Geometric series

In mathematics, a geometric series is the

sum of an infinite number of terms that
have a constant ratio between successive
terms. For example, the series
The geometric series 1/4 + 1/16 +
1/64 + 1/256 + ... shown as areas of
purple squares. Each of the purple
squares has 1/4 of the area of the
next larger square (1/2×1/2 = 1/4,
1/4×1/4 = 1/16, etc.). The sum of the
areas of the purple squares is one
third of the area of the large square.

Another geometric series (coefficient

a = 4/9 and common ratio r = 1/9)
shown as areas of purple squares.
The total purple area is S = a / (1 - r) =
(4/9) / (1 - (1/9)) = 1/2, which can be
confirmed by observing that the unit
square is partitioned into an infinite
number of L-shaped areas each with
four purple squares and four yellow
squares, which is half purple.
is geometric, because each successive
term can be obtained by multiplying the
previous term by . In general, a
geometric series is written as
, where is the
coefficient of each term and is the
common ratio between adjacent terms.
The geometric series had an important
role in the early development of calculus,
is used throughout mathematics, and can
serve as an introduction to frequently used
mathematical tools such as the Taylor
series, the Fourier series, and the matrix
exponential.
The name geometric series indicates each
term is the geometric mean of its two
neighboring terms, similar to how the
name arithmetic series indicates each
term is the arithmetic mean of its two
neighboring terms.

Components

Coefficient a

The first nine terms of geometric

series 1 + r + r2 + r3 ... drawn as
functions (colored in the order red,
green, blue, red, green, blue, ...) within
the range |r| < 1. The closed form
geometric series 1 / (1 - r) is the black
dashed line.
The geometric series a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ...
is written in expanded form.[1] Every
coefficient in the geometric series is the
same. In contrast, the power series written
as a0 + a1r + a2r2 + a3r3 + ... in expanded
form has coefficients ai that can vary from
term to term. In other words, the
geometric series is a special case of the
power series. The first term of a geometric
series in expanded form is the coefficient
a of that geometric series.

In addition to the expanded form of the

geometric series, there is a generator
form[1] of the geometric series written as
and a closed form of the geometric series
written as

The derivation of the closed form from the

expanded form is shown in this article's
§ Sum section. However even without that
derivation, the result can be confirmed
with long division: a divided by (1 - r)
results in a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... , which is
the expanded form of the geometric
series.
It is often a convenience in notation to set
the series equal to the sum s and work
with the geometric series

s = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 + ... in its

normalized form
s / a = 1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + ... or in its
normalized vector form
s / a = [1 1 1 1 1 ...][1 r r2 r3 r4 ...]T or in
its normalized partial series form
sn / a = 1 + r + r2 + r3 + r4 + ... + rn, where
n is the power (or degree) of the last
term included in the partial sum sn.

Changing even one of the coefficients to

something other than coefficient a would
change the resulting sum of functions to
some function other than a / (1 − r) within
the range |r| < 1. As an aside, a particularly
useful change to the coefficients is
defined by the Taylor series, which
describes how to change the coefficients
so that the sum of functions converges to
any user selected, sufficiently smooth
function within a range.

Common ratio r

The convergence of the geometric

series with r=1/2 and a=1/2

The convergence of the geometric

series with r=1/2 and a=1
 Close-up view of the cumulative sum
of functions within the range -1 < r <
-0.5 as the first 11 terms of the
geometric series 1 + r + r2 + r3 + ... are
added. The geometric series 1 / (1 - r)
is the red dashed line.

0:21

Complex geometric series (coefficient

a = 1 and common ratio r = 0.5 eiω0t)
converging to a circle. In the
animation, each term of the
geometric series is drawn as a vector
twice: once at the origin and again
within the head-to-tail vector
summation that converges to the
circle. The circle intersects the real
axis at 2 (= 1/(1-1/2) when θ = 0) and
at 2/3 (= 1/(1-(-1/2)) when θ = 180
degrees).

The geometric series a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ...

is an infinite series defined by just two
parameters: coefficient a and common
ratio r. Common ratio r is the ratio of any
term with the previous term in the series.
Or equivalently, common ratio r is the term
multiplier used to calculate the next term
in the series. The following table shows
several geometric series:

a r Example series

4 10 4 + 40 + 400 + 4000 + 40,000 + ···

3 1 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + ···

1 2/3 1 + 2/3 + 4/9 + 8/27 + 16/81 + ···

1/2 1/2 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 + ···

9 1/3 9 + 3 + 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + ···

7 1/10 7 + 0.7 + 0.07 + 0.007 + 0.0007 + ···

1 −1/2 1 − 1/2 + 1/4 − 1/8 + 1/16 − 1/32 + ···

3 −1 3 − 3 + 3 − 3 + 3 − ···

The convergence of the geometric series

depends on the value of the common ratio
r:

If |r| < 1, the terms of the series

approach zero in the limit (becoming
smaller and smaller in magnitude),
and the series converges to the sum a
/ (1 - r).
If |r| = 1, the series does not converge.
When r = 1, all of the terms of the
series are the same and the series is
infinite. When r = −1, the terms take
two values alternately (for example, 2,
−2, 2, −2, 2,... ). The sum of the terms
oscillates between two values (for
example, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2,... ). This is a
different type of divergence. See for
example Grandi's series: 1 − 1 + 1 − 1
+ ···.
 If |r| > 1, the terms of the series
become larger and larger in
magnitude. The sum of the terms also
gets larger and larger, and the series
does not converge to a sum. (The
series diverges.)

The rate of convergence also depends on

the value of the common ratio r.
Specifically, the rate of convergence gets
slower as r approaches 1 or −1. For
example, the geometric series with a = 1 is
1 + r + r2 + r3 + ... and converges to 1 / (1 -
r) when |r| < 1. However, the number of
terms needed to converge approaches
infinity as r approaches 1 because a / (1 -
r) approaches infinity and each term of the
series is less than or equal to one. In
contrast, as r approaches −1 the sum of
the first several terms of the geometric
series starts to converge to 1/2 but slightly
flips up or down depending on whether the
most recently added term has a power of r
that is even or odd. That flipping behavior
near r = −1 is illustrated in the adjacent
image showing the first 11 terms of the
geometric series with a = 1 and |r| < 1.

The common ratio r and the coefficient a

also define the geometric progression,
which is a list of the terms of the
geometric series but without the additions.
Therefore the geometric series a + ar + ar2
+ ar3 + ... has the geometric progression
(also called the geometric sequence) a, ar,
ar2, ar3, ... The geometric progression - as
simple as it is - models a surprising
number of natural phenomena,

from some of the largest observations

such as the expansion of the universe
where the common ratio r is defined
by Hubble's constant,
to some of the smallest observations
such as the decay of radioactive
carbon-14 atoms where the common
ratio r is defined by the half-life of
carbon-14.
As an aside, the common ratio r can be a
complex number such as |r|eiθ where |r| is
the vector's magnitude (or length), θ is the
vector's angle (or orientation) in the
complex plane and i2 = -1. With a common
ratio |r|eiθ, the expanded form of the
geometric series is a + a|r|eiθ + a|r|2ei2θ +
a|r|3ei3θ + ... Modeling the angle θ as
linearly increasing over time at the rate of
some angular frequency ω0 (in other
words, making the substitution θ = ω0t),
the expanded form of the geometric series
becomes a + a|r|eiω0t + a|r|2ei2ω0t +
a|r|3ei3ω0t + ... , where the first term is a
vector of length a not rotating at all, and all
the other terms are vectors of different
lengths rotating at harmonics of the
fundamental angular frequency ω0. The
constraint |r|<1 is enough to coordinate
this infinite number of vectors of different
lengths all rotating at different speeds into
tracing a circle, as shown in the adjacent
video. Similar to how the Taylor series
describes how to change the coefficients
so the series converges to a user selected
sufficiently smooth function within a
range, the Fourier series describes how to
change the coefficients (which can also be
complex numbers in order to specify the
initial angles of vectors) so the series
converges to a user selected periodic
function.
Sum

As an alternative to the algebraic

derivation of the geometric series
closed form formula, there is also the
following geometric derivation. (TOP)
Represent the first n+1 terms of s/a
as areas of overlapped similar
triangles.[2] For example, the area of
the biggest overlapped (red) triangle
is bh/2 = (2)(1)/2 = 1, which is the
value of the first term of the
geometric series. The area of the
second biggest overlapped (green)
triangle is bh/2 = (2r1/2)(r1/2)/2 = r,
which is the value of the second term
of the geometric series. Each
progressively smaller triangle has its
base and height scaled down by
another factor of r1/2, resulting in a
sequence of triangle areas 1, r, r2, r3,
... which is equal to the sequence of
 terms in the normalized geometric
series. (MIDDLE) In the order from
largest to smallest, remove each
triangle's overlapped area, which is
always a fraction r of its area, and
scale the remaining 1−r of the
triangle's non-overlapped area by
1/(1−r) so the area of the formerly
overlapped triangle, now the area of a
non-overlapped trapezoid, remains
the same. (BOTTOM) Aggregate the
resulting n+1 non-overlapped
trapezoids into a single non-
overlapped trapezoid and calculate its
area. The area of that aggregated
trapezoid represents the value of the
partial series. That area is equal to
the outermost triangle minus the
empty triangle tip: sn/a = (1−rn+1) /
(1−r), which simplifies to s/a = 1/(1−r)
when n approaches infinity and |r| < 1.

The sum of the first n terms of a

geometric series, up to and including the r
n-1 term, is given by the closed-form
formula:
where r is the common ratio. One can
derive that closed-form formula for the
partial sum, sn, by subtracting out the
many self-similar terms as follows:[3][4][5]
As n approaches infinity, the absolute
value of r must be less than one for the
series to converge. The sum then
becomes
The formula also holds for complex r, with
the corresponding restriction that the
modulus of r is strictly less than one.

As an aside, the question of whether an

infinite series converges is fundamentally
a question about the distance between
two values: given enough terms, does the
value of the partial sum get arbitrarily
close to the finite value it is approaching?
In the above derivation of the closed form
of the geometric series, the interpretation
of the distance between two values is the
distance between their locations on the
number line. That is the most common
interpretation of the distance between two
values. However, the p-adic metric, which
has become a critical notion in modern
number theory, offers a definition of
distance such that the geometric series 1
+ 2 + 4 + 8 + ... with a = 1 and r = 2 actually
does converge to a / (1 - r) = 1 / (1 - 2) = -1
even though r is outside the typical
convergence range |r| < 1.

Proof of convergence

We can prove that the geometric series

converges using the sum formula for a
geometric progression:
The second equality is true because if
then as and

Alternatively, a geometric interpretation of

the convergence is shown in the adjacent
diagram. The area of the white triangle is
the series remainder = s − sn = arn+1 / (1 −
r). Each additional term in the partial
series reduces the area of that white
triangle remainder by the area of the
trapezoid representing the added term.
The trapezoid areas (i.e., the values of the
terms) get progressively thinner and
shorter and closer to the origin. In the limit,
as the number of trapezoids approaches
infinity, the white triangle remainder
vanishes as it is filled by trapezoids and
therefore sn converges to s, provided |r|<1.
In contrast, if |r|>1, the trapezoid areas
representing the terms of the series
instead get progressively wider and taller
and farther from the origin, not converging
to the origin and not converging as a
series.
Rate of convergence

Converging alternating geometric

series with common ratio r = -1/2 and
coefficient a = 1. (TOP) Alternating
positive and negative areas. (MIDDLE)
Gaps caused by addition of adjacent
areas. (BOTTOM) Gaps filled by
broadening and decreasing the
heights of the separated trapezoids.

After knowing that a series converges,

there are some applications in which it is
also important to know how quickly the
series converges. For the geometric
series, one convenient measure of the
convergence rate is how much the
previous series remainder decreases due
to the last term of the partial series. Given
that the last term is arn and the previous
series remainder is s - sn-1 = arn / (1 - r)),
this measure of the convergence rate of
the geometric series is arn / (arn / (1 - r)) =
1 - r, if 0 ≤ r < 1.

If r < 0, adjacent terms in the geometric

series alternate between being positive
and negative. A geometric interpretation of
a converging alternating geometric series
is shown in the adjacent diagram in which
the areas of the negative terms are shown
below the x axis. Pairing and summing
each positive area with its negative
smaller area neighbor results in non-
overlapped trapezoids separated by gaps.
To remove the gaps, broaden each
trapezoid to cover the rightmost 1 - r2 of
the original triangle area instead of just the
rightmost 1 - |r|. However, to maintain the
same trapezoid areas during this
broadening transformation, scaling is
needed: scale*(1 - r2) = (1 - |r|), or scale =
(1 - |r|) / (1 - r2) = (1 + r) / (1 - r2) = (1 + r) /
((1 + r)(1 - r)) = 1 / (1 - r) where -1 < r ≤ 0.
Note that because r < 0 this scale
decreases the amplitude of the separated
trapezoids in order to fill in the separation
gaps. In contrast, for the case r > 0 the
same scale 1 / (1 - r) increases the
amplitude of the non-overlapped
trapezoids in order to account for the loss
of the overlapped areas.

With the gaps removed, pairs of terms in a

converging alternating geometric series
become a converging (non-alternating)
geometric series with common ratio r2 to
account for the pairing of terms,
coefficient a = 1 / (1 - r) to account for the
gap filling, and the degree (i.e., highest
powered term) of the partial series called
m instead of n to emphasize that terms
have been paired. Similar to the r > 0 case,
the r < 0 convergence rate = ar2m / (s - sm-
) = 1 - r 2, which is the same as the
1
convergence rate of a non-alternating
geometric series if its terms were similarly
paired. Therefore, the convergence rate
does not depend upon n or m and, perhaps
more surprising, does not depend upon the
sign of the common ratio. One perspective
that helps explain the variable rate of
convergence that is symmetric about r = 0
is that each added term of the partial
series makes a finite contribution to the
infinite sum at r = 1 and each added term
of the partial series makes a finite
contribution to the infinite slope at r = -1.
Derivation

Finite series

To derive this formula, first write a general

geometric series as:

We can find a simpler formula for this sum

by multiplying both sides of the above
equation by 1 − r, and we'll see that
since all the other terms cancel. If r ≠ 1, we
can rearrange the above to get the
convenient formula for a geometric series
that computes the sum of n terms:

Related formulas

If one were to begin the sum not from k=1

or 0 but from a different value, say , then
Differentiating this formula with respect to
allows us to arrive at formulae for sums
of the form

For example:
For a geometric series containing only
even powers of multiply by :

Equivalently, take as the common ratio

and use the standard formulation.

For a series with only odd powers of ,

An exact formula for the generalized sum
when is expanded by the
Stirling numbers of the second kind as [6]

Infinite series

An infinite geometric series is an infinite

series whose successive terms have a
common ratio. Such a series converges if
and only if the absolute value of the
common ratio is less than one (| r | < 1). Its
value can then be computed from the finite
sum formula

Animation, showing convergence of partial sums of

geometric progression (red line) to its sum

(blue line) for .

 Diagram showing the geometric series 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 +
⋯ which converges to 2.

Since:

Then:

For a series containing only even powers

of ,
and for odd powers only,

In cases where the sum does not start at k

= 0,

The formulae given above are valid only

for | r | < 1. The latter formula is valid in
every Banach algebra, as long as the norm
of r is less than one, and also in the field of
p-adic numbers if | r |p < 1. As in the case
for a finite sum, we can differentiate to
calculate formulae for related sums. For
example,

This formula only works for | r | < 1 as well.

From this, it follows that, for | r | < 1,

Also, the infinite series 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 +

1/16 + ⋯ is an elementary example of a
series that converges absolutely.

It is a geometric series whose first term is

1/2 and whose common ratio is 1/2, so its
sum is

The inverse of the above series is 1/2 −

1/4 + 1/8 − 1/16 + ⋯ is a simple example
of an alternating series that converges
absolutely.

It is a geometric series whose first term is

1/2 and whose common ratio is −1/2, so
its sum is
Complex series

The summation formula for geometric

series remains valid even when the
common ratio is a complex number. In this
case the condition that the absolute value
of r be less than 1 becomes that the
modulus of r be less than 1. It is possible
to calculate the sums of some non-
obvious geometric series. For example,
consider the proposition

The proof of this comes from the fact that

which is a consequence of Euler's formula.
Substituting this into the original series
gives

This is the difference of two geometric

series, and so it is a straightforward
application of the formula for infinite
geometric series that completes the proof.
History

Zeno of Elea (c.495 – c.430 BC)

2,500 years ago, Greek mathematicians

had a problem when walking from one
place to another: they thought[7] that an
infinitely long list of numbers greater than
zero summed to infinity. Therefore, it was
a paradox when Zeno of Elea pointed out
that in order to walk from one place to
another, you first have to walk half the
distance, and then you have to walk half
the remaining distance, and then you have
to walk half of that remaining distance,
and you continue halving the remaining
distances an infinite number of times
because no matter how small the
remaining distance is you still have to walk
the first half of it. Thus, Zeno of Elea
transformed a short distance into an
infinitely long list of halved remaining
distances, all of which are greater than
zero. And that was the problem: how can a
distance be short when measured directly
and also infinite when summed over its
infinite list of halved remainders? The
paradox revealed something was wrong
with the assumption that an infinitely long
list of numbers greater than zero summed
to infinity.
Euclid of Alexandria (c.300 BC)

Elements of Geometry, Book IX,

Proposition 35. "If there is any
multitude whatsoever of continually
proportional numbers, and equal to
the first is subtracted from the
second and the last, then as the
excess of the second to the first, so
the excess of the last will be to all
those before it."
A geometric interpretation for the
same case of common ratio r>1.
(TOP) Represent the terms of a
geometric series as the areas of
overlapped similar triangles.
(MIDDLE) From the largest to the
smallest triangle, remove the
overlapped left area portion (1/r) from
the non-overlapped right area portion
(1-1/r = (r-1)/r) and scale that non-
overlapped trapezoid by r/(r-1) so its
area is the same as the area of the
original overlapped triangle.
(BOTTOM) Calculate the area of the
aggregate trapezoid as the area of the
large triangle less the area of the
empty small triangle at the large
triangle's left tip. The large triangle is
the largest overlapped triangle scaled
by r/(r-1). The empty small triangle
started as a but that area was
transformed into a non-overlapped
scaled trapezoid leaving an empty left
area portion (1/r). However, that
empty triangle of area a/r must also
be scaled by r/(r-1) so its slope
 matches the slope of all the non-
overlapped scaled trapezoids.
Therefore, Sn = area of large triangle -
area of empty small triangle = arn+1/(r-
1) - a/(r-1) = a(rn+1-1)/(r-1).

Euclid's Elements of Geometry[8] Book IX,

Proposition 35, proof (of the proposition in
adjacent diagram's caption):

Let AA', BC, DD', EF be any

multitude whatsoever of
continuously proportional
numbers, beginning from the
least AA'. And let BG and FH,
each equal to AA', have been
subtracted from BC and EF. I say
that as GC is to AA', so EH is to
AA', BC, DD'.
For let FK be made equal to BC,
and FL to DD'. And since FK is
equal to BC, of which FH is
equal to BG, the remainder HK
is thus equal to the remainder
GC. And since as EF is to DD', so
DD' to BC, and BC to AA' [Prop.
7.13], and DD' equal to FL, and
BC to FK, and AA' to FH, thus as
EF is to FL, so LF to FK, and FK
to FH. By separation, as EL to
LF, so LK to FK, and KH to FH
[Props. 7.11, 7.13]. And thus as
one of the leading is to one of
the following, so (the sum of) all
of the leading to (the sum of) all
of the following [Prop. 7.12].
Thus, as KH is to FH, so EL, LK,
KH to LF, FK, HF. And KH equal
to CG, and FH to AA', and LF,
FK, HF to DD', BC, AA'. Thus, as
CG is to AA', so EH to DD', BC,
AA'. Thus, as the excess of the
second is to the first, so is the
excess of the last is to all those
before it. The very thing it was
required to show.
The terseness of Euclid's propositions and
proofs may have been a necessity. As is,
the Elements of Geometry is over 500
pages of propositions and proofs. Making
copies of this popular textbook was labor
intensive given that the printing press was
not invented until 1440. And the book's
popularity lasted a long time: as stated in
the cited introduction to an English
translation, Elements of Geometry "has the
distinction of being the world's oldest
continuously used mathematical
textbook." So being very terse was being
very practical. The proof of Proposition 35
in Book IX could have been even more
compact if Euclid could have somehow
avoided explicitly equating lengths of
specific line segments from different
terms in the series. For example, the
contemporary notation for geometric
series (i.e., a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn)
does not label specific portions of terms
that are equal to each other.

Also in the cited introduction the editor

comments,

Most of the theorems appearing

in the Elements were not
discovered by Euclid himself, but
were the work of earlier Greek
mathematicians such as
Pythagoras (and his school),
Hippocrates of Chios, Theaetetus
of Athens, and Eudoxus of
Cnidos. However, Euclid is
generally credited with
arranging these theorems in a
logical manner, so as to
demonstrate (admittedly, not
always with the rigour
demanded by modern
mathematics) that they
necessarily follow from five
simple axioms. Euclid is also
credited with devising a number
 of particularly ingenious proofs
of previously discovered
theorems (e.g., Theorem 48 in
Book 1).

To help translate the proposition and proof

into a form that uses current notation, a
couple modifications are in the diagram.
First, the four horizontal line lengths
representing the values of the first four
terms of a geometric series are now
labeled a, ar, ar2, ar3 in the diagram's left
margin. Second, new labels A' and D' are
now on the first and third lines so that all
the diagram's line segment names
consistently specify the segment's starting
point and ending point.

Here is a phrase by phrase interpretation

of the proposition:

Proposition in contemporary notation

"If there is any multitude whatsoever of Taking the first n+1 terms of a geometric series Sn = a
continually proportional numbers" + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn

"and equal to the first is subtracted

and subtracting a from ar and arn
from the second and the last"

"then as the excess of the second to the then (ar-a) / a = (arn-a) / (a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn-1)
first, so the excess of the last will be to = (arn-a) / Sn-1, which can be rearranged to the more
all those before it." familiar form Sn-1 = a(rn-1) / (r-1).

Similarly, here is a sentence by sentence

interpretation of the proof:
 Proof in contemporary notation

"Let AA', BC, DD', EF be any multitude whatsoever Consider the first n+1 terms of a geometric
of continuously proportional numbers, beginning series Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ... + arn for the
from the least AA'." case r>1 and n=3.

"And let BG and FH, each equal to AA', have been

Subtract a from ar and ar3.
subtracted from BC and EF."

"I say that as GC is to AA', so EH is to AA', BC,

I say that (ar-a) / a = (ar3-a) / (a + ar + ar2).
DD'."

"For let FK be made equal to BC, and FL to DD'."

"And since FK is equal to BC, of which FH is

equal to BG, the remainder HK is thus equal to
the remainder GC."

"And since as EF is to DD', so DD' to BC, and BC

to AA' [Prop. 7.13], and DD' equal to FL, and BC
to FK, and AA' to FH, thus as EF is to FL, so LF to
FK, and FK to FH."

"By separation, as EL to LF, so LK to FK, and KH By separation, (ar3-ar2) / ar2 = (ar2-ar) / ar =

to FH [Props. 7.11, 7.13]." (ar-a) / a = r-1.

The sum of those numerators and the sum of

"And thus as one of the leading is to one of the
those denominators form the same
following, so (the sum of) all of the leading to
proportion: ((ar3-ar2) + (ar2-ar) + (ar-a)) / (ar2
(the sum of) all of the following [Prop. 7.12]."
+ ar + a) = r-1.

"And thus as one of the leading is to one of the And this sum of equal proportions can be
following, so (the sum of) all of the leading to extended beyond (ar3-ar2) / ar2 to include all
(the sum of) all of the following [Prop. 7.12]." the proportions up to (arn-arn-1) / arn-1.

"Thus, as KH is to FH, so EL, LK, KH to LF, FK,

HF."

"And KH equal to CG, and FH to AA', and LF, FK,

HF to DD', BC, AA'."

"Thus, as CG is to AA', so EH to DD', BC, AA'."

"Thus, as the excess of the second is to the first, Thus, (ar-a) / a = (ar3-a) / S2. Or more
so is the excess of the last is to all those before generally, (ar-a) / a = (arn-a) / Sn-1, which can
it." be rearranged in the more common form Sn-1
= a(rn-1) / (r-1).

"The very thing it was required to show." Q.E.D.

Archimedes of Syracuse (c.287 –

c.212 BC)

Archimedes' dissection of a parabolic segment into

infinitely many triangles

Archimedes used the sum of a geometric

series to compute the area enclosed by a
parabola and a straight line. His method
was to dissect the area into an infinite
number of triangles.
Archimedes' Theorem states that the total
area under the parabola is 4/3 of the area
of the blue triangle.

Archimedes determined that each green

triangle has 1/8 the area of the blue
triangle, each yellow triangle has 1/8 the
area of a green triangle, and so forth.

Assuming that the blue triangle has area 1,

the total area is an infinite sum:

The first term represents the area of the

blue triangle, the second term the areas of
the two green triangles, the third term the
areas of the four yellow triangles, and so
on. Simplifying the fractions gives

This is a geometric series with common

ratio 1/4 and the fractional part is equal to

The sum is
This computation uses the method of
exhaustion, an early version of integration.
Using calculus, the same area could be
found by a definite integral.

Nicole Oresme (c.1323 – 1382)

A two dimensional geometric series

diagram Nicole Oresme used to
determine that the infinite series 1/2 +
2/4 + 3/8 + 4/16 + 5/32 + 6/64 +
7/128 + ... converges to 2.

Among his insights into infinite series, in

addition to his elegantly simple proof of
the divergence of the harmonic series,
Nicole Oresme[9] proved that the series 1/2
+ 2/4 + 3/8 + 4/16 + 5/32 + 6/64 + 7/128 +
... converges to 2. His diagram for his
geometric proof, similar to the adjacent
diagram, shows a two dimensional
geometric series. The first dimension is
horizontal, in the bottom row showing the
geometric series S = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 +
1/16 + ... , which is the geometric series
with coefficient a = 1/2 and common ratio
r = 1/2 that converges to S = a / (1-r) =
(1/2) / (1-1/2) = 1. The second dimension
is vertical, where the bottom row is a new
coefficient aT equal to S and each
subsequent row above it is scaled by the
same common ratio r = 1/2, making
another geometric series T = 1 + 1/2 + 1/4
+ 1/8 + ..., which is the geometric series
with coefficient aT = S = 1 and common
ratio r = 1/2 that converges to T = aT / (1-r)
= S / (1-r) = a / (1-r) / (1-r) = (1/2) / (1-1/2)
/ (1-1/2) = 2.

Although difficult to visualize beyond three

dimensions, Oresme's insight generalizes
to any dimension d. Using the sum of the
d−1 dimension of the geometric series as
the coefficient a in the d dimension of the
geometric series results in a d-
dimensional geometric series converging
to Sd / a = 1 / (1-r)d within the range |r|<1.
Pascal's triangle and long division reveals
the coefficients of these multi-dimensional
geometric series, where the closed form is
valid only within the range |r|<1.

(closed form) (expanded form)

As an aside, instead of using long division,

it is also possible to calculate the
coefficients of the d-dimensional
geometric series by integrating the
coefficients of dimension d−1. This
mapping from division by 1-r in the power
series sum domain to integration in the
power series coefficient domain is a
discrete form of the mapping performed
by the Laplace transform. MIT Professor
Arthur Mattuck shows how to derive the
Laplace transform from the power series
in this lecture video,[10] where the power
series is a mapping between discrete
coefficients and a sum and the Laplace
transform is a mapping between
continuous weights and an integral.
Applications

Economics

In economics, geometric series are used

to represent the present value of an
annuity (a sum of money to be paid in
regular intervals).

For example, suppose that a payment of

$100 will be made to the owner of the
annuity once per year (at the end of the
year) in perpetuity. Receiving $100 a year
from now is worth less than an immediate
$100, because one cannot invest the
money until one receives it. In particular,
the present value of $100 one year in the
future is $100 / (1 + ), where is the
yearly interest rate.

Similarly, a payment of $100 two years in

the future has a present value of
$100 / (1 + )2 (squared because two
years' worth of interest is lost by not
receiving the money right now). Therefore,
the present value of receiving $100 per
year in perpetuity is

which is the infinite series:

This is a geometric series with common
ratio 1 / (1 + ). The sum is the first term
divided by (one minus the common ratio):

For example, if the yearly interest rate is

10% ( = 0.10), then the entire annuity has
a present value of $100 / 0.10 = $1000.

This sort of calculation is used to compute

the APR of a loan (such as a mortgage
loan). It can also be used to estimate the
present value of expected stock dividends,
or the terminal value of a financial asset
assuming a stable growth rate.

Fractal geometry

The interior of the Koch snowflake

is a union of infinitely many
triangles. In the study of fractals,
geometric series often arise as the
If |r| < 1, representing each
perimeter, area, or volume of a self-
geometric series term as the area
similar figure.
of a similar triangle creates a fractal
in which more zooming in always
reveals more similar triangles.
The area inside the Koch snowflake can be
described as the union of infinitely many
equilateral triangles (see figure). Each side
of the green triangle is exactly 1/3 the size
of a side of the large blue triangle, and
therefore has exactly 1/9 the area.
Similarly, each yellow triangle has 1/9 the
area of a green triangle, and so forth.
Taking the blue triangle as a unit of area,
the total area of the snowflake is

The first term of this series represents the

area of the blue triangle, the second term
the total area of the three green triangles,
the third term the total area of the twelve
yellow triangles, and so forth. Excluding
the initial 1, this series is geometric with
constant ratio r = 4/9. The first term of the
geometric series is a = 3(1/9) = 1/3, so the
sum is

Thus the Koch snowflake has 8/5 of the

area of the base triangle.
Integration

The derivative of

because,[11] letting

Therefore, letting
is the integral
which is called Gregory's series and is
commonly attributed to Madhava of
Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – c. 1425).
Instances
Grandi's series – The infinite sum of
alternating 1 and -1 terms: 1 − 1 + 1 − 1
+⋯
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ – Infinite series
1 − 2 + 4 − 8 + ⋯ – infinite series
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + ⋯ –
Mathematical infinite series
1/2 − 1/4 + 1/8 − 1/16 + ⋯ –
mathematical infinite series
1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + ⋯ – Infinite
sum equal to 1/3 at its limit
A geometric series is a unit series (the
series sum converges to one) if and only
if |r| < 1 and a + r = 1 (equivalent to the
more familiar form S = a / (1 - r) = 1
when |r| < 1). Therefore, an alternating
series is also a unit series when -1 < r <
0 and a + r = 1 (for example, coefficient a
= 1.7 and common ratio r = -0.7).
The terms of a geometric series are also
the terms of a generalized Fibonacci
sequence (Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 but without
requiring F0 = 0 and F1 = 1) when a
geometric series common ratio r
satisfies the constraint 1 + r = r2, which
according to the quadratic formula is
when the common ratio r equals the
golden ratio (i.e., common ratio r = (1 ±
√5)/2).
The only geometric series that is a unit
series and also has terms of a
generalized Fibonacci sequence has the
golden ratio as its coefficient a and the
conjugate golden ratio as its common
ratio r (i.e., a = (1 + √5)/2 and r = (1 -
√5)/2). It is a unit series because a + r =
1 and |r| < 1, it is a generalized Fibonacci
sequence because 1 + r = r2, and it is an
alternating series because r < 0.
Geometric series

A compact illustration of different

perspectives on the geometric series
to make perspective switching easier.
Quadrant A1 contains the why
perspective briefly describing why
geometric series matter. Quadrant A2
contains the how perspective listing a
snippet of Julia code that computes
the geometric series. Quadrant A3
contains the what (algebra)
perspective with the algebraic proof
of the geometric series closed form
formula. Quadrant A4 contains the
what (geometry) perspective showing
three steps of the geometric proof of
the geometric series closed form
formula. And the right margin shows
the timeline of some of the historical
insights about the geometric series.

The geometric series has two degrees of

freedom: one for its coefficient a and
another for its common ratio r. In the map
of polynomials, the big red circle
represents the set of all geometric series.
Converging geometric series

Only a subset of all geometric series

converge. Specifically, a geometric series
converges if and only if its common ratio
|r| < 1. In the map of polynomials, the red
triangle represents the set of converging
geometric series and being drawn inside
the big red circle representing the set of all
geometric series indicates the converging
geometric series is a subset of the
geometric series.

Repeated decimals

Only a subset of all converging geometric

series converge to decimal fractions that
have repeated patterns that continue
forever (e.g., 0.7777... or 0.9999... or
0.123412341234...). In the map of
polynomials, the little yellow triangle
represents the set of geometric series that
converge to infinitely repeated decimal
patterns. It is drawn inside the red triangle
to indicate it is a subset of the converging
geometric series, which in turn is drawn
inside the big red circle indicating both the
converging geometric series and the
geometric series that converge to infinitely
repeated patterns are subsets of the
geometric series.
Although fractions with infinitely repeated
decimal patterns can only be
approximated when encoded as floating
point numbers, they can always be defined
exactly as the ratio of two integers and
those two integers can be calculated using
the geometric series. For example, the
repeated decimal fraction 0.7777... can be
written as the geometric series

where coefficient a = 7/10 and common

ratio r = 1/10. The geometric series closed
form reveals the two integers that specify
the repeated pattern:
This approach extends beyond base-ten
numbers. In fact, any fraction that has an
infinitely repeated pattern in base-ten
numbers also has an infinitely repeated
pattern in numbers written in any other
base. For example, looking at the floating
point encoding for the number 0.7777...

julia>
bitstring(Float32(0.77777777777
777777777))
"001111110100011100011100011100
10"

reveals the binary fraction

0.110001110001110001... where the
binary pattern 0b110001 repeats
indefinitely and can be written in mostly
(except for the powers) binary numbers as

where coefficient a = 0b110001 /

0b1000000 = 49 / 64 and common ratio r
= 1 / 0b1000000 = 1 / 64. Using the
geometric series closed form as before
You may have noticed that the floating
point encoding does not capture the
0b110001 repeat pattern in the last couple
(least significant) bits. This is because
floating point encoding rounds the
remainder instead of truncating it.
Therefore, if the most significant bit of the
remainder is 1, the least significant bit of
the encoded fraction gets incremented
and that will cause a carry if the least
significant bit of the fraction is already 1,
which can cause another carry if that bit of
the fraction is already a 1, which can
cause another carry, etc. This floating
point rounding and the subsequent carry
propagation explains why the floating
point encoding for 0.99999... is exactly the
same as the floating point encoding for 1.

julia>
bitstring(Float32(0.99999999999
999999999))

"001111111000000000000000000000
00"

julia> bitstring(Float32(1.0))
"001111111000000000000000000000
00"

As an example that has four digits in the

repeated pattern, 0.123412341234... can
be written as the geometric series

where coefficient a = 1234/10000 and

common ratio r = 1/10000. The geometric
series closed form reveals the two
integers that specify the repeated pattern:
Power series

Like the geometric series, the power series

has one degree of freedom for its
common ratio r (along the x-axis) but has
n+1 degrees of freedom for its coefficients
(along the y-axis), where n represents the
power of the last term in the partial series.
In the map of polynomials, the big blue
circle represents the set of all power
series.
Taylor series

As the degree of the Taylor polynomial rises, it

approaches the correct function. This image shows
sin x and its Taylor approximations by polynomials
of degree 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 at x = 0.

In mathematics, the Taylor series or Taylor

expansion of a function is an infinite sum
of terms that are expressed in terms of the
function's derivatives at a single point. For
most common functions, the function and
the sum of its Taylor series are equal near
this point. Taylor series are named after
Brook Taylor, who introduced them in
1715. A Taylor series is also called a
Maclaurin series when 0 is the point where
the derivatives are considered, after Colin
Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this
special case of Taylor series in the mid-
18th century.

The partial sum formed by the first n + 1

terms of a Taylor series is a polynomial of
degree n that is called the nth Taylor
polynomial of the function. Taylor
polynomials are approximations of a
function, which become generally more
accurate as n increases. Taylor's theorem
gives quantitative estimates on the error
introduced by the use of such
approximations. If the Taylor series of a
function is convergent, its sum is the limit
of the infinite sequence of the Taylor
polynomials. A function may differ from
the sum of its Taylor series, even if its
Taylor series is convergent. A function is
analytic at a point x if it is equal to the sum
of its Taylor series in some open interval
(or open disk in the complex plane)
containing x. This implies that the function
is analytic at every point of the interval (or
disk).
Binary encoded numbers

Zeno of Elea's geometric series with

coefficient a=1/2 and common ratio r=1/2
is the foundation of binary encoded
approximations of fractions in digital
computers. Concretely, the geometric
series written in its normalized vector form
is s/a = [1 1 1 1 1 …][1 r r2 r3 r4 …]T. Keeping
the column vector of basis functions [1 r r2
r3 r4 …]T the same but generalizing the row
vector [1 1 1 1 1 …] so that each entry can
be either a 0 or a 1 allows for an
approximate encoding of any fraction. For
example, the value v = 0.34375 is encoded
as v/a = [0 1 0 1 1 0 …][1 r r2 r3 r4 …]T
where coefficient a = 1/2 and common
ratio r = 1/2. Typically, the row vector is
written in the more compact binary form v
= 0.010110 which is 0.34375 in decimal.

Similarly, the geometric series with

coefficient a=1 and common ratio r=2 is
the foundation for binary encoded integers
in digital computers. Again, the geometric
series written in its normalized vector form
is s/a = [1 1 1 1 1 …][1 r r2 r3 r4 …]T. Keeping
the column vector of basis functions [1 r r2
r3 r4 …]T the same but generalizing the row
vector [1 1 1 1 1 …] so that each entry can
be either a 0 or a 1 allows for an encoding
of any integer. For example, the value v =
151 is encoded as v/a = [1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 …][1 r r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7 r8 …]T where
coefficient a = 1 and common ratio r = 2.
Typically, the row vector is written in
reverse order (so that the most significant
bit is first) in the more compact binary
form v = …010010111 = 10010111 which
is 151 in decimal.

Bit fields for encoding a 32-bit floating

point number according to IEEE 754
standard.

As shown in the adjacent figure, the

standard binary encoding of a 32-bit
floating point number is a combination of
a binary encoded integer and a binary
encoded fraction, beginning at the most
significant bit with

the sign bit, followed by

an 8-bit integer exponent field with an
assumed offset of 127 (so a value of
127 represents an exponent value of
0) and with a base of 2 meaning that
the exponent value specifies a bit shift
of the fraction field, followed by
a 23-bit fraction field with an assumed
but not encoded 1 serving as the
fraction's most significant nonzero bit
which would be in bit position 23 if it
were encoded.
Building upon the previous example of
0.34375 having binary encoding of
0.010110, a floating point encoding
(according to the IEEE 754 standard) of
0.34375 is

the sign bit which is 0 because the

number is not negative,
an 8-bit integer exponent field which
must specify a shift that counters the
2 bit left shift to get the original binary
encoding from 0.010110 to 1.0110,
and that counter shift to recover the
original binary encoding is a right shift
of 2 bits which is specified by an
exponent value of 125 (because 125 −
 127 = -2 which is a right shift of 2 bits)
which in binary is 0111 1101,
a 23-bit fraction field: .0110 0000
0000 0000 0000 000.

Although encoding floating point numbers

by hand like this is possible, letting a
computer do it is easier and less error
prone. The following Julia code confirms
the hand calculated floating point
encoding of the number 0.34375:

julia>
bitstring(Float32(0.34375))
"001111101011000000000000000000
00"

Laurent series

A Laurent series is defined with respect to a

particular point and a path of integration γ.
The path of integration must lie in an
annulus, indicated here by the red color,
inside which is holomorphic (analytic).

In mathematics, the Laurent series of a

complex function is a representation
of that function as a power series which
includes terms of negative degree. It may
be used to express complex functions in
cases where a Taylor series expansion
cannot be applied. The Laurent series was
named after and first published by Pierre
Alphonse Laurent in 1843. Karl
Weierstrass may have discovered it first in
a paper written in 1841, but it was not
published until after his death.[12]
Complex Fourier series

The front and back planes show the

sum of the first +/-n terms of the
complex Fourier series that has
coefficients set to converge to a
tracing of the letter 'e' for exponential.
(The Julia source code that generates
the frames and audio of this
animation is here[13] in Appendix B.)

As an example of the ability of the

complex Fourier series to trace any 2D
closed figure, in the adjacent animation a
complex Fourier series traces the letter 'e'
(for exponential). Given the intricate
coordination of motions shown in the
animation, a definition of the complex
Fourier series can be surprisingly compact
in just two equations:

where parameterized function s(t) traces

some 2D closed figure in the complex
plane as the parameter t progresses
through the period from 0 to 1.

To help make sense of these compact

equations defining the complex Fourier
series, note that the complex Fourier
series summation looks similar to the
complex geometric series except that the
complex Fourier series is basically two
complex geometric series (one set of
terms rotating in the positive direction and
another set of terms rotating in the
negative direction), and the coefficients of
the complex Fourier series are complex
constants that can vary from term to term.
By allowing terms to rotate in either
direction, the series becomes capable of
tracing any 2D closed figure. In contrast,
the complex geometric series has all the
terms rotating in the same direction and it
can trace only circles. Allowing the
coefficients of the complex geometric
series to vary from term to term would
expand upon the shapes it can trace but all
the possible shapes would still be limited
to being puffy and cloud-like, not able to
trace the shape of a simple line segment,
for example going back and forth between
1 + i0 and -1 + i0. However, Euler's formula
shows that the addition of just two terms
rotating in opposite directions can trace
that line segment between 1 + i0 and -1 +
i0:
Concerning the complex Fourier series
second equation defining how to calculate
the coefficients, the coefficient of the non-
rotating term c0 can be calculated by
integrating the complex Fourier series first
equation over the range of one period from
0 to 1. Over that range, all the rotating
terms integrate to zero, leaving just c0.
Similarly, any of the terms in the complex
Fourier series first equation can be made
to be a non-rotating term by multiplying
both sides of the equation by
before integrating to calculate cn, and that
is the complex Fourier series second
equation.
Matrix polynomial

In mathematics, a matrix polynomial is a

polynomial with square matrices as
variables. Given an ordinary, scalar-valued
polynomial

this polynomial evaluated at a matrix is

where is the identity matrix.[14]

Note that has the same dimension
as .

A matrix polynomial equation is an

equality between two matrix polynomials,
which holds for the specific matrices in
question. A matrix polynomial identity is a
matrix polynomial equation which holds
for all matrices A in a specified matrix ring
Mn(R).

Matrix polynomials are often

demonstrated in undergraduate linear
algebra classes due to their relevance in
showcasing properties of linear
transformations represented as matrices,
most notably the Cayley-Hamilton
theorem.

Matrix exponential

In mathematics, the matrix exponential is

a matrix function on square matrices
analogous to the ordinary exponential
function. It is used to solve systems of
linear differential equations. In the theory
of Lie groups, the matrix exponential gives
the exponential map between a matrix Lie
algebra and the corresponding Lie group.

Let X be an n×n real or complex matrix.

The exponential of X, denoted by eX or
exp(X), is the n×n matrix given by the
power series

where is defined to be the identity

matrix with the same dimensions as
.[15] The series always converges, so the
exponential of X is well-defined.

Equivalently,

where I is the n×n identity matrix. When X

is an n×n diagonal matrix then exp(X) will
be an n×n diagonal matrix with each
diagonal element equal to the ordinary
exponential applied to the corresponding
diagonal element of X.

See also
0.999... – Alternative decimal expansion
of 1
Asymptote – Limit of the tangent line at
a point that tends to infinity
Divergent geometric series
Generalized hypergeometric function –
Family of power series in mathematics
Geometric progression – Mathematical
sequence of numbers
 Neumann series – Mathematical series
Ratio test – Criterion for the
convergence of a series
Root test – Criterion for the
convergence of an infinite series
Series (mathematics) – Infinite sum
Arithmetic series – Sequence of
numbers

Notes
1. Riddle, Douglas F. Calculus and Analytic
Geometry, Second Edition Belmont,
California, Wadsworth Publishing, p. 566,
1970.
2. Hairer E.; Wanner G. (1996). Analysis by Its
History. Springer. p. 188. Section III.2,
Figure 2.1

3. Abramowitz & Stegun (1972, p. 10)

4. Moise (1967, p. 48)
5. Protter & Morrey (1970, pp. 639–640)
6. "Set Partitions: Stirling Numbers" (https://dl
mf.nist.gov/26.8) . Digital Library of
Mathematical Functions. Retrieved 24 May
2018.

7. Riddle, Douglas E (1974). Calculus and

Analytic Geometry (2nd ed.). Wadsworth
Publishing. p. 556. ISBN 053400301-X.
8. Euclid; J.L. Heiberg (2007). Euclid's
Elements of Geometry (http://farside.ph.ute
xas.edu/Books/Euclid/Elements.pdf)
(PDF). Translated by Richard Fitzpatrick.
Richard Fitzpatrick. ISBN 978-0615179841.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
30811002150/http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/
Books/Euclid/Elements.pdf) (PDF) from
the original on 2013-08-11.
9. Babb, J (2003). "Mathematical Concepts
and Proofs from Nicole Oresme: Using the
History of Calculus to Teach Mathematics"
(https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/1444706
49.pdf) (PDF). Winnipeg: The Seventh
International History, Philosophy and
Science Teaching conference. pp. 11–12,
21. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20210527033047/https://core.ac.uk/downl
oad/pdf/144470649.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2021-05-27.
10. Mattuck, Arthur. "Lecture 19, MIT 18.03
Differential Equations, Spring 2006" (http
s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZ2qulI6G
Ek) . MIT OpenCourseWare. Archived (http
s://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/202
11111/sZ2qulI6GEk) from the original on
2021-11-11.

11. Riddle, Douglas (1974). Calculus and

Analytic Geometry (second ed.). California:
Wadsworth Publishing. p. 310. ISBN 0-534-
-00301-X.

12. Rodriguez, Rubi; Kra, Irwin; Gilman, Jane P.

(2012), Complex Analysis: In the Spirit of
Lipman Bers (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=fZbf629lTy0C&pg=PA12) , Graduate
Texts in Mathematics, vol. 245, Springer,
p. 12, ISBN 9781441973238.
13. Sepesi, G (13 February 2022). "Zeno's
Enduring Example" (https://towardsdatasci
ence.com/zenos-illustrative-example-bb371
b99f25a?source=friends_link&sk=8a6f90c9
6adf5b4a28d223a4a0db7350) . Towards
Data Science. pp. Appendix B.

14. Horn & Johnson 1990, p. 36.

15. Hall 2015 Equation 2.1

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Pappas, T. "Perimeter, Area & the Infinite
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Protter, Murray H.; Morrey, Charles B. Jr.
(1970), College Calculus with Analytic
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v/76087042)
Roger B. Nelsen (1997). Proofs without
Words: Exercises in Visual Thinking, The
Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 978-0-88385-700-7

History and philosophy

C. H. Edwards Jr. (1994). The Historical

Development of the Calculus, 3rd ed.,
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-94313-8.
Swain, Gordon and Thomas Dence (April
1998). "Archimedes' Quadrature of the
Parabola Revisited". Mathematics Magazine.
71 (2): 123–30. doi:10.2307/2691014 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F2691014) .
JSTOR 2691014 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/2691014) .
Eli Maor (1991). To Infinity and Beyond: A
Cultural History of the Infinite, Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02511-7
Morr Lazerowitz (2000). The Structure of
Metaphysics (International Library of
Philosophy), Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-
22526-7
Economics

Carl P. Simon and Lawrence Blume (1994).

Mathematics for Economists, W. W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 978-0-393-95733-4
Mike Rosser (2003). Basic Mathematics for
Economists, 2nd ed., Routledge. ISBN 978-0-
415-26784-7

Biology

Edward Batschelet (1992). Introduction to

Mathematics for Life Scientists, 3rd ed.,
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-09648-3
Richard F. Burton (1998). Biology by
Numbers: An Encouragement to Quantitative
Thinking, Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-57698-7
Computer science

John Rast Hubbard (2000). Schaum's Outline

of Theory and Problems of Data Structures
With Java, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
137870-3

External links
"Geometric progression" (https://www.e
ncyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=
Geometric_progression) , Encyclopedia
of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]

Weisstein, Eric W. "Geometric Series" (ht

tps://mathworld.wolfram.com/Geometri
cSeries.html) . MathWorld.
Geometric Series (https://planetmath.or
g/InfiniteGeometricSeries) at
PlanetMath.
Peppard, Kim. "College Algebra Tutorial
on Geometric Sequences and Series" (ht
tp://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/m
ps/math/mathlab/col_algebra/col_alg_t
ut54d_geom.htm) . West Texas A&M
University.
Casselman, Bill. "A Geometric
Interpretation of the Geometric Series"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20070929
083805/http://merganser.math.gvsu.ed
u/calculus/summation/geometric.htm
l) . Archived from the original (http://mer
 ganser.math.gvsu.edu/calculus/summa
tion/geometric.html) (Applet) on 2007-
09-29.
"Geometric Series" (http://demonstratio
ns.wolfram.com/GeometricSeries/) by
Michael Schreiber, Wolfram
Demonstrations Project, 2007.

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