | 1+ 2
−x 1 + 2
 lim x = lim x
x → −
x +1 x → −
x +1
dividing the numerator and denominator by x
5 5
−x 1 + 2 1+ 2
 lim x = − lim x = 1 + 0 = −1 .
x → −
x +1 x → −
1+
1 1+ 0
x
89
(3)
lim
x → 
( x + 4x − x + 3x = lim
2 2
) x → 
( x + 4x − x + 3x 
2 2
) x 2 + 4x + x 2 + 3x
x 2 + 4x + x 2 + 3x
= lim
(x 2
+ 4x ) − ( x 2 + 3x )
= lim
x
x → 
x + 4x + x + 3x
2 2
x + 4x + x 2 + 3x
x →  2
x x
= lim = lim
x → 
4 3 x →  4 3
x 2 1+ + x 2 1+ | x | 1+ + | x | 1+
x x x x
if x →  , then | x |= x
x 1 1 1
 lim = lim = =
x→ 
4 3 x→  4 3 1+ 0 + 1+ 0 2
x 1+ + x 1+ 1+ + 1+
x x x x
if x → −  , then | x |= −x
x 1 1 1
 lim = lim = =− .
x → −
4 3 x → − 4 3 − 1+ 0 − 1+ 0 2
−x 1 + − x 1 + − 1+ − 1+
x x x x
Some important other limits:

sin x
(1) The limit lim =1
x→0
x
Example 6:
sin 2x x tan x
(1) lim (2) lim (3) lim
x→0 x→0 x→0
x sin x x
sin 3x 3x + sin 2x 1 − cos 2x
(4) lim (5) lim (6) lim
x→0
sin 5x x→0
4x − sin 3x x→0
x2
Solution:
sin 2x sin 2x
(1) lim = 2 lim = 2 1 = 2 .
x→0 2x → 0
x 2x
x
x 1 1 1
(2) lim = lim x = lim = = = 1.
x→0
sin x x → 0 sin x x → 0 sin x lim sin x 1
x→0
x x x
sin x
tan x sin x sin x 1
(3) lim = lim cos x = lim = lim  lim = 1 1 = 1 .
x→0 x→0 x→0
x x x cos x x → 0 x x→0
cos x
90
sin 3x sin 3x sin 3x
lim 3 lim
(4) lim
sin 3x
= lim x =
x→0
x = 3x → 0 3x = 3  1 = 3 .
x→0
sin 5x x → 0 sin 5x lim sin 5x 5 lim sin 5x 5  1 5
x→0 5x → 0
x x 5x
3x + sin 2x 3x sin 2x sin 2x
3x + sin 2x + 3 +
(5) lim = lim x = lim x x = lim x
x → 0 4x − sin 3x
x→0
4x − sin 3x x → 0 4x
−
sin 3x x→0
4−
sin 3x
x x x x
 sin 2x  sin 2x
lim  3 +  3 + 2 2lim
=
x→0
 x 
=
x→0
2x = 3 + 2  1 = 5 = 5 .
 sin 3x 
4 − 3 lim
sin 3x 4 − 3 1 1
lim  4 − 
x→0
 x  3x → 0
3x
(6) cos 2x = 1 − 2sin 2 x  2sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2x

1 − cos 2x
2 2
2sin 2 x sin 2 x  sin x   sin x 
lim = lim = 2lim = 2lim   = 2  lim  = 2 1 = 1
 x   x 
x→0 2 x→0 2 x→0 2 x→0 x→0
x x x
x n − an
(2) The limit lim = n a n −1
x→a
x −a
Example 7:
x 4 − 16 x 3 − 125
(1) lim (2) lim
x→2
x −2 x →5
x −5
Solution:
x 4 − 16 x 4 − 24
(1) lim = lim = 4  24−1 = 4  23 = 32
x→2
x − 2 x→2 x − 2
x 3 − 125 x 3 − 53
(2) lim = lim = 3  53−1 = 4  52 = 100
x→5
x −5 x→5
x −5
x n − an n
(3) The limit lim m = a n −m
x→a
x −a m
m
Example 8:
x 4 − 81 x −8
(1) lim 3 (2) lim
x→3
x − 27 x → 64
3
x −4
91
Solution:
x 4 − 81 x 4 − 34 4 4−3 4
(1) lim 3 = lim = 3 = 3 = 4.
x→3
x − 27 x → 3 x 3 − 33 3 3
(2)
x 1/ 2 − ( 64 )
1/ 2
x −8 x 1/ 2 − 8 1/ 2 1 1
 −  3 1
  3
lim = lim 1/ 3 = lim 1/ 3 =  64  2 3
=  64 6
= 2=3
x − 4 x → 64 x − 4 x → 64 x − ( 64 )
3 1/ 3
x → 64 1/ 3 2 2
x
 1
(4) The limit lim  1 +  =e
x→
 x 
Example 9:
2x x +5 x +3
 1  1  2
(1) lim 1 +  (2) lim 1 +  (3) lim 1 + 
x →  x  x →  x  x →  x 
Solution:
2 2
 1
2x
 1  
x
 1 
x
(1) lim 1 +  = lim 1 +   = lim 1 +   = e 2 .

x →  x x →  x    x →  x  

x +5 x 5 x 5
 1  1  1  1  1
(2) lim 1 +  = lim 1 +    1 +  = lim  1 +   lim  1 + 
x →  x  x →  x   x  x →  x  x →  x 
5
1  1 
x
 
= lim 1 +   lim  1 +   = e  1 + 0 = e .
5
x →  x   x →  x  
x +3
 2
(3) lim 1 + 
x →  x 
let x = 2 y , then x →   2 y →   y →  , and so
x +3 2 y +3 2 y +3 2y 3
 2  2   1  1  1
 1+  = lim 1 + = lim 1 +  = lim 1 +   1 + 
2 y 
lim
x →  x  y →  y →  y  y →  y  y
2
 1 
3
 1 
y
 
= lim 1 +    lim 1 +   = e 2  (1 + 0)3 = e 2 .
 y →  y    y →  y 
92
Right limits and left limits
Definition 2:
If f (x ) is defined near a for x  a , and that as x gets close to a whenever f (x )
gets close to L , then we say that L is the right hand limit of f (x ) as x approaches
a and we write
lim f (x ) = L .
x → a+
Definition 3:
If f (x ) is defined near a for x  a , and that as x gets close to a whenever f (x )
gets close to L , then we say that L is the left hand limit of f (x ) as x approaches a
and we write
lim f (x ) = L .
x → a−
Theorem:
lim f (x ) = L exists if and only if the following conditions hold:
x→a
(i) lim f (x ) exists,

x → a+
(ii) lim f (x ) exists,

x → a−
(iii) lim f (x ) = lim f (x ) = L .

x → a+ x → a−
Example 10:
Calculate the value of the following limits
 x, x 3 x + 1, x  0
(1) lim f (x ) , f (x ) =  (2) lim f (x ) , f (x ) = 
x→3
6 − x , x  3 x→0
 x − 1, x  0
| x − 1| 3x − 2, x  2
(3) lim (4) lim f (x ) , f (x ) = 
x →1
x −1 x→2
 2x , x 2
x +|x |
(5) lim
x→0
x
Solution:
 x, x 3
(1) lim f (x ) , f (x ) = 
x→3
6 − x , x  3
(i) lim f (x ) = lim x = 3 exists
x → 3+ x → 3+
(ii) lim f (x ) = lim(6 − x ) = 6 − 3 = 3 exists

x → 3− x → 3−
(iii) lim f (x ) = lim f (x ) = 3

x → 3+ x → 3−
93
then lim f (x ) = 3 .
x→3
x + 1, x  0
(2) lim f (x ) , f (x ) = 
x→0
 x − 1, x  0
(i) lim f (x ) = lim (x + 1) = 1 exists
x → 0+ x → 0+
(ii) lim f (x ) = lim (x − 1) = −1 exists

x → 0− x → 0−
(iii) lim f (x )  lim f ( x )

x → 0+ x → 0−
then lim f (x ) does not exist.

x→0
| x − 1|
(3) lim
x →1
x −1
 x −1
, x −1  0
| x − 1|  x − 1  1, x  1
= =
x − 1  − ( x − 1) −1, x  1
, x −1  0 
 x − 1
| x − 1|
(i) lim = lim1 = 1 exists
+
x →1 x −1 x →1 +
| x − 1|
(ii) lim = lim(−1) = −1exists
x →1 −
x −1 x →1 −
| x − 1| | x − 1|
(iii) lim  lim
x →1 +
x −1 x →1 x −1 −
| x − 1|
then lim does not exist.
x →1
x −1
3x − 2, x  2
(4) lim f (x ) , f (x ) = 
x→2
 2x , x 2
(i) lim f (x ) = lim ( 3x − 2 ) = 6 − 2 = 4 exists
x → 2+ x → 2+
(ii) lim f (x ) = lim 2x = 4 exists

x → 2− x → 2−
(iii) lim f (x ) = lim f (x ) = 4

x → 2+ x → 2−
then lim f (x ) = 4 .
x→2
x+ | x |
(5) lim
x→ 0 x
x + x, x  0
x+ | x |  x 2, x  0
= =
 x − x , x  0 0, x  0
x
 x
94
x+ | x |
(i) lim+ = 2 exists
x→ 0 x
x+ | x |
(ii) lim− = 0 exists
x→ 0 x
x+ | x | x+ | x |
(iii) lim+  lim−
x→ 0 x x→ 0 x
x+ | x |
then lim does not exist.
x→ 0 x
95
Exercises
x 2 − 6x + 5 x 2 − 3x + 2 x +a − a
(1) lim (2) lim (3) lim
x →1
x 2 −1 x →1
x 2 −x x→0
x
3− x 2x 3 + x 2 − 2x + 5 x2 +2
(4) lim (5) lim (6) lim
x→9
x −9 x→ 
x 3 + 2x 2 + 7 x + 3 x→ 
3x 3 + x + 1
(7) lim
x 2 +7
x → − 2x 2 + x − 8
(8) lim
x → 
x +1
x +x2
(9) lim
x → 
( x 2 + 7x − x 2 + 5x )
tan 3x sin 2x − sin 3x sin(1 − x )
(10) lim (11) lim (12) lim
x→0
x x→0
x x →1
x −1
tan 2x 5x + tan 3x tan 2x − sin 2x
(13) lim (14) lim (15) lim
x→0
sin 3x x→0
7x − sin 5x x→0 x3
x 8 − 256 2x 3 − 128 x −9
(16) lim (17) lim 2 (18) lim
x→2
x −2 x→4
x − 16 x → 81
4
x −3
x +4 x x +4
 1  1   5
(19) lim 1 +  (20) lim 1 +  (21) lim 1 + 
x →  x  x →  x +4 x →  x 
 2x − 5, x 3 x −|x |
(22) lim f (x ) , f (x ) =  (23) lim
x→3
 1, x 3 x→0 x
 x 2, x  −1 | x −5|
(24) xlim f (x ) , f (x ) =  (25) lim
→ −1
2x + 3, x  −1 x→5
x −5
kx − 3 x  −1
(26) If f ( x) =  , find the value the constant k such that lim f ( x)
 k − x x  − 1 x → −1
exists.
 mx + 4 x2
(27) If f ( x) =  , find the value the constant m such that lim f (x )
m + 2 x x2 x→2
exists.
96
Chapter 4: Continuity
Definition 1:
The function f is continuous at the point x = a if the following conditions hold:
(1) f (a ) exists,
(2) lim f (x ) exists (this condition is equivalent to lim+ f (x ) = lim− f (x ) ),
x→ a x→ a x→ a
(3) lim f (x ) = f (a ) .
x→a
Definition 2:
The function f is continuous on an open interval (a ,b ) if the function f is
continuous at any point of points of (a ,b ) .
Definition 3:
(1) We say that f is right continuous at c if lim+ f (x ) = f (c ) .
x →c
(2) We say that f is left continuous at c if lim− f (x ) = f (c ) .

x →c
Definition 4:
The function f is continuous on a closed interval [a ,b ] if the function f is
continuous on (a ,b ) and the function is defined at a , b such that
lim− f (x ) = f (b ) , lim+ f (x ) = f (a ) .
x→b x →a
Remark:
Any polynomial function is continuous at any real number.
Theorem:
If f and g are two continuous functions at x = a , then
(1) ( cf )(x ) = cf (x ) ( c is constant) is continuous function at x = a .
(2) ( f  g )(x ) = f (x )  g (x ) is continuous function at x = a .
(3) ( f  g )(x ) = f (x )  g (x ) is continuous function at x = a .
f  f (x )
(4)   (x ) = , g (x )  0 is continuous function at x = a .
g  g (x )
97
Example 1:
Discuss the continuity of the following functions at the given point
| x |
 x 0
(1) f (x ) =| x − 3 | at x = 3 . (2) f (x ) =  x at x = 0 .
 1 x = 0
x 2 −1
 x 1 5 + x x  3
(3) f (x ) =  x − 1 at x = 1 . (4) f (x ) =  at x = 3 .
 2 9 − x x  3
 x =1
 x +1 −1
 x 0
(5) f (x ) =  x at x = 0 .
 x =0
 3
Solution:
(1) f (x ) =| x − 3 | at x = 3
 x −3 x −30  x −3 x 3
f (x ) =| x − 3 |=  =
−(x − 3) x − 3  0 − x + 3 x  3
(i) f (3) = 3 − 3 = 0
(ii) lim+ f (x ) = lim+ ( x − 3) = 3 − 3 = 0
x→3 x→3
lim f (x ) = lim− (− x + 3) = −3 + 3 = 0
x → 3− x→3
 lim+ f (x ) = lim− f (x ) = 0  lim f ( x ) = 0

x→3 x→3 x→3
(iii) lim f (x ) = f (3) = 0

x→3
then the function f (x ) =| x − 3 | is continuous at x = 3 .
| x |
 x 0
(2) f (x ) =  x at x = 0
 1 x = 0
x
x x 0
| x |  1 x 0
 x  0  −x 
f (x ) =  x = x  0 = −1 x  0
 1 x = 0  x 1 x =0
 1 x = 0 

(i) f (0) = 1
98
(ii) lim+ f (x ) = lim+ 1 = 1
x→0 x→0
lim f (x ) = lim− (−1) = −1
x → 0− x→0
 lim+ f (x )  lim− f (x )
x→0 x→0
then the limit does not exist and so the function is not continuous at x = 0 .
x 2 −1
 x 1
(3) f (x ) =  x − 1 at x = 1
 2 x =1

(i) f (1) = 2
x 2 − 1 2 2−1
(ii) lim f (x ) = lim = (1) = 2
x →1 x →1 x −1 1
(iii) lim f (x ) = f (1) = 2
x →1
then the function is continuous at x = 1 .
5 + x x  3
(4) f (x ) =  at x = 3
9 − x x  3
(i) f (3) = 5 + 3 = 8
(ii) lim+ f (x ) = lim+ (9 − x ) = 9 − 3 = 6
x→3 x→3
lim f (x ) = lim− (5 + x ) = 5 + 3 = 8
x → 3− x→3
 lim+ f (x )  lim− f (x )
x→3 x→3
then the limit does not exist and so the function is not continuous at x = 3 .
 x +1 −1
 x 0
(5) f (x ) =  x at x = 0
 x =0
 3
(i) f (0) = 3
(ii) lim f (x ) = lim

x +1 −1

x +1 +1
= lim
( x +1 −1 )( x +1 +1 )
x→0 x→0 x x +1 +1 x → 0 x ( x +1 +1 )
= lim
( x +1 −1 )( ) = lim
x +1 +1 (x + 1) − 1
= lim
x
x→0 x ( x +1 +1 ) x→0 x ( x +1 +1 ) x→0x
( x +1 +1 )
99
1 1
= lim =
x → 0 x +1 +1 2
(iii) lim f (x )  f (0)
x→0
then the function is not continuous at x = 0 .
Remark:
The functions are continuous whenever they are defined (i.e. on its domain).
Example 2:
The function f (x ) = x is continuous on  0, ) .
Example 3:
1
The function f (x ) = is continuous on − 0 .
x
Continuous Extensions and Removable Discontinuous:
Continuous Extension:
If f (c ) is not defined, but lim f (x ) = L exists, we can define a new function
x→c
 f (x ), x  c
F ( x ) by F (x ) =  . The function F ( x ) is called the continuous
 L , x = c
extension of the function f (x ) at c .
Example 4:
x 2 −4
Find the continuous extension of f (x ) = at x = 2 .
x −2
Solution:
x 2 −4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4 ,
x→2 x −2 x→2 x −2 x→2
x 2 − 4
x 2 −4  , x 2
then the continuous extension of f (x ) = at x = 2 is f (x ) =  x − 2 .
x −2  4,
 x =2
Removable Discontinuous:
If a function f is undefined or discontinuous at a point c but can be redefined at the
single point so that it becomes continuous there, the we say that f has a removable
discontinuity at c
100
Example 5:
x , x 2
The function g ( x ) =  has a removable discontinuity at x = 2 .
1, x =2
x , x 2
To remove it, redefine g (2) = 2 , then g ( x ) =  is continuity at
 2, x =2
x = 2.
101
Exercises
(1) Discuss the continuity of the following functions at the given point
 | x − 1| x 2 − 9
 x 1  x 3
(i) f (x ) =  x − 1 at x = 1 (ii) f (x ) =  x − 3 at x = 3
 1 x =1  6 x =3

−1 x  0
 2x x 2 
(iii) f (x ) =  at x = 2 (iv) f (x ) =  0 x = 0 at x = 0
6 − x x  2 1 x 0

(2) Where are the following functions continuous?
x −2
(i) f (x ) = 3x 2 − 2x (ii) f (x ) = 2 (iii) f (x ) = x − 1
x −4
(3) Find the continuous extension of the following functions:
x 2 −3 1+ x 3
(i) f (x ) = at x = 3 (ii) f (x ) = at x = −1
x −3 1− x 2
102
General Revision on Chapter 1
(1) The set x : 0  x  9 =
Ⓐ ( 0,9 ) Ⓑ  0,9 Ⓒ  0,9 ) Ⓓ ( 0,9
(1) The set x : x  4 or x  3 =

Ⓐ ( −,3  4,  ) Ⓑ ( −,3 ( 4,  ) Ⓒ ( −,3) ( 4,  ) Ⓓ ( −,3)  4,  )
(1) The set x : x  −3 =

Ⓐ ( −3,  ) Ⓑ ( −, − 3) Ⓒ ( −,  ) Ⓓ ( −, − 3) ( −3,  )
(2) The set x : x = 2 or 5  x  11 =

Ⓐ 2 ( 5,11 Ⓑ 2 5,11) Ⓒ 2 ( 5,11) Ⓓ  2,11
(3) The solution set of the inequality 2x − 5  3 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 4 ) Ⓑ ( −, 4 ) Ⓒ ( 4, ) Ⓓ ( −4,  )
(4) The solution set of the inequality 8 − x  6 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, 2 Ⓑ ( −, − 2 Ⓒ  2, ) Ⓓ  −2,  )
(5) The solution set of the inequality 1  3x + 4  16 is …………

Ⓐ ( −2,5 Ⓑ ( 2,5 Ⓒ (1,4 Ⓓ ( −1,4
(6) The solution set of the inequality 7 − 3x  −17 is …………

Ⓐ  −8,  ) Ⓑ 8, ) Ⓒ ( −,8 Ⓓ ( −, − 8
(7) The solution set of the inequality (x − 5)(x + 11)  0 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 11) ( 5,  ) Ⓑ ( −5,11) Ⓒ ( −11,5 ) Ⓓ ( −, − 5 ) (11,  )
103
(8) The solution set of the inequality x (3x + 5)  0 is …………
5   5   5  5
Ⓐ ( −,0  ,   Ⓑ  − ,0 Ⓒ  −, −  0,  ) Ⓓ 0, 
3   3   3  3
(9) The solution set of the inequality x 2  −7 x − 6 is …………

Ⓐ ( −,1) ( 6,  ) Ⓑ (1,6 ) Ⓒ ( −6, − 1) Ⓓ ( −, − 6 ) ( −1,  )
(10) The solution set of the inequality x 2 + 3x − 18  0 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 6 3,  ) Ⓑ  −6,3 Ⓒ ( −, − 3  6,  ) Ⓓ  −3,6
(12) The solution set of the inequality x 2  9 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 3) ( 3,  ) Ⓑ  −3,3 Ⓒ ( −, − 3 3,  ) Ⓓ ( −3,3)
104
General Revision on Chapter 2
Polynomial, rational and nth root functions
1
(1) The domain of the function f (x ) = is …………
x +5
Ⓐ − 5 Ⓑ − −5 Ⓒ − 0 Ⓓ
x
x −x −6
2
Ⓐ − 2,3 Ⓑ − −3, − 2 Ⓒ − −2,3 Ⓓ − −3,2
1
x 2 +9
Ⓐ Ⓑ − −3,3 Ⓒ − 3 Ⓓ − −3
x
x −4
2
Ⓐ − 2 Ⓑ − −2 Ⓒ − −2,2 Ⓓ
2x + 3
(5) The domain of the function f (x ) = is…………
x 2 − 3x + 2
Ⓐ − 1,2 Ⓑ − −2, − 1 Ⓒ − −1,2 Ⓓ − −2,1
3x + 5
x − x − 12
2
Ⓐ − −4, − 3 Ⓑ − −3,4 Ⓒ − −4,3 Ⓓ − 3,4
(7) The domain of the function f (x ) = x + 4 is …………

Ⓐ  4, ) Ⓑ  −4,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 4 Ⓓ ( −, 4
105
(8) The domain of the function f (x ) = 6 − 2x is …………
Ⓐ 3, ) Ⓑ  −3,  ) Ⓒ ( −,3 Ⓓ ( −, − 3
(9) The domain of the function f (x ) = 16 − x 2 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 4  4,  ) Ⓑ ( −4, 4 ) Ⓒ  −4,4 Ⓓ ( −, − 4 ) ( 4,  )
(10) The domain of the function f (x ) = x 2 − 4 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 2  2,  ) Ⓑ ( −2,2 ) Ⓒ  −2, 2 Ⓓ ( −, − 2 ) ( 2,  )
(11) The domain of the function f (x ) = 3 x 2 − 5x + 6 is …………

Ⓐ ( −,2 ) ( 3,  ) Ⓑ Ⓒ ( −,2 3,  ) Ⓓ  2,3
(12) The domain of the function f (x ) = x 2 + 5x + 6 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 3) ( −2,  ) Ⓑ ( −3, − 2 ) Ⓒ ( −, − 3  −2,  ) Ⓓ  −3, − 2
(13) The domain of the function f (x ) = 4 x 2 − 25 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 5 ) ( 5,  ) Ⓑ Ⓒ  −5,5 Ⓓ ( −, − 5 5,  )
1
1− x 2
Ⓐ ( −, − 1 1,  ) Ⓑ ( −1,1) Ⓒ  −1,1 Ⓓ ( −, − 1) (1,  )
(15) The domain of the function f (x ) = x 2 + 25 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 5 5,  ) Ⓑ  −5,5 Ⓒ Ⓓ ( −, − 5 ) ( 5,  )
(16) The domain of the function f (x ) = 5 x 2 − 7x + 12 is …………

Ⓐ Ⓑ ( −, − 3) ( −2,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 3  −2,  ) Ⓓ  −3, − 2
106
(17) If f (x ) = x 2 + 8 , then the range of f is …………
Ⓐ  −8,  ) Ⓑ 8, ) Ⓒ ( −,8 Ⓓ ( −, − 8
(18) If f (x ) = 2 − x 2 , then the range of f is …………

Ⓐ  −2,  ) Ⓑ  2, ) Ⓒ ( −, 2 Ⓓ ( −, − 2
(19) The domain of the function f (x ) = x + 4 is …………

Ⓐ  4, ) Ⓑ  −4,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 4 Ⓓ ( −, 4
(20) The range of the function f (x ) = x + 4 is …………

Ⓐ ( −,0 Ⓑ  4, ) Ⓒ  0, ) Ⓓ
(21) The domain of the function f (x ) = 6 − x is …………

Ⓐ  −6,  ) Ⓑ  6, ) Ⓒ ( −, − 6 Ⓓ ( −,6
(22) The range of the function f (x ) = 6 − x is …………

Ⓐ  0, ) Ⓑ  −6,  ) Ⓒ ( −,0 Ⓓ
(23) The domain of the function f (x ) = 25 − x 2 is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 5 5,  ) Ⓑ ( −5,5 ) Ⓒ  −5,5 Ⓓ ( −, − 5 ) ( 5,  )
(24) The range of the function f (x ) = 25 − x 2 is …………

Ⓐ 5, ) Ⓑ  0,5 Ⓒ  −5,5 Ⓓ ( 0,5 )
(25) If f (x ) = x 2 − 8x + 6 , then the range of f is …………

Ⓐ ( −, − 10 Ⓑ 10, ) Ⓒ ( −,10 Ⓓ  −10,  )
107
(26) If f (x ) = 3 − x 2 − 6x , then the range of f is …………
Ⓐ  −12,  ) Ⓑ 12, ) Ⓒ ( −,12 Ⓓ ( −, − 12
(27) If f (x ) = 3 − 4x − x 2 , then the range of f is …………

Ⓐ  7, ) Ⓑ  −7,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 7  Ⓓ ( −,7 
(28) If f (x ) = 2x 2 + 8x + 4 , then the range of f is …………

Ⓐ  −2,  ) Ⓑ  −4,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 4 Ⓓ ( −, − 2
108
Even and odd functions
(11) The function f (x ) = x 3 + 1 is …………
Ⓐ even Ⓑ neither even nor odd Ⓒ odd Ⓓ even and odd
(12) The function f (x ) = x − x 3 is …………

(13) The function f (x ) = x 2 − 1 is …………

x2
(14) The function f (x ) = is …………
2−x 2
x 2 −5
(15) The function f (x ) = 3 is …………
x +x
(16) The function f (x ) = x 2 − 6x is …………

x +1
x 2 +8
Ⓐ even Ⓑ neither even nor odd Ⓑ odd Ⓓ even and odd
109
Increasing and decreasing functions
(16) The function f (x ) = 4x + 5 is …………
Ⓐ increasing function on ℝ Ⓑ decreasing function on ℝ
(16) The function f (x ) = x 3 − 5 is …………

(16) The function f (x ) = 3 − 2x is …………

(16) The function f (x ) = 1 − 2x 3 is …………

110
Absolute value function
(17) The solution set of the equality 3x − 4 = 12 is …………
 8 16   8 16   16 8   16 8 
Ⓐ − ,  Ⓑ ,  Ⓒ − ,  Ⓓ − , − 
 3 3 3 3   3 3  3 3
(17) The solution set of the equality 5x + 2 = −3 is …………

 1   1  1 Ⓓ
Ⓐ − ,1 Ⓑ −1, −  Ⓒ −1, 
 5   5  5
2
(17) The solution set of the equality x − 8 = 0 is …………
3
Ⓐ 0,12 Ⓑ −12 Ⓒ 12 Ⓓ −12,0
(17) The solution set of the equality x − 5 = 2x + 1 is …………

 4   4  4 4 
Ⓐ  − ,6 Ⓑ −6,  Ⓒ −6, −  Ⓓ  ,6 
 3   3  3 3 
(17) The solution set of the equality 2x + 5 = 3 is …………

Ⓐ −1,4 Ⓑ 1,4 Ⓒ −4,1 Ⓓ −4, − 1
(18) The solution set of the equality x − 3 = 7 is …………

Ⓐ 4,10 Ⓑ −4,10 Ⓒ −10, − 4 Ⓓ −10,4
(19) The solution set of the equality 3x − 6 = 0 is…………

Ⓐ Ⓑ −2, 2 Ⓒ −2 Ⓓ 2
(19) The solution set of the equality 2x + 12 = 0 is …………

Ⓐ Ⓑ −6,6 Ⓒ −6 Ⓓ 6
111
(19) The solution set of the equality x − 3 = −7 is …………
Ⓐ Ⓑ 7 Ⓒ 10 Ⓓ −10,10
(19) The solution set of the equality 2x − 3 = x + 6 is

Ⓐ −9,1 Ⓑ 1,9 Ⓒ −9, − 1 Ⓓ −1,9
(19) The solution set of the equality 4x + 5 = 2x − 3 is …………

 1  1  1  1 
Ⓐ −4,  Ⓑ −4, −  Ⓒ − ,4 Ⓓ  ,4 
 3  3  3  3 
(20) The solution set of the inequality x + 1  1 is …………

Ⓐ ( −2,0 ) Ⓑ ( −, − 2 ) ( 0,  ) Ⓒ ( −,0 ) ( 2,  ) Ⓓ ( 0,2 )
(20) The solution set of the inequality 12 − x  19 is …………

Ⓐ  −31,7  Ⓑ ( −, − 31 7,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 7  31,  ) Ⓓ  −7,31
(21) The solution set of the inequality x + 5  12 is …………

Ⓐ ( −17,7 ) Ⓑ ( −, − 17 ) ( 7,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 7 ) (17,  ) Ⓓ ( −7,17 )
(20) The solution set of the inequality 16 − x  10 is …………

Ⓐ  −6,26 Ⓑ ( −, − 6  26,  ) Ⓒ ( −,6  26,  ) Ⓓ  6, 26
(20) The solution set of the inequality 3x − 2  1 is …………

1   1  1 1 
Ⓐ  ,1 Ⓑ  −,  (1,  ) Ⓒ  −,  1,  ) Ⓓ  ,1
3   3  3 3 
(21) The solution set of the inequality 3x − 2  1 is …………

1   1  1 1 
Ⓐ  ,1 Ⓑ  −,  (1,  ) Ⓒ  −,  1,  ) Ⓓ  ,1
3   3  3 3 
112
(22) The solution set of the inequality x + 2  3 is …………
Ⓐ ( −5,1) Ⓑ ( −, − 5 ) (1,  ) Ⓒ  −5,1 Ⓓ ( −, − 5 1,  )
(23) The solution set of the inequality x + 2  3 is …………

Ⓐ ( −5,1) Ⓑ ( −, − 5 ) (1,  ) Ⓒ  −5,1 Ⓓ ( −, − 5 1,  )
(24) The solution set of the inequality 2x + 5  7 is …………

Ⓐ ( −6,1) Ⓑ ( −, − 6 ) (1,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 6 1,  ) Ⓓ  −6,1
(25) The solution set of the inequality 2x + 5  7 is …………

Ⓐ ( −6,1) Ⓑ ( −, − 6 ) (1,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 6 1,  ) Ⓓ  −6,1
113
Exponential functions
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = a x is …………
Ⓐ 1, ) Ⓑ  0, ) Ⓒ ( 0, ) Ⓓ
(25) The range of the function f (x ) = a x is …………

Ⓐ 1, ) Ⓑ  0, ) Ⓒ ( 0, ) Ⓓ
(25) If 23x + 2 = 32 then x =

Ⓐ1 Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ2 Ⓓ −2
(25) If 32 x −4 = 9 then x =
Ⓐ −3 Ⓑ3 Ⓒ2 Ⓓ −2
(25) If ( 27 ) = ( 81)
2 x −1 x +2
then x =
13 11 9 15
Ⓐ Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ
2 2 2 2
( )
2 x +3
= ( 25)
3−x
(25) If 5 then x =
1 7 5 3
Ⓐ Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ
2 2 2 2
(25) If 2− x = 32 then x =
Ⓐ5 Ⓑ −5 Ⓒ4 Ⓓ −4
x
1 1
(25) If   = then x =
4 64
Ⓐ4 Ⓑ −3 Ⓒ3 Ⓓ −4
114
(25) If 22 x −1 = 8 then x =
Ⓐ3 Ⓑ −3 Ⓒ −2 Ⓓ2
1
(25) If 5x +4 = then x =
5
Ⓐ3 Ⓑ −3 Ⓒ −5 Ⓓ −3
3
(25) The solution set of the exponential equation 3x = 3x is ………..
Ⓐ −1,0,1 Ⓑ −1,0 Ⓒ −1,1 Ⓓ  0,1
25) The solution set of the exponential equation ( 25 )

x2
= 5x is ………..
Ⓐ  0,2  1  1 Ⓓ 0
Ⓑ 0,  Ⓒ 
 2  2
25) The solution set of the exponential equation ( 27 ) = ( 81) is ………..

− x +5 x
 17   11   13   15 
Ⓐ  Ⓑ  Ⓒ  Ⓓ 
 7  7  7  7
25) The solution set of the exponential equation 4x  2x = (16 ) is ………..

2 2
Ⓐ −2,4 Ⓑ 2,4 Ⓒ −4,2 Ⓓ  − 4, − 2
25) The solution set of the exponential equation e x = e 3x +8 is ………..

Ⓐ 2 Ⓑ 4 Ⓒ −4,4 Ⓓ  − 4
2 1
25) The solution set of the exponential equation e x = e 3x  is ………..
e2
Ⓐ −2, − 1 Ⓑ 1,2 Ⓒ −1, 2 Ⓓ  − 2,1
115
Logarithmic functions
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = loga x is …………
Ⓐ 1, ) Ⓑ  0, ) Ⓒ ( 0, ) Ⓓ
(25) The range of the function f (x ) = loga x is …………

Ⓐ 1, ) Ⓑ  0, ) Ⓒ ( 0, ) Ⓓ
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = log 3 (x − 5) is …………

Ⓐ ( −5,  ) Ⓑ 5, ) Ⓒ ( 5, ) Ⓓ
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = log1/3 (1 − x 2 ) is …………

Ⓐ ( −1,1) Ⓑ 1, ) Ⓒ  −1,1 Ⓓ
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = ln(2x − 4) is …………

Ⓐ ( −2,  ) Ⓑ  2, ) Ⓒ ( 2, ) Ⓓ
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = log(3 − x ) is …………

Ⓐ ( −,3) Ⓑ 3, ) Ⓒ ( 3, ) Ⓓ ( −, − 3)
(25) The domain of the function f (x ) = log 2 (x 2 − 9) is …………

Ⓐ ( −3,3) Ⓑ ( −, − 3) ( 3,  ) Ⓒ ( −, − 3 3,  ) Ⓓ  −3,3
(25) log 3 27 =
Ⓐ6 Ⓑ1 Ⓒ −3 Ⓓ3
 1 
(25) ln  =
 e
1 1 Ⓒ −2 Ⓓ2
Ⓐ Ⓑ−
2 2
116
(25) log 9 107 =
7 9 Ⓒ10 7
Ⓐ Ⓑ Ⓓ−
9 7 9
(25) log5 3log3 125 =

Ⓐ1 Ⓑ5 Ⓒ3 Ⓓ4
( )
(25) log e ln100 =
Ⓐ2 Ⓑ1 Ⓒ4 Ⓓ3
1
(25) log16 + 2log5 =
2
Ⓐ3 Ⓑ2 Ⓒ4 Ⓓ1
(25) log 2 16 + log 2 8 =

Ⓐ10 Ⓑ8 Ⓒ5 Ⓓ7
(25) log 2 128 + log3 45 − log3 5 =

Ⓐ9 Ⓑ8 Ⓒ7 Ⓓ6
(25) log 2 24 − log 2 3 =

Ⓐ1 Ⓑ3 Ⓒ2 Ⓓ4
(25) log 6 4 + log 6 9 =

Ⓐ1 Ⓑ3 Ⓒ2 Ⓓ4
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log3 (x + 1) = 0

Ⓐ 1 Ⓑ 0 Ⓒ 2 Ⓓ −1
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 5 (2x + 7) = 1

Ⓐ 1 Ⓑ 3 Ⓒ 2 Ⓓ −1
117
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log(3x − 8) = 1
Ⓐ 6 Ⓑ 3 Ⓒ 1 Ⓓ −6
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 4 (x + 1) − 2log 4 3 = 0

Ⓐ 8 Ⓑ 4 Ⓒ 2 Ⓓ −8
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log8 (x + 1) + log8 (x + 3) = 1

Ⓐ −5 Ⓑ −5,1 Ⓒ 1 Ⓓ
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation ln(x + 2) = ln(x + 6) − ln x

Ⓐ −3, 2 Ⓑ −3 Ⓒ 2 Ⓓ
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 3 x = 2

Ⓐ 3 Ⓑ 9 Ⓒ 1 Ⓓ 27
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 0.01 = x

Ⓐ 1 Ⓑ 10 Ⓒ 2 Ⓓ −2
1
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log3   = x
 81 
Ⓐ −4 Ⓑ 4 Ⓒ 3 Ⓓ −3
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 4 2 = x

Ⓐ 2 1  Ⓒ 1 1 
Ⓑ  Ⓓ 
2 4
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation ln( x + 1) = 0

Ⓐ −1 Ⓑ 1 Ⓒ 0 Ⓓ 2
118
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 2 (2x + 1) = 3
7  Ⓑ 7 Ⓒ 3 Ⓓ 6
Ⓐ 
2
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation log 4 (x 2 − 3x ) = 1

Ⓐ 1,4 Ⓑ −1, 4 Ⓒ −4,1 Ⓓ −4, − 1
(25) The solution set of the logarithmic equation ln(x 2 − 3x + 1) = 0

Ⓐ 3 Ⓑ 0 Ⓒ −3,0 Ⓓ 0,3
119
Trigonometric functions
(16) The range of the function f (x ) = sin 2x is …………
Ⓐ  −2,2 Ⓑ  −1,1 Ⓒ Ⓓ ( −1,1)
(16) The range of the function f (x ) = 4cos3x is …………

Ⓐ  −3,3 Ⓑ  −1,1 Ⓒ Ⓓ  −4, 4
(16) The range of the function f (x ) = 3sin 5x is …………

Ⓐ  −3,3 Ⓑ  −1,1 Ⓒ Ⓓ  −5,5
(16) The range of the function f (x ) = 2cos 4x is …………

Ⓐ  −1,1 Ⓑ  −2, 2 Ⓒ Ⓓ  −4, 4
sin x
x
cos x
x
tan x
x
sin 2 x
x
cos 2 x
x
120
Limits of functions
(
(1) lim x 2 − 4x + 1 =
x →4
)
Ⓐ1 Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ3 Ⓓ5
x +3
(2) lim =
x →3 x + 6
2 3 Ⓒ3 Ⓓ6
Ⓐ Ⓑ
3 2
x 2 −1
(3) lim =
x →1 x + 1
Ⓐ0 1 1 Ⓓ does not exist

Ⓑ Ⓒ−
2 2
x 2 +3
(4) lim =
x →1 x +1
Ⓐ4 Ⓑ0 Ⓒ −2 Ⓓ2
(5) lim x 2 − 8x − 2 =
x →−1
Ⓐ 5 Ⓑ 6 Ⓒ 7 Ⓓ does not exist
( )(
(6) lim x 2 + 1 x 3 + 2 =
x →−1
)
Ⓐ4 Ⓑ2 Ⓒ6 Ⓓ0
x 2 +x −2
(7) lim 2 =
x →−2 x + 5x + 6
Ⓐ −2 Ⓑ2 Ⓒ −3 Ⓓ3
x 2 − 6x + 9
(8) lim =
x →3 x 2 −9
Ⓐ1 Ⓑ0 Ⓒ −1 Ⓓ does not exist
121
t 2 −1
(9) lim 2 =
t →1 t + 2t − 3
Ⓐ does not exist 3 1 1

Ⓑ Ⓒ− Ⓓ
4 2 2
x 2 + 2x
(10) lim =
x →−2 x 2 − 4
1 1 1 1
Ⓐ− Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ−
2 2 4 4
x 2 + 5x + 6
(11) lim =
x →−3 x +3
Ⓐ −1 Ⓑ1 Ⓒ −2 Ⓓ2
x +3
(12) lim =
x →−3 x +x −6
2
Ⓐ −1 1 1 Ⓓ1
Ⓑ Ⓒ−
5 5
x −3
(13) lim =
x →9 x −9
1 1 1 1
Ⓐ Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ−
6 9 3 6
4+h −2
(14) lim =
h →0 h
1 1 1 1
Ⓐ− Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ
4 6 4 2
x
(15) lim =
x →0 x +1 −1
Ⓐ3 Ⓑ0 Ⓒ1 Ⓓ2
122
x +3− 3
(16) lim =
x →0 x
1 1 1 1
Ⓐ Ⓑ Ⓒ Ⓓ
2 3 3 6 3
x −2
(17) lim+ =
x +x −6
x →2
2
Ⓐ does not exist 1 1 Ⓓ5

Ⓑ− Ⓒ
5 5
x −2
(18) lim− =
x 2 +x −6
x →2

Ⓑ− Ⓒ
5 5
x −2
(19) lim =
+x −6
x →2 x 2

Ⓑ− Ⓒ
5 5
x
(20) lim+ =
x →0 x
Ⓐ0 Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ1 Ⓓ does not exist
x
(21) lim− =
x →0 x
x
(22) lim =
x →0 x
123
x −2
(23) lim+ =
x →2 x − 2
A) does not exist Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ1 Ⓓ2
x −2
(24) lim− =
x →2 x − 2
Ⓐ does not exist Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ1 Ⓓ2
x −2
(25) lim =
x →2 x − 2
Ⓐ does not exist Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ1 Ⓓ2
2x + 3, x  −2
(26) If f (x ) =  , then lim − f (x ) =
 2 x + 5 x  −2 x →−2
Ⓐ1 Ⓑ3 Ⓒ does not exist Ⓓ −1
2x + 3, x  −2
(27) If f (x ) =  , then lim + f (x ) =
 2 x + 5 x  − 2 x →−2
2x + 3, x  −2
(28) If f (x ) =  , then lim f (x ) =
 2 x + 5 x  −2 x →−2
2x 2 − x + 3
(29) lim =
x → 3x 2 + 5
2 Ⓑ − Ⓒ0 Ⓓ
Ⓐ
3
124
5x + 2
(30) lim =
x → 2x 3 − 1
5 Ⓑ − Ⓒ0 Ⓓ
Ⓐ
2
5x + 2
(31) lim =
x →− 2x 3 − 1
Ⓐ − 5 Ⓒ Ⓓ0
Ⓑ
2
x 3 +1
(32) lim 2 =
x → x + 1
5 Ⓑ − Ⓒ0 Ⓓ
Ⓐ
2
x 3 +1
(33) lim =
x →− x 2 +1
Ⓐ − 5 Ⓒ Ⓓ0
Ⓑ
2
7x 2 + 3x − 5
(34) lim =
x → 5x 3 − 2x + 8
5 7 Ⓒ0 Ⓓ
Ⓐ Ⓑ
7 5
5x 2 − 2x + 8
(35) lim =
x →− 7 x 3 + 3x − 5
5 Ⓑ 7 Ⓓ0
Ⓐ Ⓒ
7 5
8−x 2
(36) lim =
x →− x + 11
Ⓐ Ⓑ − Ⓒ −1 Ⓓ0
125
8−x 2
(37) lim =
x → x + 11
Ⓐ Ⓑ − Ⓒ −1 Ⓓ0
x
(38) lim =
x → 2x − 3
1 Ⓑ0 Ⓒ Ⓓ −
Ⓐ
2
3x 3 − 5x + 7
(39) lim =
x → 8 + 2x − 5x 3
3 Ⓑ0 Ⓒ 3
Ⓐ Ⓓ−
5 5
x 2 −2
(40) lim =
x →− x − x 2
Ⓐ1 Ⓑ −1 Ⓒ − Ⓓ
126
Continuity
x 2 −1
 , x 1
(1) The function f (x ) =  x − 1 is
 2, x =1

Ⓐ continuous at x = 1 Ⓑ discontinuous at x = 1
x 2 − 4
 , x 2
 3, x =2

x x 0
(3) The function f (x ) =  2 is
 x , x  0
x x  −1
(4) The function f (x ) =  2 is
x , x  −1
Ⓐ continuous at x = −1 Ⓑ discontinuous at x = −1
3 − 3x , x  −2
(5) The function g (x ) =  is
1 − x , x  −2
2
 4 − x 2 , x  −3
(6) The function f (x ) =  is
4 − 3x , x  −3
 2+x, x 5
(7) The function f (x ) =  is
 2 x − 3, x  5
127
 x −1
 , x 1
 2, x =1

(9) The function f (x ) = x is continuous on

Ⓐ  0, ) Ⓑ ( −,0 Ⓒ Ⓓ ( 0, )
(10) The function f (t ) = t + 7 is continuous on

Ⓐ  7, ) Ⓑ ( −,7  Ⓒ ( −, − 7 Ⓓ  −7,  )
1
(11) The function f (x ) = is continuous on
x
Ⓐ Ⓑ − 1 Ⓒ − 0 Ⓓ ( 0, )
x 2 +1
(12) The function f (x ) = 2 is continuous on
x − 2x − 15
Ⓐ − −3,5 Ⓑ − 3,5 Ⓒ − −5, − 3 Ⓓ − −5,3
x 2 +1
(13) The function f (x ) = 2 is continuous on
x + 2x − 15
Ⓐ − −3,5 Ⓑ − 3,5 Ⓒ − −5, − 3 Ⓓ − −5,3
sin x
(14) The function f (x ) = is continuous on
x 2 −1
Ⓐ Ⓑ − −1,1 Ⓒ − −1 Ⓓ − 1
(15) The function f (x ) = x 2 − 4 is continuous on

Ⓐ ( −, − 2  2,  ) Ⓑ ( −2, 2 ) Ⓒ  −2, 2 Ⓓ ( −, − 2 ) ( 2,  )
128
(16) The function f (x ) = 4 − x 2 is continuous on
Ⓐ ( −, − 2  2,  ) Ⓑ ( −2, 2 ) Ⓒ  −2,2 Ⓓ ( −, − 2 ) ( 2,  )
129

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Mathematics 0

Prof. Dr. Mohammed Mahmoud Tharwat

• Chapter2: Functions and Their Graphs

• General Revision on Mathematics 0

1. Some Basic Concepts of the Theory of Sets

Ways to Describe Sets

There are two main ways to specify a set:

Definition 1.4 The union of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵,

Some properties of union:

Definition 1.5 The intersection of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵,

Some properties of intersection:

Definition 1.6 The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵;

Some properties of difference:

Universal set and complement:

De Morgan laws: If 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝒰, then

If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 < 𝑏, then:

1. {𝑥: −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 5} 2. {𝑥: 𝑥 ≥ −3}

6. {𝑥: 𝑥 = −3 or 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 6} = {−3} ∪ [0,6).

Solution: First, we sketch each interval on the real number line:

3 < 4𝑥 − 1 ≤ 15 Given inequality

3 + 1 < 4𝑥 − 1 + 1 ≤ 15 + 1 Add 1 to both sides

Example 2.7 Find the solution set of the inequality 𝑥 2 + 20 ≥ 9𝑥.

Solution: First we move all of the terms to the left-hand side:

Interval Test point The factor 𝑥 − 4 The factor 𝑥 − 5

(5, ∞) 6 6−4=2>0 6−5=1>0

Interval Sign 𝑥 − 4 Sign of 𝑥 − 5 Sign of (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 5)

Example 2.8 Solve the inequality 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 < −3.

Solution: First we move all of the terms to the left-hand side:

Interval Sign 𝑥 − 1 Sign of 𝑥 − 3 Sign of (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)

Example 2.9 Solve the inequality 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 ≤ 0.

Interval Sign 𝑥 + 1 Sign of 𝑥 Sign of 𝑥 − 4 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 4)

3) {𝑥: 𝑥 > 4 or 𝑥 ≤ 3} 4) {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ −3}

5) {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0,2} 6) {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2 or 5 < 𝑥 ≤ 11}

9) (−2,0), (−1,1) 10) [−4,6], [0,8)

13) 2𝑥 − 5 < 3 14) 3𝑥 + 11 > 5

Figure 1: The slope of a line that passes through two points

Figure 2: Positive slope Figure 3: Negative slope

Figure 4: Zero slope Figure 5: No slope

2. Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (1, −3) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,3). Then

Various Forms of the Equation of a Line

(1) Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line

Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line:

Figure 7: The graph of the equation 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 = 0

Figure 8: Two-points form

Two-Points Form of the Equation of a Line:

(3) Slope-Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line

Figure 10: Slope-intercept form

Figure 11: The graph of the equation 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0

(4) Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line

Figure 13: Intercept form

Figure 14: The graph of the equation 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0

Example 7 Find the 𝑥-intercept and 𝑦-intercept of the line 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 14 = 0. Sketch

(5) Vertical and Horizontal Lines

If a line is horizontal, its slope is 𝑚 = 0, so its equation (from slope-intercept form 𝑦 =

Figure 16: Vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 Figure 17: Horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏

Vertical and Horizontal Lines:

Figure 18: Vertical line 𝑥 = −2 Figure 19: Horizontal line 𝑦 = 2

(6) General equation of a Line

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Figure 20: Two parallel lines 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 8 = 0, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0

Figure 21: Two parallel lines 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 11 = 0, 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6 = 0

Figure 22: Two parallel lines 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5 = 0

First we write the equation of the given line in slope-intercept form:

1) (−2,3), (5,4) 2) (−1,2), (3,6)