UNIT – 5

Geo synthetics
 Geo-synthetics
• Geo synthetics are natural(Jute or coir) or human made/
artificial materials made from various types of
polymers(Polypropylene, polyester, nylan, polyvinyl
chloride etc.,) used in conjunction with soil or rock as an
integral part of a man made project.
• These are used to enhance and make possible cost effective
environmental, transportation and geotechnical
engineering construction projects and also these have wide
range of applications in many civil engineering works.
• The two major groups in geo-synthetics are geo- textiles
and geo- membranes. While geo-textile is a permeable
fabric, geo-membrane is an impermeable one.
• As more products with slight difference has been
manufactured and used for different field applications.
 Why geo synthetics……????
• These have changed the way of geotechnical engineering
practices.
• These are innovative solutions to solve difficult problems
economically and expediently.
• Enables use of local materials – sustainable solutions.
• Unskilled labor can be employed.
• Installation does not require heavy machinery.
 Geo-synthetic Types
• There are a large number of different geo-synthetics are produced, but for the
purposes of classification they can be sub-divided generally into the following
groups like, Wovens, Non – Wovens, Knitted, Biodegradable, Nets and Grids, Three
dimensional Mats, Composites and Membranes.
1) Raw Materials :
The raw materials used in the manufacture of geo-synthetics are thermoplastics.
However, a few specialist geo-synthetics may also incorporate either steel wire or
natural biodegradable fibres. Examples of biodegradable materials used within geo-
synthetics are jute, wood shavings, and paper strips.
The thermoplastic raw materials are :
(a) Polyamide (b) Polyester (c) Polyethylene
(d) Polypropylene (e) Polyvinylchloride (f)Ethylenecopolymer Bitumen (g) Chlorinated
Polyethylene
(A) Polyamide : There are two most important types of polyamide(PA).

 Aliphatic polyamides are composed of chains which do not contain ring-shaped rigid
structures.
 They are manufactured in the form of thread or tape which are cut into granules.
(B) Polyester : Polyester(PETP) is made by polymerizing ethylene glycol with dimethyl
terephthalate or with terephthalic acid. All these three materials are derivatives of petroleum.
Polyester is produced discontinuously in two reactors, in series or in a continuous process
using more reactors in series.
(C) Polyethylene : PE can be produced in a highly crystalline form, which is an extremely
important characteristics in fibre – forming polymer. Three main groups of polyethylene are
available as
LDPE – Low density polyethylene(density 920-930 kg/m3)
LLDPE – Linear low density polyethylene(density 925-945 kg/m3)
HDPE – High density polyethylene (density 940 – 960 kg/m3)
 LDPE was the first PE developed followed by HDPE.
 LDPE is produced at very high pressures whereas HDPE processes are initiated by special
catalysts at relatively low pressures and temperatures.
 HDPE is more rigid, stronger, tougher and has a better chemical resistance than the low
density types.
 However, LDPE is used in applications where its flexibility and water vapour barrier properties
can be utilized.
 LLDPE is a third group of PE made also by a low pressure process.
• It is manufactured by co – polymerizing ethylene with a small amount of
alpha – olefins which lowers the density by forming short chain side branches
on the linear polymer chain.
• HDPE is preferred for the production of PE filaments and tapes for use in
geotextiles whereas LDPE and LLDPE are used more for the production of film.
• PE is available in granular or powder form.
(D) Polypropylene : PP is a crystalline thermoplastic produced by polymerizing
propylene monomers in the presence of a stereo – specific catalyst system.
• PP is the highest (900-910 kg/m3) plastic produced to date.
• Homopolymers and copolymers are the two types of polypropylene.
• Homopolymers are used for fibre and yarn applications.
• PP is mainly available in granular form.
(E) Polyvinylchlorde : PVC is mainly used in geo-membranes and as a thermoplastic coating
material.
 The basic raw material utilized for the production of PVC is vinylchloride.
 PVC is a rigid polymeric material but can be converted, when plasticizers are added, into highly
flexible products.
 PVC is available in free – flowing powder form.
(F) Ethylenecopolymer Bitumen : ECB membranes have been used in civil engineering works
as sealing materials.
 For ECB production, the raw materials utilised are ethylene and butyl acrylate(together
forming 50 to 60%) and a special bitumen of 40 to 50%.
 Stricter specifications are required when they are used as a seal in connection with resistance
to hydrocarbons, acids and alkalies.
(G) Chlorinated Polyethylene : Sealing membranes based on CPE, are generally manufactured
from CPE, the main component, mixed with PVC or sometimes PE.
 The properties of CPE depend on the quality of the PE and the degree of chlorination.
 CPE membranes are available in rolls of a maximum width of 2 m and a thickness in the range
of 0.6 to 1.5 mm with a roll length of about 20m.
Various Functions of Geo synthetics
 Types of Geosynthetics - Wovens
• There are a large number of geo-synthetics produced which can be sub-divided
into several different categories based upon their method of manufacture.
• They may be basically belong to natural fabrics or synthetic fabrics.
• Under synthetic fibres they may be broadly classified as conventional
geotextiles, geotextile related products and geo membranes.
• Wovens were the first to be developed from synthetic fibres.
• The type accounts for about 25% of the geo textiles market in terms of volume.
• They are manufactured by adopting techniques similar to weave clothing
textiles.
• This type has the characteristic appearance of two sets of parallel threads or
yarns.
• The yarn running along the length is known as a warp and the one
perpendicular to it is called a waft.
• The majority of low to medium strength woven geo synthetics are
manufactured from polypropylene which can be in the form of : extruded
tape, slit film, monofilament or multifilament.
• Often a combination of yarn types is used in warp and waft directions to
optimise performance/cost.
• Higher permeability are obtained with monofilament and multifilament than flat
tape construction only.
 Non - Wovens
• These can be manufactured from either short staple fibre or continuous filament
yarn.
• The fibres can be bonded together by adopting thermal, chemical or
mechanical(needle punched) techniques or a combination of a techniques.
• Whether at staple fibre or a continuous fibre is used has very little influence on the
properties of the non – woven geosynthetics.
• The thermally bonded non – wovens contains a wide range of opening sizes than is
found in a woven geosynthetics and are relatively thin with a typical thickness of
about 0.5 to 1 mm.
• Chemically bonded non – wovens are comparatively thick usually in the order of 3
mm thick.
• Chemical bonding is the least common method for forming non – wovens.
• Mechanically bonded non – wovens have a typical thickness in the range of 2 to 5
mm and also tend to be comparatively heavy because a larger quantity of polymer
filaments is needed in order to prove a sufficient number of entangled filament
cross – overs for adequate bonding.
• Non – wovens are not load resisting geo synthetics since their tensile strength is
limited.
• Non – wovens derive their benifit by the mechanical inter – locking and or the
chemical bonding with the polymer type used.
• The significant difference between wovens and non – wovens is that the polymer
filaments are aligned in the directions of the warp and waft in the weaving process of
the wovens.
• The results of this alignment is that the polymer type directly effects the stress –
strain relationship and as a result higher tensile strength with lower extension are
obtained.
• It is reported that for high strength, low extension and low creep geo synthetics for
soil reinforcement, the polyester is the optimum choice.
 Knitted
• These are manufactured using another process which is adopted from the clothing
textile industry, namely that of knitting.
• In this process interlocking a series of loops of yarn together is made.
• There are different types of knit used within the clothing textile industry.
• Only a very few knitted types are produced.
• All of the knitted geosynthetics are formed by using the knitting technique in
conjunction with some other method of geosynthetic manufacture, such as weaving.
Biogradable :
• The main intension of every geosynthetic application is long life apart from the
function it is intended to play.
• In certain soil reinforcement applications, geosynthetics have to serve for more
than 100 years.
• But biogradable geosynthetics are deliberately manufactured to have a
relatively short life.
• This is generally used for prevention of soil erosion purposes until vegetation
can become properly established on the ground surface.
• Natural fibres which can be in the form of paper strips, jute nets, wood wool
much or coir fibre are being used.
 Nets and Grids
• Geosynthetic nets consist of two sets of roughly round polymer strands that cross at
a constant angle to give a very open material with large diamond or rectangle shaped
apertures.
• Nets with apertures up to 75 mm can be made.
• However, the typical size of the strands and the apertures is 2 mm and 7 mm
respectively.
• Usually the strands are partially melted and rolled to produce thermal bonds where
they cross.
• Nets are sometimes lightly stretched during manufacture to increase the elastic
modulus.
• The strength of nets varies from 2 to 10 kN/m.
• This form of geosynthetics is mainly used for low strength soil reinforcement or for
core material in a fin drain geosynthetic composite.
• Grids are polymer lattices made from extruded sheets.
• The raw materials are polypropylene or high density polyethylene.
• The polymer sheets are first perforated, the form, size and distribution of
holes being determined by the end product.
• The perforated sheets are then stretched in one direction while it is gently
heated.
• The action of stretching the sheet align's the polymer's long chain molecules
in the direction of stretch, giving the grid a high tensile stiffness in this
direction.
• A uniaxial lattice, that is a grid stretched in one direction, is thus produced.
• The term uniaxial arises from the alignment of the stretched polymer ribs
and the greatest strength properties in one direction.
• An alternative form of grid may be produced by clamping the uniaxial
lattice on the stretched side and applying a second stretching on the
transverse direction.
• This gives a biaxial grid with a square aperture shape.
• The biaxial grid is used for gabions while the unaxial one is used for
reinforcing soil structure.
 Three dimensional Mats
• These mats have large openings, similar to that found in some of the finer
geosynthetics nets.
• The distinguish feature between mats, nets and grids is that the mats have a distinct
three – dimensional structure, whereas the form of the nets and grids is nearer to
that of a two – dimensional planar structure.
• Three – dimensional mats are produced by extruding for example monofilaments on
to a rotating profile roller followed by cooling.
• As a result the threads fuse together at crossings.
• The structure contains typically less than 10% volume of the polymer filament.
• Mats can be produced from any extrudable polymers, but the generally used one is
polyamide.
• The mats are available in size of 6 m width with 5 to 25 mm thick.
• These three – dimensional mats are often used in the manufacture of composites for
drainage.
 Composites
• Composites can be produced from two or more of the above geosynthetics.
• Also, it is possible to form composites from one or more of the geosynthetics used
together with geomembrances or geospacer.
• Evidently the composites have better properties to meet the needs of a specific application.
Membranes
• Membrane geosynthetics are generally referred to as geomembranes which are
thin two-dimensional sheets of materials with a very low permeability.
• These are flexible materials and can be strengthened with a fabric or film.
• Geomembranes are only subject to a small amount of seepage as a result of
permeation.
• For all practical purposes they may be considered to be impermeable to both gases
and fluids.
• Thus, they are suitable for forming waterproof or gasproof barriers between
adjacent bodies of soil or soil and fluid.
• These are manufactured from synthetic (thermoplastic) materials such as HDPE, LDPE,
PVC,CPE, etc., or bitumen products such as ECB. Generally they are either produced
as extruded sheet polymer or as a composite.
Non – Woven Geotextiles Woven Geotextiles
DRAINAGE GEO COMPOSITE
 Applications of Geo synthetics
• The basic functions(Separation, Fluid transmission, reinforcement, filtration and
containment and barrier) of geo synthetics are accomplished in various field
applications.
1. Separation : The field applications of geo-synthetics as separators commonly adopted
are : Unpaved roads, paved roads, railways and protection of geo-membranes.
A. Unpaved Roads : The primary function of geo synthetics in unpaved road
constructions is separation, the secondary functions of reinforcement and filtration
remain essential.
 Providing geo synthetics sheet between a granular sub – base and a weak sub-
grade helps to stabilize an unpaved road in number of ways.
 The geo synthetics while maintaining separation :
a) Provides local reinforcement
b) Restrains the aggregate from downward and lateral movement in the ruts
c) Restrains the sub-grade soils from upward and lateral movement between the ruts.
d) Acts as a support membrane.
e) Provides sufficient friction to limit lateral sliding of the aggregate
B. Paved Roads: Rutting type of deflections of the surface in unacceptable in the case of paved
roads. In this case, geo synthetics can be provided at three different locations in a permanent
road, i.e., at the interface between the aggregate sub – base and the sub-grade soil, within the
pavement structure or with a surface overlay. Geo synthetics can yield the benefits in paved
roads are
 Prevents pavement sub-base aggregate from penetrating the sub-grade soil
 Prevents fine soil particles from the sub-grade soil entering the sub-base aggregate
 Reduces the need for excavation of soft fine sub-grade soils
 Speeds placement of the sub-base aggregate during construction
 Reduces rutting of the sub-base aggregate while it is being used as a haul road
 Evens out settlement of the sub-base aggregate over any pockets of soft material that may have
been overlooked.
 Geo-textiles stabilization of an unpaved roads

Control of Reflection cracking with a geo-textile on paved road

C. Railways : Application of geo-synthetics in railways for 4 basic cases –
1. Ballast resting on a clay sub-grade causes erosion pumping failure due to the
dynamic load. Another type of pumping failure may be caused by the
contamination of the ballast by the dirty ballast pumping failure. These two
pumping failures could be prevented by providing a sand blanket.
2. A third mode of track support failure is a bearing capacity failure of the sub-
grade. Generally this occurs in cohesive soils because of increase of pore water
pressure. A bearing capacity failure could be averted by providing a geo-
synthetics film sandwiched in the middle of the sand filter layer.
3. Three alternative ways of incorporating geo-synthetics within the track-bed so
that they may act as a filter. For such use the geo-synthetics should have higher
puncture resistance and strength and also should be capable of dissipating the
excess pore water pressure. Otherwise the excess development of pore water
may cause liquefaction failure.
4. In another situation use of a geo-synthetics in conjunction with fine granular
materials could reduce the thickness of filter layer.
5. Geo-synthetics are also used in railway track surface water drainage systems.
In such situations, the application of geo-synthetics is similar to that in highway
drains. In this case heavier geo-synthetics has to be used.
D. Protection of Geo-membranes : Geo-membranes are used in connection with containing open
areas of water, such as in canal or dam linings. Or alternatively containing pollutants, such as
around industrial waste storage. Geo-membranes have to resist tensile forces, puncture and
wear from objects. It is now the established practice to use geo-textiles to protect geo-
membranes from the hazards. Geo-textiles often used for this purpose are usually thick,
mechanically – bonded non-wovens.
2. Filtration and Fluid Transmission :
 Geo-synthetics is being used as a filter(for cross plane), a drain(for in place flow), or
both.
 Geo-synthetic filtration occurs in fabrics where water flow brings some of the finer
particles of the soil being protected into the structure of the geo-synthetics itself.
 Geo-synthetic drainage occurs either cross plane when the soil modification above the
fabric and void modification within the fabric attain equilibrium or in plane, when
water is transmitted within the geo-synthetic structure itself.
 Protective geo-textile filter can be used as a capillary break for (a) interrupting the
capillary rise by large air-filled voids, and (b) Diverting capillary flows away from the
freezing zone.
Situations where Geo-textiles have been used for filtration and
drainage
3. Reinforcement :
 The strain/deformation in any direction could be controlled by introducing the
reinforcement(geo-synthetics) by way of frictional forces acting against deformation.
 The three main areas where geo-synthetics soil reinforcement may be applied are :
(i) Foundations, (ii) Slopes and embankments and (iii) Retaining walls.
 Synthetic polymers with high strength for used as soil reinforcement materials are
available. They are mainly made of polyester, polyamide, polyethylene or
polypropylene.
 The materials used for soil reinforcement generally have a high U.V. Degradation and
corrosion resistance.
 The strain behaviour of these polymers are time dependent i.e., the creep of these
products are significant.
(i) Foundation for Footings : Reinforced soil foundation bed is a soil foundation
containing horizontally embedded geo-synthetics. Introduction of a layer of
reinforced soil between a footing and weak subsoil can increase the bearing capacity
substantially. Since geo-synthetics are considered to be non-biogradable and are cost
effective, they are used in the form of geo-textiles/geogrids and geocells.
Failure modes of foundation when reinforcement is not installed in proper manner
Pattern of Reinforcement beneath the footing
(ii) Foundations for Embankments :
 Normally there are four types of failure modes the embankment can be subjected to
are (a) Internal stability (b) Overall stability (c) Foundation stability, & (d) Bearing
capacity failure.
 In order to obtain the full benefit of the geo-synthetics tensile strength, it is
important that the construction sequence is so planned such that tension on geo-
synthetics is applied gently.
 The construction should be done in sequence to avoid folding of GS beneath the
embankment after construction.
Failure modes for
embankments built on
soft soils
Recommended Embankment construction sequence with geo-synthetics as reinforcing materials
(iii)Reinforced Soil walls
 4. Containments and Barriers
• An unique type of geo-synthetics is geo-membrane.
• Geo-membranes are used as flexible impermeable liners and barriers.
• The term liner is applied when the geo-membrane is used as an interface or a
surface revetment.
• When the geo-membrane is used inside an earth mass it is termed as barrier.
• Geo-membranes are employed in a wide range of civil engineering works, such as
potable water reservoirs, distribution canals, municipal and hazardous solid waste
landfills, liquid waste impoundment, cut-off walls, dam facing, final closure landfill
covers, spill containment systems, wherein the primary function is control of
migration of fluids.
• Geo-membranes are used largely in the area of liquid containment.
• For canals and other water storage works unreinforced polyvinyl chloride(PVC) is
used.
• In India low density polyethylene(LDPE) is successfully used in the canal lining
systems.
• (a) Sealing against fluid percolation & (b) As buffers against pollutants. In these
cases the function of the geo-membranes is to create a barrier between two media
and to prevent any mixing of these media.
• Geo-membrane and Geo-net in the liner systems of Landfills with leachate, single –
liner system, Double liner system & in Landfill - closure.
Cross – Section of a single clay liner
system for a Landfill
 References

Ground Improvement Techniques : Dr. P. Purushothama Raj

Internet Sources
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