MATT101 / MATH111 / MATV111

Algebra Chapter 3
Sets
 Sets
Section 3.1
• Understanding basics about sets.
• Different ways of writing a set.
• Set-builder notation.
• Operations on sets.
• Venn diagrams.
• Number lines.
 Sets
If you had ten red marbles and ten green marbles, how would
you best describe to a blind person the collection of marbles you
have? (assuming they can count and read braille)
 Sets
First one needs to differentiate between the red and the blue
marbles. This can be done by labelling each red marble with an
R (in braille) and each blue marble with a B (in braille).
 Sets
We can also number the red marbles one to ten, and the blue
marbles eleven to twenty. Then tell them that the red marbles are
numbered with numbers from one to ten and the blue marbles
are numbered with numbers from eleven to twenty.
 Sets
We can also number the red marbles one to ten, and the blue
marbles eleven to twenty. Then tell them that the red marbles are
numbered with numbers from one to ten and the blue marbles
are numbered with numbers from eleven to twenty.
 Sets
Family
A collection of objects where repetition of objects is allowed and
order of arrangement of objects does not matter.

Example
1,5,3,3,1,3,1,5,6,7 = 5,3,6,1,3,7,5,3,1,1 .
 Sets
Set
A collection of objects where repetition of objects is not allowed
and order of arrangement of objects does not matter.

Example
Family: 1,5,3,3,1,3,1,5,6,7 .
Set: 1,5,3,6,7 = 6,7,3,5,1 .
 Sets
Sequence
A collection of objects where repetition of objects is allowed and
order of arrangement of objects matters.

Example
Family: 1,5,3,3,1,3,1,5,6,7 .
Set: 1,5,3,6,7 .
Sequence: 1,5,3,3,1,3,1,5,6,7 ≠ 1,5,3,1,3,3,1,5,6,7 .
 Sets
Sets are usually named using capital letters. The members of a
set are called its elements and are named using small letters.

Example
ℤ is the set of integers.
−10, 1, and 100 are elements of ℤ.
1
, 𝜋𝜋, and 2 are not elements of ℤ.
2
 Sets
Notation
Let 𝑆𝑆 be a set.
If 𝑎𝑎 is an element of 𝑆𝑆, then we write 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝑆𝑆.
If 𝑎𝑎 is not an element of 𝑆𝑆, then we write 𝑎𝑎 ∉ 𝑆𝑆.

Example
ℤ is the set of integers.
−10 ∈ ℤ, 1 ∈ ℤ, and 100 ∈ ℤ.
1
∉ ℤ, 𝜋𝜋 ∉ ℤ, and 2 ∉ ℤ.
2
 Sets
Important sets to know
1. The empty set, ∅, the set with no elements.
2. The universal set, 𝒰𝒰, the set of all elements under
consideration.
3. The set of all natural numbers, ℕ = 1,2,3, … .
4. The set of all whole numbers, ℕ0 = 0,1,2,3, … .
5. The set of all integers, ℤ = … , −2 − 1,0,1,2, … .
𝑎𝑎
6. The set of all rational numbers, ℚ = |𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0 .
𝑏𝑏
7. The set of all irrational numbers, ℚ𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ∉ ℚ .
8. The set of all real numbers, ℝ = ℚ ∪ ℚ𝑐𝑐 .
 Sets
There are three different ways of writing or describing a set.
Describing a set in words.
Example
1. Let 𝐸𝐸 be the set of even integers.
2. Let 𝑂𝑂 be the set of odd integers.
3. Let 𝑃𝑃 be the set of prime numbers.
4. Let 𝐶𝐶 be the set of composite numbers.
5. Let 𝐷𝐷 be the set of multiples of five.
 Sets
There are three different ways of writing or describing a set.
Describing a set by listing its elements.
Example
1. Let 𝐸𝐸 = … , −4, −2,0,2,4, … .
2. Let 𝑂𝑂 = … , −3, −1,0,1,3, … .
3. Let 𝑃𝑃 = 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19, … .
4. Let 𝐶𝐶 = 1,4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15, … .
5. Let 𝐷𝐷 = … , −10, −5,0,5,10, … .
 Sets
There are three different ways of writing or describing a set.
Describing a set using set-builder notation.

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑆𝑆|conditions on 𝑥𝑥
Example
1. Let 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 .
2. Let 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
3. Let 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℕ| 𝑚𝑚|𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑚𝑚 = 1 ∨ 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑥𝑥 .
4. Let 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℕ|𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝑃𝑃 .
5. Let 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 5|𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Subset
Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be sets. Then 𝐴𝐴 is a subset of 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols
as 𝐴𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵𝐵, if 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐵𝐵.

Example
ℕ and ℤ.
 Sets
Proper subset
Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be sets. Then 𝐴𝐴 is a proper subset of 𝐵𝐵, written in
symbols as 𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵𝐵, if 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 and ∃𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, 𝑏𝑏 ∉ 𝐴𝐴.

Example
ℕ and ℤ.
 Sets
Equality of Sets
Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be sets. Then 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵 if 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 and
𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 ⇒ 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐴𝐴.

Example
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 and 𝐴𝐴 = 2𝑛𝑛| 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
 Sets
Operations of Sets
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be subsets of 𝒰𝒰.

Union of Sets
The union of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵, is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∨ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 .

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Example
2. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 and 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Venn Diagram of the Union of Sets
The union of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵, is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∨ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 .

A B

𝐴𝐴
 Sets
Intersection of Sets
The intersection of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵, is the
set 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∧ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 .

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Example
2. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 and 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Venn Diagram of the Intersection of Sets
The intersection of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵, is the
set 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∧ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 .

A B

𝐴𝐴
 Sets
Difference of Sets
The difference of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵, is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∧ 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐵𝐵 .
Note:
𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 is not necessarily equal to 𝐵𝐵 − 𝐴𝐴.
Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Example
2. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 and 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Venn Diagram of the Difference of Sets
The difference of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵, is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∧ 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐵𝐵 .

A B

𝐴𝐴
 Sets
Complement of a Set
The complement of 𝐴𝐴, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 , is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰 ∧ 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰|𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐴𝐴 .

Example
1. Let 𝒰𝒰 = ℤ, 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 , and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Example
2. Let 𝒰𝒰 = ℤ, 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 , and 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Venn Diagram of the Complement of a Set
The complement of 𝐴𝐴, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 , is the set
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝐴𝐴 .

A B

𝐴𝐴
 Sets
Disjoint Sets
Two sets 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are said to be disjoint if 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = ∅.

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 , and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .

2. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2|𝑥𝑥 , and 𝑂𝑂 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ| 2 ∤ 𝑥𝑥 .
 Sets
Venn Diagram of the Disjoint Sets
Two sets 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are said to be disjoint if 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = ∅.

A B

𝐴𝐴
 Sets
Power Set of a Set
The power set of a set 𝐴𝐴, written in symbols as 𝒫𝒫 𝐴𝐴 , is the set of
all subsets of 𝐴𝐴.

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 .

2. 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Cardinality of a Set
The cardinality of a set 𝐴𝐴, written in symbols as 𝐴𝐴 , is the number
of all elements in the set 𝐴𝐴.

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 .

2. 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Cardinality of a Power Set
Let 𝐴𝐴 be a set such that 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑛𝑛. Then 𝒫𝒫 𝐴𝐴 = 2𝑛𝑛 .

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 .

2. 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Example
Let 𝒰𝒰 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − 6 < 𝑥𝑥 < 0, 2 < 𝑥𝑥 < 8 ,
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| − 3 < 𝑥𝑥 < 4 , and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝒰𝒰| 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ, 3 < 𝑥𝑥 < 8 .

Determine the following:

1. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵.

2. 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 .
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3. 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝐵.

4. 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 .
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5. 𝒫𝒫 𝐵𝐵 .
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6. Draw all the sets on a single number (except for the power
set).

−6 0 2 8
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Section 3.2
• Properties and laws of sets.
• Proving properties and laws of sets.
 Sets
Properties of Sets
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴 , 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 be its subsets. Then
1. ∅ ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴 ⊆ 𝒰𝒰.
2. ∅𝑐𝑐 = 𝒰𝒰 and 𝒰𝒰𝑐𝑐 = ∅.
3. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅.
4. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝒰𝒰 = 𝒰𝒰 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝒰𝒰 = 𝐴𝐴.
5. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴.
6. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝒰𝒰, 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = ∅, and 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴.
7. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝐴.
 Sets
8. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 .
9. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶
and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 .

De Morgan’s Laws
10. 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑐
= 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 ∪ 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 .

11. 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶
and 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶 .
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Proposition 1
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set and 𝐴𝐴 be a set. Then ∅ ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐴𝐴 ⊆ 𝒰𝒰.
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 2
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set. Then ∅𝑐𝑐 = 𝒰𝒰 and 𝒰𝒰𝑐𝑐 = ∅.
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 3
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set and 𝐴𝐴 be a set. Then 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝒰𝒰,
𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = ∅, and 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴.
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 4
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, and 𝐶𝐶 be its subsets. Then
𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶
and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 .
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 5
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be its subsets. Then
𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 ∩ 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 and 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 ∪ 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 .
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 6
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, and 𝐶𝐶 be its subsets. Then
𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶 and
𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∩ 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶 .
Proof :
 Sets
Proposition 7
Let 𝒰𝒰 be a universal set, and 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be its subsets. Then
𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵 = ∅ if and only if 𝐴𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵𝐵.
Proof :
 Sets
Section 3.3
• Cartesian product of sets.
 Sets
Cartesian product of sets
Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be sets. The Cartesian product of 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵, written in
symbol as 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵, is the set of all ordered pairs 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 , with 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴
and 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, i.e. 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 |𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 .

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .

𝐴𝐴 × 𝐴𝐴 =
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𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 =
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Note :
If 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑛𝑛 and 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑚𝑚, then 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛.

Example
1. 𝐴𝐴 = 1,5,7,10 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0,3,7,10,12 .
 Sets
Section 3.4
• Definition of an interval.
• Different types of intervals.
 Sets
Subsets of Real Numbers
A subset 𝐼𝐼 of ℝ is an interval if for all 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that
𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏, then 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼.
Note : 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are called the endpoints of 𝐼𝐼.
Example
Let 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑏𝑏.
1. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 .
2. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 .
3. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏].
4. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 = [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏).
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5. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, ∞ .
6. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 = −∞, 𝑏𝑏 .
7. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 = [𝑎𝑎, ∞).
8. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 = (−∞, 𝑏𝑏].
9. ℝ = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ| − ∞ < 𝑥𝑥 < ∞ = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑎𝑎 = −∞, ∞ .
10. ∅ = 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎 .
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Bounded intervals
An interval 𝐼𝐼 is bounded below if there exists 𝑐𝑐 ∈ ℝ such that for
each 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑐𝑐.
Note : 𝑐𝑐 is called a lower bound of 𝐼𝐼.

Examples :
1. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, ∞ .

2. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 = [𝑎𝑎, ∞).

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Bounded intervals
An interval 𝐼𝐼 is bounded above if there exists 𝑐𝑐 ∈ ℝ such that for
each 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼, 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑐𝑐.
Note : 𝑐𝑐 is called an upper bound of 𝐼𝐼.

Examples :
1. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 > 𝑥𝑥 = −∞, 𝑎𝑎 .

2. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≥ 𝑥𝑥 = (−∞, 𝑎𝑎].

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Bounded intervals
An interval 𝐼𝐼 is bounded if there exists 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ ℝ such that for each
𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑐𝑐, and for each 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼, 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑑𝑑.

Examples :
1. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 .

2. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 .
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3. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏].

4. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏 = [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏).

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Examples :
Let 𝐴𝐴 = 3,4 , 𝐵𝐵 = ℤ ∩ [−4,4), 𝐶𝐶 = (−2,0),
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑥𝑥| 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 , and 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑥𝑥| − 6 < 𝑥𝑥 .

1. Which of the given sets are intervals?

2. Which of the given sets are bounded intervals?

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3. Write 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷, and 𝐸𝐸 in set-builder notation form.
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4. Draw 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐷𝐷, and 𝐸𝐸 on a single number line.
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5. Determine the following sets in simplified form and state if
each one is an interval.

a) 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵.

b) 𝐶𝐶 𝑐𝑐 .
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5. Determine the following sets in simplified form and state if
each one is an interval.

c) 𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐 ∩ 𝐶𝐶.

d) 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐵𝐵 ∪ 𝐷𝐷 .
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5. Determine the following sets in simplified form and state if
each one is an interval.

𝑐𝑐
e) 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐸𝐸 ∩ 𝐴𝐴 ∪ 𝐸𝐸 .
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5. Determine the following sets in simplified form and state if
each one is an interval.

f) 𝐷𝐷 × 𝐸𝐸 − 𝐸𝐸 2 .
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Section 3.5
• Definition of sets of ordered pairs.
• Definition of sets of polynomials.
• Definition of sets of 2x2 matrices.
• Subsets of each of the above sets.
• Closure under addition.
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Set of Ordered Pairs
Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be subsets of ℝ, and 𝑃𝑃 be a predicate.
Then 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 |𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 is a set of ordered pairs.

Note :
1. 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 |𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵.

2. 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 |𝑎𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 |𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 .

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Examples :
1. 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 |𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 .
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2. 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 |𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℤ, 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑛𝑛 with 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
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Addition of Ordered Pairs
Let 𝑆𝑆 be a set of ordered pairs. If 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 and 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, then
𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥, 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑦𝑦 .

Example :
1. 1,1 and −4,16 are members of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 |𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 .
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Set of Polynomials
Let 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 be subsets of ℝ, and 𝑃𝑃 be a predicate.
Then 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝐶𝐶, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 is the set of
quadratic polynomials.

Note :
1. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐
= 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 .
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Examples :
1. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
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2. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑏𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐 = 3𝑎𝑎 .
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Addition of Polynomials
Let 𝑆𝑆 be a set of polynomials. If 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 and
𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑓𝑓𝑥𝑥 + 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, then
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑔𝑔 .

Example :
1. 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1 and −2𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 are members of
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
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Set of 2x2 Matrices
Let 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐷𝐷 be subsets of ℝ, and 𝑃𝑃 be a predicate.
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Then � 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ 𝐶𝐶, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ 𝐷𝐷, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 is the set of
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
2x2 matrices.

Note :
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
1. � 𝑎𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ ℝ, 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
= � 𝑃𝑃 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 .
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
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Examples :
1 𝑎𝑎
1. � 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
𝑏𝑏 0
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𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
2. � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0 .
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
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Addition of 2x2 Matrices
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Let 𝑆𝑆 be a set of 2x2 matrices. If ∈ 𝑆𝑆 and
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, then 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑦𝑦
.

Example :
1 2 1 0 1 𝑎𝑎
1. and are members of � 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
−2 0 0 0 𝑏𝑏 0
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Closure Under Addition
Let 𝑆𝑆 be a set and + be the addition operation defined on 𝑆𝑆. Then
𝑆𝑆 is closed under addition if ∀𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆.

Note :
𝑆𝑆 is not closed under addition if ∃𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 ∉ 𝑆𝑆.
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Example :
Determine if each of the following sets is closed under addition.
1 𝑎𝑎
1. � 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
𝑏𝑏 0
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Example :
Determine if each of the following sets is closed under addition.
2. 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 |𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 .
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Example :
Determine if each of the following sets is closed under addition.
3. 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 .
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Subsets
Recall that a set 𝐴𝐴 is a subset of a set 𝐵𝐵 if every element of 𝐴𝐴 is
also an element of 𝐵𝐵.

Note : To show that 𝐴𝐴 is not a subset of 𝐵𝐵, one needs to find at

least one element of 𝐴𝐴 that is not an element of 𝐵𝐵.
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Examples
1. Let 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐|𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 = 0 and
𝑌𝑌 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏|𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 0 . Determine if 𝑋𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌𝑌 or if 𝑌𝑌 ⊆ 𝑋𝑋.
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