Chapter 1 Digital Communication - Compressed

D
,S
^..atl
....648
I
....648
-...649
.._..650
s ..651
.....651
_....651
-....652
,.....652
.-...652
lnUodirction
......652
-.....652
-"....652
L\..653
\) ....653
.......653
1.1. INTRODUCTION
--.....654 I s": sicle this ChoPEer
-......654
.-......655 I lntroduction or link between two Po;::' : 'j --:j I :' :
.-......655 I The Communication Process: l_--.
Elements of a Communication
.-.-....655
)\L\ Communication is '.:.-* -
SYstem
exchanging information'
--......656
-.......656
I Concept of Bandwidth
The electronic equiP::':-:'
ri -
U
* Sources of lnformation
communication PurPose' :-::
:: - :
-.".....658 I Communication Channels

equipments. Different com'r- :'---:, :
I Spread i Classification of Electronic cc'=-
assembled together form a ---- !
-.._.....658 Communication SYstems
L\ TYPical examPles of com'- --- '- -:
I Need of Modulation r: r-
--.......658 telephony and line telegraphl''
_........659 * Different tYPes of Modulation :
telegraphy, radio broadcasting' ' -l-1
':
Systems
---."....659
tlon and mobile communicatior'-:-: - -:
.--.......660
t Demodulation or Detection
radar communication' teler-isi :-
::
-"..,.....660
-.-.......660 t Multiplexing
telemetry, radio aids to navigat--:-
: ''
r r\lSE) t Basic Modes of Communication
landing etc.
-.........661
*,..".....661
t Primary Communication
The earliest communicati'lx :r-:
Resources :-
-..........662 telegruphy originated in eighteer
--.........662 I Survey of Communication
addilion to this, line telephon:- catri '
---........663
ApPlications couli b+
Analog and Digital Signals whereas radio-communication
,,,,....,.664 I beginning of twentieth centur\'en
i5r'r:
to
I Conversion of Analog Signals lvas further gle-l
nu"alo
Digital Signals "o**unication
World War II' It
-......665 became more \r.ll-l='
r) Analog and Digital Communication
oftransistor' integrated :r: '
.s66{70 of iru".rtio,
I Advantages and Disadvantages
,"*i"ondrr.tor devices in the sul-'"--
Digital Communication hat I = -
recent years, communication
i The Electromagnetic (EM) use of satellites anC :-:i - -
*irf, t'ft"
SPectrum ' :' :
has been an increasing emPhas-'
I Fundamentat Limitations of
Communication SYstem
in communication'
* Historical PersPective
tr
........648
. ........648
.........649
.. \ccess
.........650
- .ti'rns ..651
...,..651
....,..651
.......652
. .....652
\1.....OD1
,...652
!nLroduction
... .652
.,......652
,)11-{ .653
-- rl.\r ,...653
,,,,..' bD.J 1.1. INTRODUCTION
, ' ',,,.654 I ,', siclo this ChoPter
... trD4 Communication is the process of establishing connectlon
. ., 655 + Introduction or link between two points for information exchange'
' 655
655
i The Comnrunication Process: OR
Elements of a Communication
- : 1l\l-\, System Communication is simply the basic process of
bJtl
..
exchanging information'
'i\
. ,. 656 L*+ Concept of Bandwidth
Sources of lnformation The electronic equipments which are used for
. .. bDb
+ Communication Channels communication purpose, are ca1led communication
- r;r SPread equipments. Different communication equipmenls when
+ Classification of Electronic
assembled together form a communication system'
. trDd
- 1\ Communication SYstems
. .658 + Need of Modulation Typical examples of communication system are iine
659
+ Different tYPes of MoCulation telephony and line telegraphy, radio telephony and radio
ri59
.
Systems telegraphy, radio broad"casting. point-to-point communica-
660
.. 660 + Demodulation or Detection tionlnd mobile communication, computer communication'
660 t Multiplexing radar communication, television broadcasting, radic
\I>E) + Basic Modes of Communication telemetry, radio aids to navigation, ra.dio aids to aircrai:
661
661 t Primary Communication landing etc.
The earliest communication system namell- -l:"
.
.662 Resources
... 662 + Survey of Communication telegraphy originated in eighteen fourties (18ii '
''" 66li Applications aaailion to this, Iine teiephony came a few decacr: ' '
t
. .. trh4
t Analog and Digital Signals whereas radio-communication could become
beginning of twentieth century on invention ci
pn '
-
'
'
+ Conversion of Analog Signals to

665 Digital Signals Ra-dio co*munication was further greath'in'
* Analog anci Digital Communication World War II. It became more widel1' "r"
.., 666-670 inventionoftransistor,integratedc1rc''..
* Advantages and Disadvantages of
Digiial Communication semicond"uctor devices in the subst:
recent years, communication has l:
.
*
:
The Electromagnetic (EM)

Spectrum with the use of satellites ancl -'t''
has been an increasing emPha---
-
* Fundamental Limitations cf
Communication SYstem in communication
+ Historical PersPective
il
rualsds uoIJBJrUnUrtUOs E JO SluArUala sE
Liffiffiillil
-..
tl,l IEcrJl3alaEurpuoii..:...t I rllIISi-\E,\^pullosJoulroJar{}uISiqclq,l,\aBESSauIJouollElll'11-r1",
auoqdoicru, R .,.:r,ji-..- r l.-,.rq-oipeJJo osec ur'oldruBxo Jod'leu8rs IB)rJ})alo Bur,r.lu-r-r.-.. - -
laJnxEu uI iB3i"llCala lOU UOIIBUIJOJLII Aql -,
-..,r(l uaûoc o] pa:-r--L : ..- :..lt,>r.rr].11 +ndur uB SI ACJnOS .
;--,- ---i
- .-.1.1l
a6essalu ar{l rr.:--1...., i:',..J B uI'a.rn}Eu ur IEJTJIJa{o aq lou deru;ro ieu ac;rnos uor}BtuJo}lll
oBBSSaLu arlJ rlj.i'.- .I.qloLIE olul ,{BJoualo uIJoJ auo s}Jaluo, qclq. acllap B SI JacnpsLIE'iJ- \'
.IY racnpsuBrJ ]ncIul 'z
::O{
. .rils 'pa}+rusuBrl aq o1 seq I{r1ll-!.,
tlroqs u1
::EJ 6EBSSaru pirrllbar aJnpoJd oJ sI aolnos uolleruroJul Jo uollJunJ aql leql des uec a'^
:,-rclo 'patBrrLrnruuro, Jo podoûoc pLrB palcalos sI aEEssoru parrsap aql dpo 'sd8BSSoru asalll
. ..\-j
'sloQuI.(:- 'apoc 'sproâ Jo dno"I8 'spIo,â Jo luroJ ai{} ul soEBSSaru
Jo lno JJ-\a.\\oH f,la IEuEIS punos
snor.1l,\ aq LrtsJ aJar{T 'lBJauaE uI 'aJJno.-c rrorJBurJoJur aql ur sa}BulBrro uor}eulJoJur .ro a8Essaru
:- ,q, .LrorleuJoJur Jo aEBSSoru E aJBJruntuuroD o1 salJas uralsds uorlurrunu{ruoc E }€q} .4aoul od\
srqJ
:'!llo acJnos uor+Br.rlroJul' I
-:lalu
'slDolq asoql Jo SuruorllunS aql ssllcsrp lleqs a'^
^\oN
't't '6!l
{J 'r uralsls uolleclunuluoc e ]o LljeJoelp )col8
_ rLIl
. i,rLil uriol ;eur0uo aq1 uiloi leculcalo ul 'c1aelep qcaeds
...
l11S ur uorlEtxrolul uorleurolul arnlcrd punog
- ,-;tq
. rr{1
'., --lIo)
ruo
. lSOI 'uorlBurl-cap puE Ja,\raf,oJ 'lauueqc uorleDrunurtuoo 'ralJnusuBJl. 'JacnpsuEJ+ lndur
. -:uxa ,ocJnos uorJBgrJoJur aJE ural,q js uorJBJrunuruoc E Jo sluouodruoJ IBrluassa aI{J 's{Jolq {q paluasaJdaJ
ore sluaurala IEuoI+runJ lua.IaIIp aLIl qclr{.â ut .itualsds uoI}EJIunuIuIoc leraua8 B Jo rrIBJBBIp {lolq
iIJ'8 aql s,^dor{s 1.1 a.rn8rg .-{e.lru a;uelsrp auios }urod rar{loue }E pal€Jol'uorleurlsap ro rasn B o}'}u{od
auo +e pal€JoI ,oc;nos E uro,U 'IBuErs 8ur;reaq-uorlBurroJur uE lruisuBJl o1 sr rualsis uollBDrunrultiof,
E Jo osod.rnd aql'e.Loqe possncsip sE'aruaH
'aruB?srp lsalror{s aq1 ,{q ueqr 'luardrcar e Jo purut aql
Jor{}Br 3uo1 saliut Jo sparpunq ulilrlenb ur uoIJBpBrSop alqBurJap B qll.â 'aEeulr
ro u.{alted }q8noqt leur8r.ro aq? Jo (I^)
dool e er,t auror{ Jno{ }€ a,\IJJB,{Btu ""rtr"1]_":r^-1r[
Ja^\od Jnol'pazruorr{3uds aq }snlu sIoqurAS
srolBrauo8 ai{} IIB ;o dcuanba.r; IBul8lro aL{} Jo uoi}cnpordar puB Surpocep oqJ (^)
zH 0g aql lBr{1 susaui srqJ 'uorlBurlsop parlSap
's1ue1d lcuotEo.t palJduuoJJalul al{l o} sloqru.{s papo)ua aq} Jo uorssrlusuB'r} aq; ('rt)
Jo dno;8 E tu oJJ
oulotl s '1sa"ralur
01 paprAord sr .ra,nod clJloalg Jo urnrpeul 1ucrs.{qd e raô uorssrlusuBr?
roJ alqB}rns
sr }Bq] urroJ B ur sloqruls asaq] Jo Surpocuo aqJ ii:
aMoNy noôo 'sioqru,\s
'uorsrca;rd lo o,rnsBaul uIB}roJ e I{}I-â 'aSptut }Bq} Jo uolldlr)sap 'u,r-
IBnsrA IBJ6 Jo los E ,i{-1
';roluuL8rlo uB Jo puru aql ur aEeurr Jo uJalled }{Enoq1 e Jo uorlEJalrJt tr'-;.l-
:peaqe palsIl s€ ssaJoJd Jo uorssaccns e qEnorqt '{iil l -'
auo uro4 uoIIBIUJOJuIJO uOISS{UISUEJ} AI{} Sa,\loûl uoI}BCIUnuItuoc 'e suas IBJuAruEf ill' - -
L!:is t, sl
NollvClNnhlulloc v lo sINSlIuSlf :SSSCOUd NOIIVCINnT'Jr-Jo3 =--
a
,l-- rflle
- ' :sual
i=:1. to
--- of
'- - .llt S,
lHz
: , :.: rll'S
- '!lel
--.- : ,OOP
: -iiher
:.--,,:.
.. : -'.: one j-:.

3' Transmitter signar :':' :'-
:,- -'' : the ' ^-^^-ittav ie fo nrocess the electrical "
.: --,: 3.Ie i'u'ln:+[frlil;1*.t11ff mocrl:':'': ' :

SJ;"#;.:-],.'-'
i rtrrTin amplitude
'
.': -ii'Ce! ",.Jffi'r:l'3il",i,l1"uff
restrict its range ttiaj"-f*o'encies
t"pto Hr 1r:' : '
"r
rn *ili"r"i";;;;;.;; ,"ut iro."".ing is needed' :' :-
often amprified. bet''t'-
;ignal amplification is necessarl'
communication or b;;;;;=t'
,L* iun tuy tf'at inside the
themainfunction"rt"ri"*iiu..*Itt",.t,,*odu1utio,,,theme.ssagesis::.-::'::
ft"t'o'"t' *" t:''':-:r"'--: r - -
:1 1
hieh'frequetttr t""""ig"uf'
the tr8Il:n---::-
.,-.hu.restriction"i,,"'*""raud'iofreque".i"","-,,ificatjon.ar-i::..:.
,fiatlon in are done just to ease
rErnal form these procesti"gt orJit"'*?'*g"-tig"'r
the channel*'
"ff;iHl"i;13"I""olffii?11T T:::Trlli:?*ffiil'';l::i.==''t,
t'uu't' rrom the transrc:::': ' -':.',.
'
-:-:-- - - -- r--' -:
-: -
*"-YJil'""*ffiil;*il1"""d'ditr"HY"g"
can-say that the-functlon
a ph5=:i:---
ol ii"lttu"""l is to proride ''
other words, we
nadon. This ifr",rur-ta*itter and the recel\-cl trni,rr-io-Dl'int t'll:'.ll:'-:
r.. poin't-to-pornt
r-L=ei:' ..-- :
two types of -:t -' '
r tre various There are -chalne-:
rer-er. out of n*u*pr". or point-to-foi,.i 'i'u""'' ,..'::1:*iiiil;;r':i:':l:ll
r'::- , ,'," '-, ' .i -,1 I -
Jo"tri" uv g'ia"a electromagnQrrq
the tl'ar1- "-
1,.-,;, ... ,'.- " -
;;.;;
.r." of microwave links' tne
.i.io*u'".tinks' .tt.-
red message llu]].'."
links are used i. ' "-'-'
-' " ' :
=;;.".'Mi;;;wave
.loss.we11-contro11ed,g"ia"aoptical:.:..;:,:.-.]-,':.:...
,iilrilIh
ir,"." tr,r"" "h:"""Ii:r-'^::;',",',:-,..,. :.,:' r:_..-.:,.., -:-
Ttre message
the message ooi,-rt-to-Point is used' --'
clra:-
sed to convert nano the broadcast
other hand,
On the other -:
slng-' ' :
a microPhone .^.;;'r;;.it;J simultaneouslv from a
1"="'.:l;;;}r;;;*J*;r-.:-,1 -'-: r:.
4
rling electrical
* The three lle maJor .-, r.rr ,: - - -'
rs t he .
."**ri;t the iargest' communications
> DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
.''..i]geostationaryorbit,whichCovelsaboutonethirdoftheearth'ssurface'Duringthe
Noise signal is always
:-:,-IrErns]rli.'i""1";;;;;';;;;;i';"*"'i;;;'il;o:*dd":,:o^noiseintroducedinthesvstem'
,.: unwanted signal which tendto interflre u,ith the required signal svstem'
.: . an
. 1, llr in character. Noise may interfere *i;;.;g""1
ut urry-poi"t in a communication
'.,ji.\'er. the noise h"t i;;;"*st effect on the signal in the channel'
i, Receiver
.fl.Lerrrainfunctionofthereceiveristo.reprocltlcelthemessagesignalinelectricalformfromthe
:r-t,-,r'ted received tig";f i;; reproduction of the' original REMEMBER
rrvEr-u
ffiil*r'.:'J":*"tLJ*:;:i;;;"*l:'[:
our in trans,r]tii"r""
'x1"'*: '"?"1,T:',f-1";u.::l'i:"'Digitar
L,fJilt:':fl,i;
modulation
r,i..rcess of "arried ml:tl;;
Destination over ordinary telephone lines'
6.
';J.'Il".''x,1:i" broadcasting',the destination
IiJilJ,;:f it;";t'tt trt]^"r"tirica1 signal in the form
1,1u'o of
",".3iiiil,1l::H:'j;,1'Jif:i?:
is a loudspeui.o" *r,i.f,*;;;=;=
uiru,-r.a.t."r1;.
.r'iginal s,,und signal'
1.3, CONCEPT OF BANDWIDTH

Bandrn'iclth mav be defined 1=. fh"
electromagneticspectrumoccupiedbyasignai'Wemar"
':I]l:"":i ,:::. Bandwidth
frequencY ranse o'el'
;iil;it;; the bandwidth asisthe U:11:ll1:11
which an infbrmatio"' tig'-tut transmitt"U
; e r''" u.
I' ii" utii", ";; ;; ;;;"fi; t he up p
k""Y dtT::: : :: : :';:
1:"Y-"*
# ;i;;;' "" =,il FrequencY, f
; :; .". ; ;; .' *.1' 1,.,t":':. i::l ::f

i :;;'::
iJi; :T ; 1,=20H2 f2 = '15 kHz
illT #u"i
',] i*,*,. ;
T :' :L
Il#i";,;:";;;i;h;;or r'th"'n .i*"i.t: L'l'"l:.':: " Fi1.1.2. lllustration of bandwidth
ili'.li;#, ;; ffi;;I'-pi''ti" rangc:'lF ::i ':T"::;
"
g11l *:
"
o
""" i"-.T:;i
":t
signai I
or music
of music signal
:,'Jtt"#:.Tiffi in Figure r z' tl bandwidth is
2' ttre (1, - f)
ij;t [l[IilT#:ff;;;;;;,;.as .ho'un-
. ^^ rr --. t r 1.rro n'i*"i.r"r. sholvn i'.' 1
Thus, we writeBW = fr-ft

BW = 15000 - 20 = 14980 Hz
have been listed in table 1'1'
The bandwidth of different signals
TABLE'I.1.
Range of frequency in Hz
Bandwidth in H
S.No. Type ofthe signal
3,100
Voice signal (speech) for telephonv
300 - 3400
1'1' 980
20 - 15000
Music signal 5\{Hz
'l'\- :ignals (Picture) O-5NIHz
3. 3,100
300 - 3'10t)
Digital data (If it is using the teiepl.rolir-
,, :]
for its transn-Lis'l rll'

.r
upon il-ti, r':'.
ii'i: : :r' :1ns rlission depends
-.r 111 Point : ln fact' the requirerd bandwidth in tl.ri' increase in the rate of
' ::-"' tleta is being transmitted The BW itlt'rt'r::r: ii'rth but, .. ...
l=
,.. s
. l-re
1,4 OF
' :': Ai of the imPortant sol-uce:
.:
: :I.
-.r:,-iai':
. - -: itl-I
1. SPeech
:: 2, ]'[usic
'. - ,:lon ;1. Pictures
-l 0lt carries the infcttmation'o
,-.,,::I:;:li,'!,i)*,,'"* is basicattv a sisnat wh'ich
ro1e or an
' ", l;;1'n u, o" derined as rhe
:tl.*l:.::]l:ij:i:l::,L:iJiTli-lJiJJltJ,l:
i".,""t of ti'me' the tig.I'tai has a
unique valuer'
.!:l)r..r]L1ent,ru"iot t".hlri. *"u,1. that at """o
( iassification of Signals
'iirt' slgrlais ma-v be classified as uncler:
Signals
::t-?ncy, I
dimensional Four dlmensronal

Three
''..
One dimensional Two dimensional
-l
signals "l
signals signals
I
l''"
'ignais
speech pictures Video data u"J;J?'fli'
music
comPUter data
Fig' 1'3' Classification of signals
,.is cliscuss these sources one
by one'
Li't
1. SPeech
:peechinvolvestransferofinformati,onfromthespeakertothelisterrer.sirchatrrrnsfcr'ot,
,',,-,',,r"ttor-ttnkesplaceinfollowingthreestages:
iL) Pi'oduction
iu) ProPagation and
riri) PercePtion 30(l Hz :
Thebarrdof.trequenciesconsideredtobeessentialforthespeechcommunicaticlnis
communication**'
the to**"*tiuf ielephonic
- I{2. This band it tttiti'"a for
r-r
_.- T,,I".."r1ti,rl ro the
. a vital -role in ali our lives ancl
Elecrronic .o*rur.rlil"i-pruvr -
:.'.:,t trtrttiott socicty' .:.-.- i-r^rmrrinn Most huntun ( olllnlLr'|l'
,.' . tlds uPon ** cor.rm*nicarion is the process.gr exchllqing information'
, a,.. 1.21te of
.,:, ;;.;;;"ui-"r l. "r=o in written or printed form'
"
> ]IGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
- JIusic
l"l -'s-c slgnal is originated from the instruments such as the piano, violin.
flute etc. The musicai
-:: ira\'list for a short time or for a longer time depencling upon the instrument being used for its
t -ntnat10t1.
JIusic signai has following two possible structures:
(i) Melodic structure
(ii) Harmonic structure
The melodic structure consists of a time seqLlence of sounds, whereas the harmonic
structure
cotlsists of a set of simultaneous sounds. Music signal is a bipolar signal and requires
a bandwidth
ol about 75 kHz. Hence, the channei bandwidth requirecl for the transmission of music
signal is
rnuch larger than that required for the transmission of speech signal.
3. Picture
The picture can be either static or d1,-namic. Erarnple of static picture is
the picture sent by fax
rlachine and that of a dynamic picture i,q the one lrlocltrced on T.V. The T.V. camera produces
a
d1'namic picture and picture tlibe reproduces it at thc leceiving end. The
electrical equivalent of
dS.namic picture is produced at the output of thc camelii ancl it is called
as the typicat vicleo signai.
Figure 1.4 shows a tvpical video signal. The bar-rcLri.idth required
for this video signal is 0 to 5 Il{Hz. Thc sig..:.] corsists of a
luminance signal (\) and chrominance sign.1. 'rcleo
The lurlinance signal
conveys the brightness information whiie chlominance
-rignal convevs
the colour information. Alongwith thern the sr-nchr.orizing signnls
(horizontal and vertical) are also transmitterl Th..";r;;;d-;i.;; t^'q lllustration of
receiver to synchronize its verticai and rr"ri^,r,"r-.;;;;;;;.:';;
-':1 Video signal
a tvpical
those at the transmitter.
4. Computer Data* DOYOU KNOW?
Personal computers are used for electronic prail. exchanse An unexpected development is
of software. and sharing of lesonr"ces. 'I'he t"", ,rr^til the role that computers play in
transmitted by a computer is encoclecl using American communications. Fl-mail now
Standard Code for Information Inte.rctra;;; (ASdiii allows individuals with PCs to
Each character in :\SCII is lepi'csentecl b5' ."rrJ, dotu bit.. communicate with one another
Hence. total 2i = 12g characters can b" ,ep"".ented usins within and between messages
-\SCIL transmitted over networks with
Tabte 1.2 gives complete listing of'ASCII characters. office buildings, nation wide or
The worldwide' And interestingly,
'even data bits are ordered starting Ma- ;-
.urcl LSBbr. An extra eighthbitb. is "i;;".un.rif.olt'"t has not replaced the
"."an. .e-mail
telephone or the fax. It has
It purpose of error detection. When iSCil-il,;";;;
-.rirsrnitted over these ports. a start simply added a new way for
bit tr"rri.rrl.-*t-t"bl
". i .r ,ctop bit (which is set to 1) are people to interact with one
"aa.a ".
.fr;;;;
I;. another.
LSB MSB b8
Start bit
Sii: :: :
:- - - - .
Fig. 1.5. Bit format for sending asynchronous seriai data 1n RS_232 port
*^ n^-- . :
uar :- rLe .ransmission ol.o-prte, *,,a o,t-,-] _-l.f o,u tn" telephone
systet:r:. :t '-- . -. t. :atellite. "iu
'8'I alqBl ur po1SIISBe.res3urueowrtaq}puBsIoqLurS.Iaq]C]"-.
-":3'1f1:
'ra?cerer{c B}Bp Jo Surdno,r8 JoJ pasn arE ur=I
Jo pug) XJg pus (txa; o1 ?rBlS) X;9 sloqur-is rr: '
'sa.\rl Jno Jo lJad Jo[Bnr 'IO.rl'J'-
- ::' .\Jql '.iepo; 'uollPLuJoJUl rorra aql roJ posn e"re (luarua8pol.^ oulcy a,rr1e;;-1
- .'-'{ Jt (trlrqe Jno pdsea;Jur ol€q yVN ro (luaue8polmoulcy) XCv sloqtu-is :u -
--.'risrralal puB'orpur'auoqdelal 's-ie1ds::-
- j I sE qJns 'suoIlEJIuntu uloJ "ro s;ra1ur"rd Jo suorleJado crseq roJ pasn s1oqru,,.
ruor lJa[a Jo sr.uroJ u.Âou{-[[alA aql arB (paag eurl)JIT puB (u.rn1ag a8errre3) uJ E - OUO U.l. L
alq€1 ur polsrl s€ a"re sloquds lorluo) aqJ 'suortJut-.:
aMoNy no^ oo "to; -ii::'
lercads roJ pasralar sapoc are sloquds lorluor aril .
sEr{ 11 :,"
s8uluearu rlaq+ pue syoqur-is .rau:i aq] p: .

_:
'r'r=rr -
'g tr "a'l JO al-ri i'
aroJarar{q (g'7) a;e x ral3€JBrlc Jo salBurpro-o, eq+ +€rl1 .âou{ o} aruoJ a,u'Z'I alqe? ar{} 1e Eurlool :uotlnlcs tlll.\\ !,j
'v ra+aBrBq, oql roJ proâ opoc IIcsY aq+ ulBlqo 'Z'I olqel aq1 5u1sn 't't 3'ldW\fX= Sdot:_ _
Jaql. --.: :
ol s],a -.
'ISO o o L SN IS .{ I IIII .&\ou -. . -
u N SU OS s I orrr ui -ie-: ;:
St lri -
-'-'
-
'I
(
TU t W SC uc O I IOII
I .I s,{ .{,f c OLrI .
ei
) { l x + css ,lA TI IIOI le'a: l
Z t Z r sos .{'I V OIC)I Jo -,.:.
,( I I. I 6 ( NS JH 6 I OOI
x
,A
q
q
a
J
x
AA
A
H
c
.{
8
L
q T
) NYC
s,ls
NAS
SS
'ISS
vcv
8
9
000r
IlIO
OITO
+;
'IEuitrs
Jo +ual
n c o s q o/
/o XYN bNs s IOIO B SAEN
x€J dq
l p J o v $ vca JOS v 00r0
c S 3 1+ ecG xJg G
IIOO
rlq u s Z zac XJS Z 0r00 sr IEU;'
E b V I I rco HOS I I000 qlPl-t\P
O"Il-IlJ.t.L.
d @) 0 UCVdS uTo TNN 0 0000
I I 7 (r
Z 1 0 IZ8'
r0r 0 I 0 I 0 c
ir0 0 I I 0 0 9 SrAqurnu
III I 0 0 0 0 I llg! sll roJ i
I€Drsnr'.
los epoc ilcsv'z't, :t-Igvl
> 'rC i*3'COU.I-Nl
r- -= 3ir.AL COTMMUNICATIONS
TABLE 1.3. Control symbols used in ASCII code set

q.\L'K Acknowledgement FF Form Feed
F] L-L Bell FS File separator
Cancel HT Horizontal tabulation
IR Carriage Return LF Line Feed
DC1 Device control 1 NAN Ne gative -\cknowledgment
DC2 Device control 2 ACK AcknowLedgement
DCI] I)evice control 3 RS Record separation
DC,l Device control 4 Si Shift-in
DEL DeIete SO Shift Out
DLE Data Line Escape SOH Start of Heading
EM End of'N[edium STX Start to Text
I'NQ Enquiry SUB Substitute Character
EOT End of Transmission SYN Synchronous 1d1e
ESC Escape US Unit separator

E1'B End of transmission block VT Vertical tabulation
ETX End of text
)3. Important Point: Clorrputer-g'enerated data and television signals are both wide-band
signals in that their power content occupies a wide range of frequencies. Another important
characteristics of data cotnrnunicatir-rn between personal computers is burstiness, which means
that inforrnation is usually transmitted from one terminal to another in bursts with silent periods
between bursts.
1.5 COMMUNICATION CI{ANNELS

The medium over which the information is passed from the transmitter to the receiver is called as
a communication channel. Depending on the mode of transmission, we may classify the
communication channels into following two categories*.
(i) Channels based on guided propagation
(ii) Channels based on free propagation.
The classification of channels has been shown in figure 1.6.
Some of the importani characteristics of a channel are as under:
(i) Power required to achieve the desired S/N ratio.
(ii) Bandwidth of the channel.
(iii) Amplitude and phase response of channel. l
(iv) Tlpe of channel (Linear or non-Iinear)
(v) Effects ofexternal interference on the channel.
* The thi',... ;: :r'--,.r" .r.,n'rnrr-rnications media a.re lliles, it't'. s'.:..-', ,r:--i ::oer.optic cable. 'L
*
Communication channels
_
i Channels hbased on
û^^^^,c
Channels based on tree ProPagation
guided ProPagation
Telephone Coaxial
cable
OPtical
fiber
ff
Wireless
broadcast
Satellite
channels
Mobile radio
channels
""h-uln"r. communicati( channels

1'6' Classification of communication
Fig' 1'6.
Fig.
DOYOU KNOW?
: I relephon"
: 1' rerephon"
(t#;,'ll,u,,un'.,
(c#;,nlll"'un"., Exam,'11'^.lll
Sem. Exam; 2004-05)
to voice signals such
ffl};T{r:};tr;,t;ffif",,"ii,:
- ':. r-'- designed for provid'ing service
clesigned ror.providing :ffiiilli: il;;;ii; cellular phones' shoulo
t;ltnf;***:m 12 inch awav rrom
ue held ai least
:;rtirr**i**:llr"'m:mitrlr*lL'*;
best possible optio" io'
"ru:ffii""1j'i,,":il";;l
the to*".,,,*iil"tt";;;;;
communication
d'ata ;:#*f over
ilJlilii::;*l
."',,i.turrl"..o .o*" hgh-powev stereo^speakers
to"ta [Ja*gerous to Pacemaker
*,.,ient Features - r r^.,,a they contain large
,,.1,.1. u".u"Je
ratio of about 30 dB +
,,, ;,il':;";ii"
rlrYrr "'""*- ',- ""tr. Frat amPlitude
Flat ampritude
-: :-
. ^-^ r.,r-a\î1qr\ L , response
"lJ
,,,'.'J,:'Jiillil"l:.';::11,'i.'n",i,','..,
1'7'
rrrtr J;" ""
. ,:-.
, -.l,rr.cr as shown in Fig,re ,-, .-, r. rr,. f-- 1 "
.::.':i{tlrvever.noparticuIar'T:":,:",i].î:.:i.....]"#Frequency,f
channer
characteristics or terephone
,fl:.;:: li:,!:i:jk#;*::fllJ]';:,',1
:.i:t, clela), varlatrons. r,r:.:-,.^î..,.,. ',, . r n 17
1n lrLlurE 1!Lr \!!"

,__... .ii r-.,-ie lllt equalizt'r as shoWn .-3 i,l3
.,.(, .:::-.::
FrequencY, f
FrequencY, f
(a) Use of equalizer o{ the telepho"€

--': :-Je and phase response
channel with equalizer
Fig. 1.8.
net\\'i i.-.
t;r'er the analog telePhotre
digital data to be ii air::ll-iietl
Devices called moclems Permlt
and linear
.,. .itpicted in Figure 1.8 (b), the equalizer maintains a flatisamplitnde response
bandwidth limited channel'
-,:. t.cSporrSe over the passband. Also the telephone channel a
the
variation of insertion loss with frequency and fi.gure 1.9 (b) illustrates
:r._ -.r t, 1.g (a) depicts the
.'.r'riiiion of envelope delay with frequencl-' for a telephone channel'*
Envelope delaY (ms)
(a) lnsertion loss (b) EnveloPe delaY
Fig. 1.9. Characteristics of a typical telephone channel

Insertion loss may be defined as under:
Insertion loss = 10 1og, n €" I PL)
where Pl = load power from a source to load via channel
Po=louapowerwhentheloadisconnecteddirectlytosource
An envelope delay is defined as the negative ofthe phase lesponse
with respect to or = 2nf' The
pair wires' The construction of twisted pair cables
telephone channels uru brrilt using the twiJed of
is also comLonly used medium and it is quite cheaper than the
has been shown in figure 1.10. This
twisted together in the spiral
co-axial cable. A twisted pair consists of two insuiated conductor
unshielded twisted pair cables
form as shown in figure r.ro. rt can be shielded or unshield.ed.'The
are very cheap and easy to install. However, they are badly affected
by the noise interference'
l='
W Twisted Pair
)Conductors
Shielded multiPle twisted Pairs

FConductors
:".
Fig. 1.10. Twisted Pair cables

pair cable' As shown in figure
The noise immunity can be improved by using a shielded twisted
plastic coating is then provided'
- i0. a metallic braid can be used around the twisted pair. Protective
Tr ansmission rates
I: ,,r'e use the sophisticated modulation techniques along DOYOU KNOW?
' : , i.ir.Li11izer, then it is possible to attain the transmission The iono.pit.l'- t'efracts radio
.. , : ',.:ro 111.8 kilobitsisec (kb/s). waves. rlaking long-distance
comnrtttrj. 'l: :l: Possible for some
152 Co-axial Cables freqr-tenc ie : :'.i .et'tain times.
.-..
. r. - :horvs the construction of co-axial cable' It
. r'.:,:.: -'.'. . llcentricconductorsseparatedbyadielectric
were the first : - .--.:LI1C€ COmmUnICatIOn

E,
INTROD-l- :" <
is metallic braid and used for the PurPo-'

-'
- rrirri13.1 conductor
,l tlear
'rttne1.
-''. -,ttttain one or more co-axia1 pairs'
- , .'., r:lble u'as initialiy developed as
' .it's the ' . i;r 11L1iog telephone networks where
' : r r- ,ne cable would be used to carry
'-::r-.sion svstems using the co-axial

,'l,rPc'd in 1970s' These systems
. ': ri1rlg€ of 8'5 Mb/s to 274 Mb/s' Braided outer
r::'Lnt application is cable modem' lnsulating conductor
,r-lr modem termination sYstem lnner material
- :'i r:lore application is Ethernet LAN conductor
- .,:iiltl .abi". The co'axial cable is used Fig. 1.11. Construction of a co-axial cable
; :r.rchvidth and high noise immunity'
- r:: I eatures
may be listed as under
:lilol'tant characteristics of a co-axial cable
:
impedance are available'

J'.' ,, tr-pes of cables having 75 f2 and 50 Q
has excellent noise immunitv'
il:iirltse of'the shield p'ot'id"d' this cable
,: hrls a large bandwidth and low losses' this is
f hr-. cable is suitable for point to
point or point to multipoint applications' Actually'
networks (LANs)'
:he n-rost widel-v used *"di'- for local area
Thesecablesarecostlierthantwistedpaircables,however,theyarecheaperthanthe
nPtical fiber cables' the data rates of
The . , It is essential to use closely spaced (after ever'1' 1 km) repeaters to achieve
= -::.
rbles S 5 \'{b/s to 274 Mb/s'
iil the
. . .Pilal BlmportantPoint:Ascomparedtothetrvisted,pair"ll,:::;thecoaxialcableprovidesa
(EMI). Becausercflheir higher bandwidths'
,rlt le s :._rgner immunity ,"
'=t' "l";;;;il;;;;;'f.r",.""
::e coaxial cables *t" ;;;;-"Jable for the digital
signal transmission'
: 5,3. OPtical Fiber Cables

,, Definition and Construction
has been
Tire constl:uction of an optical fibei' cable
itlnel glass core
- rr,u'n in Figure 1.12. It consists of an
' - lLlIe u'hich has a lower
- -..ro.,rra"Jby a glass claddrng
in the
' rcled. ,-tmctive index. Digital signals art :1':1li-:mitted
tigUt n'nich is trapped
,:r- of inter-rsity-modulated srsr.rai
,r the glass core.
I-igfrt is launched into the libtr' '-l''l:r: a light
J tr I source
. i'adio ...1, u. a light Emitting Diode rLl'Dr or. Laser' such
It is
detector
: - l::lance letected on ih" other siJe using i'r rri'-'to Glass core
are costlier :'
:. : irrl 3O111€ .. " pfr"t*ransistor' The optical iiir-'' rr:'bles
have several
Fig. 1.12. Constructio"
fiber cable
' -
- lllEs. than the other two types but i:-'r'"'

:,clvantages over the othel'two
T\' -
--.-r' :';- ' 2z

:- :rr'-inicatlon * The transmission medium greatlv aitenuates and degrades the transtl.tlil'
5'
- :pecial Characteristics may be listed as under :

-,rre
characteristics of optical fiber cabres
operate at higher data rates
rr) Higher bandwidth therefore can
is low
(ii) Reduced losses as the signai attenuation
is assured'
(iii) Distortion is reduced hence better quality
interferences'
(iv) The.v are immune to electromagnetic
(v) Small size and light weight
(vi) Used for point to point communication
in the backbone of nerwo,ks' current

' ^';";::i."J"n0"" rransmission sysrems are widelv used
opticalfibersl'stemsprovidet"^^t-i*'io"ut"tfrom45Mb/sto9'6Gb/susingthesi'ngle
or twisted wire
ffi11'il1,i#;nTJ:i:rrical fibers is higher than that for the co-axial
,,,,
cables.
systems'
(iii) Optical fibers are now used in the telephone
(LANs)'
iw) In the local area networks
Fibers (WBUT' Kolkata' Sem' Exam; 2005-06)
4. Advantages of Optical means of
communication over the conventional
some of the advantages of fiber optic
communication may be listed as under: DO You KNO*?
rhe sHF and EHF bands are userl

m .f,ffi} fi;::-.1i1iifily;'til;Tffi:"f,'j1"'fii
dianreter of human hair). Therefore.
optical
a rurgo"r-rr-*rr", of
primarily for satellite communica"
tions and radar'
fibers can fit into ;;;i" of smzrll
diameter'
" The n-ratevial used
(ii)Easy availability and low cost: Hence' the
it tititu glass' This.material is easily available'
for the manuf'actu|ing of optical fibers
metallic conductors'
optical fibers cost fo'"'u' tl-tu" the cables "vith si,ce the transmission takes place in
(iii) No electrical or Electromrg.ruii" interference:
interference'
the form of light rays the signal
i. rrot oif..io; il;;;r", electrical or electromagnetic range' the
very high frequency in the GHz
(iv) Large bandwidth: As the tiglriruv. have_a of channels '
t"tgt This allows transmission of more number that of a co-
banrlwidth or tuu opiiul r;u",, "*tr"r1 "tv '
fiber is much higher than
.lherclbre" the intbrmerrion carryin* .oo*?r",
"r ^" "oti.rl
".t.l.iit:ner discussed earlier' the optical fiber
advantages: In adrlition to thc advantages
.,,n"tm.,rticationhasthefbllowingotheradvantages:
(i) No crosstalk inside the optical fiber cable
00 tirnes faster
Signa1 can be transmittecl upto
1
tii)
iir)lnternrediateamplifielarenotrequiredasthetransmissionlossesirrthefiherare]ow
rr') Ground looPs are absent
are flexible
r') Installatio" it "uty as the fiber optic cabies cor.iclitlot.ts
.,rr .l.hese cables al,e not nffectcd t-,v it drastic environment'a]
"
ij.r.r:,,.t,r:Tailthesead.uantagestheopticalfibercableisreplac:ittgii:t'conuention'almetallic
1,, . ' - .:i;lr' tapidlf in' n'tan'y ate:as"
!. p13ll irirrrk of OPtical Fiber r' -r.',-,1 irs uncler:
stsle::'' ::"-'
S :',. : ::l . -l.l'iln'backs of optical comlnunication - -.- :-:'.-t'-s
(r) )-l-l'-':il-illed plants are required for manuf'acilli'll1i "':
(ii) Tl- l:r'::--'- r''lst incr'trted is high
(iii) Joll:r:::::r'i :'"lilcal fibcrs is a diffic'-rlt iob
*l
' IepEr puE s r1o1 11r rrtrlllrlT:::li11i':'
pallEr orE zH'-r i r ''l1n

sfr)uanboJC +
- :,,.| :i)uuLl .{Hg puE
sgj'g j:lrJ',jl
tsuuaJue Eur,a.raae;r aql }E Llliri'r'Ils luu8tg (t;
.. .t.i.r..1 LllEdl?lnul ol anp sacnpor s{cBq,{ABJO
..ieuenba"rJqEItIJoasnaqlJoasnBcaqSocnpalIoAIaco"tpueJallIruSuBJ}Joazlg(1,t.)
uori-u u r u t-Iuttfio J'iaq]o
r{^}lAA
' suralsds
i;r.a,rrr,(ue e>1eru +oli op s{urr osaql ,T"J;,Hliliij#**::;H:'j.1::H':ft 3,

(IIT)
posn aq uec s;raleedag
'paonpar sr osrou Jo lcaJJo 'a;ro5a'laq;'
" se ocu€ualureu ssel
(u)
'."1qL, o1 pe"dtt'o'
'qfuel ui>1 00I
aq"
q1
# ffi ,1 ffi :llj i:"J-%
r'{u 1 ue r a de
op
J: :T',^"Jtr :ffi
cB 3u
o qB u.â
l,;:"J.}H
:
i ar
>Iurl aA€'âorcltu Jo sarnl€oJI

+uarlBS
aq1 '-ra'nol q'Srq ;ialaru

'poraôf, {[sea oq uEc iu>l Jo so)uB]srp
sploq
99I-
qltl'^ reqEil aqJ'uorsstusu€'Il .l-...
aqJ sr.ralBar6 eq1 'euue+tin "q' '1lo'ttq'
,,61 e tI?l,AA.a'uu;r
euoqdar"i;;Jffi:;l-lf::l
='
o,"rl''!q.' "o''1n"g**::;:t""i,T;J:X1; :JHH'::
Lio,srâral puu Ui:1
[il*]:f ;[*;*i*t*::*':::::,T'"'l:'xiililtr"&*";;Hlli,.ffi
'tt't '6ll il',ii.,* aq.
;JJ^ cliau8tu'o'1T}:"i:#::1
lurt aêMorcrlx Jo
uorlErlsnltl
uo{ssrulSuB'rl
aql ul aceld sa>1e1
\d 1n.r:r. ar{J "lq':^^-1-.i:::":

t* p"ti 11"-l]: -Eli.-
-
W
":"1':*:) / u-///-/-/-,' fl ""i+""-"irt "noip*r a^B,ÂorJrtu
H .,.roi=.r*..r,rl llJ!l-::
ramor
ffi "E ::j:j:;;;;o, ",,nr"p Euol rog _ tt
.i::"'ry
:r
-tH& *l*ffifffH#*#[;
'-" -17
,o1 p"a,-t a"rB orpBJ'puB
Sa'\€'AAOJCILU
Ia) :r,
,1-
(99-gr't r i :
rerlrusu,[ ,sJasBl 'f"rorj.r, uaLIM t.Y'01:i

ia^ro3au releodau llle.lq] olul luuErs eql
saalT,
jl:-,_t..i1*-.lj*,"":'#:i'j$J":&T::fi
1111.3-s1sn[aruos'JoqrJlucrldoJosaJr'Â'raddoresnstuals'(st'ot1"""""J*ocaJl'\\'iuetuq8noqlly
oJlr\ il:--
l',,"#;HX
.*
g1.1a,n'rsu,u.\Aor{s"i
,"r,., 3,1*'^,1::|.l1-Il::::1$T; ,U!ii:î*::"*",, orp'1rI 6q; uorleclun'1uruor
",n ",nr, o1r."uo3o
-i,n.,,.*
ilienlce i;;;';";:T....::'#lffii alEur: ' '
lurod "oot'u "'ffi.. "f ,;,...';r"1'n', }ua"1.11..
'add1 au'{Po'relaqradns a're
1' jl,:^.,.11,"Li"*$:ijjJJ*";ni:,1::'^"i,""T1;11i::::i:1
.:,r1; 1u*Brs pa+1rrus.,r."r.1
B r' r'^ B u.
'1
:::i:Ti: IHr;*1;:il"',.:i-Ji+:i:i:*,*:t:l: J::i,xI.J:t
-,'-.-,,rluEEurllrulsuEr'"q1't'o-'-rpcgrcadsatuo:u't'ott'tt1'".,lpaqlLIBuipalBrp€r
- :1.
-t ,rruds ao,l aql
o"tt
'o'n*n''!1+":n*-o1l1"i:-'.?"Ir':"jr:,1ir':,T'Ti:J':;:t'L::I
,:,:;:,isll"'Jl.:. eEessaru ro 1uu8rs
il",',[#iii::'.1',:Li'.",.:,":""J;;;3i,i*
aql JoJ posn ar€ slauuBq)
asaqJ
:luuErs AJ' PuE otpn'3o
t'ottt"t'=t'n'1
i
slauueqc lsecpeoJs ssalallM'''9'L
" il;jil##::tt"" will be affectecl b.' the thunderstorms, and other

armospher.
Range ofFrequencies
(lenerallv, the microwave
transmission takes place at frequencies between
'..,.i11 correspond to a waveiength of 15 cm to lj.75 2 and 40 GHz. Th-_
cr.n.
1.5.6. A Mobite Radio Channel
In mobile communication, the sender and the receir-er
both are allowed to move with respect t,
each other' The radio-propagation takes place
due to scattering of EM waves from the sur{aces or
the surrounding buildings and diffraction
over and arouncr them. Hence, the transmitted
reaches the receiver via multiple paths. Thj:1. energ.\.
callecl as ,r.r,-,rtipath communication. ,lhe
taking different paths wrtl have to travel different signals
path l"ngt;s. So, they have different phase
shifts when thev reach the receiver. The total
signal strength ui,i-r" receiver is equal to the
sum of al] the signals' Therefore it keeps vectoi.
changing continuousrr-. He.nce. mobile channels
as the linear rime varying channcrs and are calecl
it is .ru,l.ri,ui i,
1.5.7. Sateltite Channel
"",;,..
Satellite microwave systems transmits signals
between directional parabolic antennas. ,rhey
use low gigahertz frequencies and line of
sight communication. These systems use satellites
are in the geostationary orbit (36000 km which
above ihe earth). ihe sateltites act as repeaters
receiving antenna, transponder and transmitting with
antennu. sutettite microwave systems can reach
the most remote places on earth and communicate
with mobile devices. This systems works in the
following way: signal is sent through cable
media to an antenna which beams the signal
satellite. The satellite then transmits the signal to the
back to another location on earth as shown
Figure 1.14.
in .&
Satellite microwave systems experience
delays between the transmission of a signal
ancl
irs reception back ro the earrh t540 ms;.
Characteristics
Satellite microwave systems have the
' lJon'ing characteristics:
1. It uses frequency range between 11 GHz
and 14 GHz.
L -\ttenuation depends on frequencr,. power.
anrenna size and atmospheric condition.
1-he signals are affected by EMI efl,ect.
::rming and eavesdropping.
- ir :ind the alignment of earth station

: '.-
r ,: iltuSt be perfectly aligned.
i l r:- -' :,rilding and launching is verv Fig. 1.14. Illustration of satellite svstem
hrli:
6. The satel,.:... _rrn i_r161-ide point to point or broadcast services.
t :-:r::'" ti'an-'mitted by the earth station to the
llilitttd$i satellite is called as an uplink
{}
tNTRODTJCTTC\ <
- tt i-,Itc
- - -s arrplified and down converted in frequencl, by the transponder (e1c.ctr. : ,
, retransmitted back to various earth stations.
,1,i 111.1,
-'" signal from satellite to earth station is called as the downlink signal.
- -- r-rplink signal frequency is 6 GHz and clownrink sig.al frequency is 4 GHz.
'. This
- :l're 6/4 GHz band. a t5,pical satellite is assigned a 500 MHz bandwidth
which is . . .
:r -,r-ig 12 transponders on the satellite.
- : '' - 1'r transponder uses approximatell- 36 MHz bandwidth. A transponder can

csrr\, &t ,, :: i
r r' T\r channel, 1200 voice channels or a digital data at the
- -L'l l{l rate o1.50 Mb/s.
- t.r':Of
: -t'i'$)' 5 Irrpoltant Point: To summarize. we can conclucle that a communication channel is centr.ai
-.)als ' - lrelation of a communication svstem. Its properties
determine both tha; :^-""
inf;;mation
.:ase :ri capacitv of the system and the quality of service offered by the system-
:lttOI - ' rlratter of fact. communication channels may be classified in different
..l1cd ways as under:
i channel may be linear or non-linear. A telephone channel is linear, whereas a satellite
r.rannel is usually (but not always) non_linear.
\ '-'hannel may be time invariant or time varying. An optical fiber is time
invariant whereas
- They :, nrobile radio channel is time varying.
- ,. :rich -\ channel may be bandwidth limited or power limited (i.e., limited in the available
_ ,i ith :iilnsmitted power). A telephone channel is bandwidth limited whereas
an optical fiber
-:i1Ch ,rnk and a sateilite channel are both power limited.
- :'. the
,
the . CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
F
,&
: : :Lt1'oIltC communication systems may be ciassified into various categories as shown
' jlo\\]s that the electronic communication system may be basically categorised in figure
-.r. !a:eU On:
r r \Vhether the system is unidirectional or bidirectional.
into three
r ) \\'hether
it uses an analog or digital information signal.
- ' \\Ihether the system uses baseband transmission
or uses some kind of modulation.
Electronic Communication Systems
drrectional/Bidirectional v, v
-^
communication Nature of
tnformation signat l;"#r:ffI
I - c ex Half Full Analog Digital Baseband

: , slems Duplex Communication
Duplex Transmission using Modulation
Fig, 1,15. Classification of electronic communication system
,
,7 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION
' -ci otl r'','hether the system communicates only in one direction or otherwise, the comm.. r ,-
-' nr: lllr
,-lassified as under:
1, Simplerr svstem
.phnk
I Half dr,rplex system
Electronic Communication
3. Full duPlex sYstem System
Figure 1.16. shows this classification'
1. Simplex SYstem Unidirectional
these systems, the information is
In (Simplex) SYStems (Duplex SYstems)
communicateil in only one direction' For

example, the radio or TV broadcasting
system can only transmit' They cannot Half
Duplex SYstems
,L""i.ru. Another example of simplex Duplex SYstems
communications is the information Fig. 1.16. Types of electronic communications

transmitted by the telemetry system of a
.u,uff iru to earth. The teiemetry system
transmits \ f rd Transmitting
th" physicai statu. oi th" sateilite such Antenna
information abo.,t
sirnplex svstems nu,u
[-*rffi[o
--Sl&
I I 4",-,
;L*;*,",i:t:itH_,:rui r /.
been demonstrated 1n llgure r. fln" -EQ
tffi
.
f I !,:,3,:",","..,
Flow of
lnformation
2. Half DuPlex SYstems - / \ \
can transmit ---I--------'
These systems are bidirectional, i.e. they ------J r
as we* as receive trr,,.,oi.i*ultaneouslv.
A1;;i;". il;; In"""iu"' i lneceiue'zl lneceiverol
,y.t"*. can either transmit or receive' for example' a
transreceiverorwa]kytalkyset.ThedirectionofFig'l,,lT.Simplexsystem
such
communication alternat"t' ttt" radio communications
are half duplex s-vstem'
as those used in mi.iitary, fire fighting, citizen band (cB) and amateur radio
3. FuIl DuPlex SYstems place in both

as they allow the communication to take
These are truly bidirectional systems
the directions simultaneously' These system can Bidirectional Flow
transmit as well as receive simultaneousll" for of lnformation
u"u-pi", the telephone svstems How-ever' the bulk

oi"f".tro"i. communications is trn-o-rval' The best Communication Link
of full duplex communication system is
"""-oi"
the telephone system. Figure 1'18' illustrates
the Fig. 1.18. DuPlex communication
concept of duPlex communication'
Systems
1.7.1. Comparison of Half Duplex and Full Duplex
Half DuPlex Full Duplex
S. No. Parameter
Communication is two waY but one Communication is two waY'
1. Definition
at a time
Telephone
') Examples Walky TalkY
Systems
1,7,2, Comparison Between Simplex and Duplex
Half DuPlex Full Duplex
s \o. Parameter
Communication is one waY Communication is two waY'
Definition
Radio/'lV broadcast 1'rltphone
2. I ExamPles
OF INFORMATION SIGNAL
1.8 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE NATURE
the electronic conmunic:ition sYstem' TheY are
Figure 1.19. shows another way of classifYing
classifred into two categories namely:
- I .-r.,.1--lcation ar-atu*=.
r-:: j 3cmmunication Electron ic

Communication Sysle^-.
-I tt s)'stems or
- '.:r:ch one of the Analog Communication
v
: .re car-rier is varied Systems
th. ittstantaneous
.:
-
.:
--
r:--: srgnal is called as
:...-:.iron s1'stem. If
the Continuouswave Pulse
t-__-1 I
PCM D"'
--' ^g -.::,,r-.oida1. then it's Systems Modulation
-' :- :. :requency or phase is
r: , -.- ,..ordance with the {-T-}
I
,-
- '.. -t:.:-; :r3nai to obtain AM, FM AM I--T--i
'= -: Onal
t pu PAM i PPM
- i
.
an
:. I :=spectively. These are FM PWM
- --.---. -.s -*-a1e modulation systems. Fig. 1.19. Classification based on analog or digital
'-: -]erJl ,--:..---g modulation can be pulsed communication

: --.^::::: as well. Here, the carrier
" . ::r ::,rm of rectangular pulses. The amplitude, width (duration) or position of the carrier
. ::: :s '.-aried in accord ance with the moduiating signal to obtain the PAM, PWM or PPM outputs.
-:tenl. - Eramples of analog modulation
: :-torving are the examples of analog modulation systems:
r.oth :r -\mplitude Modulation (AM)
.r I Frequency Modulation (FM)
-rt Phase Modulation (P.M.)
,_-..^-t
- iret
:r-) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
I
- -^--l
=1 n') Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
ni) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
3,. Advantages of analog communication
Some of the advantages of analog communication are as under:
(i) Transmitters and receivers are simple.
(ii) Low bandwidth requirement
(iii) FDM (frequency division multiplexing) can be used.
1. Drawbacks of analog communication
Some ofthe drawbacks are as under :
(i) Noise affects the signal quality

(ii) It is not possible to separate noise and signal.
(iii) Repeaters cannot be used between transmitters and receivers'
(iv) Coding is not possible.
(v) It is not suitable for the transmission ofsecr-et irrformation.
5. Applications
(i) Radio broadcasting (AM and FM).
HL
(ii) TV broadcasting
They are (iii; Telephones
. !!! !! l|!t .rt llIEIilT ll
> f iGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
' 3 2 Digital communication

1, Basic -{sPects
signal is in the form of digital
The modulation system or technique in which the transmitted
phase is called as digitral modulation system'
; ...,:es ol constant amplitude, constant frequency and
2. Examples
pulse code modulation (pCM) and delta modulation (DM) are the examples of digital modulation'
(i) In the PCM and DM, a train of digital pulses is transmitted bv the transmitter'
is contained
(ii) An the pulses are of constant amplitudl, width and position' The information
in the combination of the transmitted pulses'
3. Advantages of digital communication
as under:
Some of the advantages of digital communication are
noise does
(i) Due to the digital nature of the transmitted signal, the interference of additive immunity'
has a better noise
not introduc"-*urry e1"1.ors. Hence, cligital communication
possible to detect
(ii) Due to the channel coding techniques used in digital communication' it is
and coruect the errors iniroduced during the data transmission.
signal'
(iii) Repeaters can be used between transmitter and receiver to regenerate the digital
This itlproves the noise immunity further'
data processrng
(iv) Due to the digital nature of the signal, it is possible to use the advanced etc'
processing data compression
techniques ..[h uu digital signal p-"o.e..irrg, image
voice channels
(v) TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) technique can be used to transmit many
over a single comnlon transmission channel'
few permitted
(vi) Digital communication is useful in military applications where only a
receivers can receive the transmitted signal'
to the analog
(vii) Digital cornmunication is becoming simpler and cheaper as compared
and integrated circuits (ICs)'
communication due to the invention If high speed computers
4. Drawbacks of digital comrnunication
are as under:
Some of the important drawbacks of digital communication
bandwidth
(i) The bit rates of digital systems are high' Therefore' they require a larger channel
as comPared to analog sYstems'
(ii) Digital modulation needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation.
5. Applications of digital communications
(i) Long distance communication between earth and space ships'
tii) Satellite communication.
riir }Iilitary communications which needs coding'
li ^ -
,',', Telephone sYstems'
'. ' Data and computer communications'
1.9 BASEBAND AND BANDPASS SIGNALS

1. Baseband Signal
analog i'e' sound' picture
T:-. trLl,.,.r.lation or the input signal to a communication system can be
c,i th.is ortginal information
or li i::r^ lre iiigital e.g. the.o*p.rl", data. The electrical eqtLitalent
si;1rrrr j : r i','', ,'. 61-s the baseband signal.
('hrch is not modulated' AII the
Il.r,::htt.,,rrtrds. we can define a baseband signal as the ttne of a
voice. dr'Lt;L L:.i:,.1 lllrtr.lr€ signals are called as the"basebanci -'lsnal'' The frequency spectrum
(a). It genelallr.Lr..r-.ll]es the frequency spectrum right
basebancl stg:a. r. shorvn in figure 1.20.
from 0 Hz.
INTRCDL:: :'. <
. I iigital
!'.-ste m. I
Hz Hz
:. -..-atton.
: :i,..rrum of a baseband signal (b) spectrum of a bandpass signai
Fig. 1.20.
-:arned :,-:_.ts!signal
= l.:lned as a signal which has a non zero iowest frequency in its spectrum. This
-
' '.-:::'equenc5' spectrum of a bandpass
signai extends from f, iofrHz. The modulateci
.: is the bandpass signal. It is obtained by shifting the baseband signal in frequencl-
- .:=i'irum of bandpass signai is shown in figure (b). Here, it riaybe noted that
'-
-,== does
.-:..t\-,
:' -: j. '..nc]' in its spectru* ,! fl Hz where the highest1.20.
frequency is f, Hz. Ait tfre bandpass
: ietect - :- : :ecessarily modulated signals. They can be available naturailly as weil. Examples
.: :-:-1als are the ultrasound waves, visible light, radio waves etc.
., =lgnal. : :.ASSIFICATION BASED ON THE TECHNIQUE OF TRANSMISSION
: - assing
-
:--.= :echnique used for the signal transmission, we can categories the
electronic
::- . ::- -:i Svstem aS Undef:
-:-:.Itnels :_..= I ard transmission system.
:-.:runication systems using modulation.
:: :ll1ttgd ' :' 3asebandTransmission
. :.:1aiog .. .{:pects
- -:. ,lCs). ' i.: !"'St€rr1s, called the baseband transmission systems, the baseband signals (original
- .'- .isnals) are directiy transmitted. Example of these type of systems"are
telephone
' " .1ire the sound signal converted into the electrical signal is ptaced directly on the
r -11.s tbr transmission. Another example of baseband transmission is computer data
., :' : .'''Ldth ':- 1r lr"er the coaxial cables in the computer networks. Thus, the baseband transmission
' .. ::rission of the original information signai as it is.
- :::"tarions of Baseband Transmission
. ' :.stband transmission cannot be used with certain mediums e.g.. it cannot be used for the
' --'.tllission where the mediurn is free space. This is because the voice signal (in the electrical
j r'llr t travel long distance in air. It gets suppressed after a short distance.
Therefore. for the
:::llltnication of baseband signals, a technique called rnodtrlation is used.
" -2 Modutation
'- :- Inodulation process, two signals are used namely the mod.ulating signal and the cortier
-r'-iiating signal is nothing but the baseband signal or informatior, .igrrnt while caryier. r: .
- :::.i!1encY sinusoidal signal. In the modulation process, somer parameter of the carriei..,,. ,
:,: :irrplitude. frequency or phase) is varied in
r picture . I:nce. rvith the moduiating signal. This Modulating
' '.rtation :...:..tecl signal is then
transmitted by the Signal
.::rrrrer, The receiver demodulates the received
: -\11 the ' -arec1 signal and gets the original information
:l.iim of a - . , 'iack. Thus. demodulation is exactiy opposite Carrier Signa
:.':n right .. .i,:liition. In the process of modulation, the
Fig. 1.21. lt4oc, =' ,-
r ' ,.\-itvr ar:tua1lv acts as a carr"ier which carries
the information signal (modulating signal) from the transmitter to receiver. This is similar to a
situation in rvhich a person travels in his car or on his bike from one place to the other. The person
can be vieq'ed as the modulating signal and the car or bike as the carrier as shown in figure 1.22.
lnformation
Signal
FiS. 1.22. Concept of modulation
1.10.3. Frequency Translation in Modulation Process

The baseband signal or modulating signal is a low frequency signal. For example, the audio
signal is present in the frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. But due to modulation, the same
signal nolv gets translated to a higher frequency range.
1.10"4. Multiplexing
Nlultiplexing may be defined as the process of combining several message signals together and
send them over the same communication channel. Three commonly used methods of multiplexing
are as under:
(i) Frequencl' Division Multiplexing (FDM).
(ii) Time Division N{ultiplexing (TDM).
(iii) Code Division Multiplexing (CDM).
1.11, NEED OF MODULATION
1. Basic Aspects
A question may be asked as, when the baseband signals can be transmitted directly why to use
the modulation?
The answer is that the baseband transmission has manv limitations which can be overcome
using moduiation. It may be explained below.
In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is translated i.e., shifted from low frequency
to high frequency. This frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of carrier.
2. Advantages of Modulation
(i) Reduction in the height of antenna
(ii) Avoids mixing of signals
(iii) Increases the range of communication
tir') Multiplexing is possible
{\') lmproves quality of reception.
3. Reduction in Height of Antenna
F,,,r' the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height n'ir.rst ht muitiple of (?,"1$. Here l" is
the ',r'rir.elength. 7L = c/f where c is velocity of light and f is the fieqrLenci' oi the signal to be transrnitted.
T1-i. r.n:lir.r.rr-Lrr-r antenna height required to transmit a basebar-rd signal of f = 10 kHz is calculated as
foi1,.,n.s r
I
j
rNTRal_-- _ , <
c- 3x108
. .-.:-'enna heisht
" - I4 - 4t - - = 7500 meLers i.e, 1.5 ..-'
4xl0x10'
-: r- r- i 'rf this height is practically impossible to install.
. ..s :onsider a modulated signal at f = 1MHz. The minimum antenna 1:-=,-- : -
1 - c- - 3x108
:.,:ricnnaheisht-
' - =75meter
4 4f 4x1x10o
. ' ::,:a can be easily installed practically. Thus, modulation reduces the heigh- -.'
- r : )'I ixing of Signals

...i: - - :..=.cand sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than one
::llia ' ' ." : .-+r all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz. Therefore. all
-- , : ::: :rixed together and a receiver cannot separated them from each other.
: 3aseband
: l' 3llrl Srgnals
.:\1lii
:, use
: - ., llflt:
- -iancv
#
80
Fig.'1.23. Modulation avoids mixing of signals

- .- each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will
.:r':nt slots in the frequency domain (different channels). This has been shown in figure
' - ::,.,ilr-Llation avoids mixing of signals.
: =ases the Range of Comrnunication
-,:-r'r.Encv of baseband signals is low, and the low frequency signais can not travel a long
:-:n they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated (suppressed). The attenuatrot-
,.
- -::r rncrease in frequency of the transmitted signals, and they travel longer distance. Tl.
,.
:.r'e ), is
-. r-. !rrocess increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Therefore, it incLerl:'..
i::litted.
, ;- i communication. In addition to the advantages discussed tiil now, the n-rodula:r
-,.red as
-- t i-: sltrrle more advantages.
- i,l:.riplexing is possible
1..:-r -t\urg is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted (-rlt.r -'
' :1:rirl c1-ranr-rel simultaneously. This is possible only with modulation. Tl= ::
-r
I G Ii - C 3 l'1i.'1 U N ICATIONS
allos's tht .r..rt:. -:::t-,tt.i to be usedby many signals. Hence. man\- TV channels can use the same
fi:eqr-rr..- r.-1rr:-. ,,., lrhout getting mi*"d *itt eacn other ol different frequency signals can
be
II'1.:.-.' '- .. -rllle time.

7. Inrplor.es quality of reception
'r-, :: :r.rqpency modulation (FM), and the digital communication techniques iike PCM, the
.-.. -. , rr rse is reduced to a great extent. This improves quality of reception.
1,12, DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODULATION SYSTEMS
',,'...i'rous types of practically used modulation systems are as under:
Modulation Systems
Digital Modulation
+
Analog Modulation
Svstems Systems
'l
t
Delta
Amplitude Angle Pulse Analog Pulse Code
Modulation (DM)
Modulation (AM) Modulation Modulation Modulation (PCM)
+-_---l Amplitucie Width Pulse Position

FrequencY Phase Pulse Pulse
(PWM) Modulation (PPM)
lvlodulation (FM) Modulation (PM) Modulation (PAM) Modulation
Fig. 1.24. Classification of modulation systems
1,12.1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In amplitude modulation method, tihe carrier is a sinewave with frequency {' -The carrier
frequencyis *uch higher than the frequency of the modulating signal (fJ. ffte amplitude of the
.urri". varies in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal as shown in figure 1'25' The
amplitude moduiated (A.M ) signal is transmitted by a transmitter. The information is contained
in iis amplitude variation. Thelrequency of the carrier remains constant. AM is used in radio and
TV broadcasting applications.
Baseband Signal (Modulating Signal)
Em Time, t
Carrier Signal
Amplitude modulated (AM) Signal

+E l
=
]C E \
unmo0Lr atec
Carr -.'
Fig. 1.25. Amplituoe * .: - : : :-a

='.=
INTRODUI- l', <
:: ;'equency Modulation (FM)

. ::e same
..,s can be
: t- \I. the
l,4odulated (FM) Signal
---i - No -ti
Frequency !
Maximum Minimum
Change f" Frequency Frequency
, ''." (DM) Fig. 1.26. Frequency modulated signal
, r -.:11c]-modulation method, the frequency of the carrier is changed in proportion with the
-.
::,.,
r: ::he moclulating signal. Thus, the frequency compression and expansion will take
- :'- ,,\-r1 in figure f .ZO. Ttre FM signal is transmitted by the transmitter and it carries the
-. rr .1 rhe frequency variation. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant' Also, FM is
-,'.
- ,.o'.ind and radio broadcasting and poiice wireless transmission.
': 3 Phase Modulation (PM)
- - arrier
-
- r. of the . I,l rre phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in proportional with the amplitude of the
:i. The . ,:--r signal.
- :rt ained ,. .rm,,litude of carrier remains constant. Thus. the information is carried in the phase
.:it,t and , :--. of the modr.rlated signal. The phase modulated signal is shown in figure 1.27. Phase
. j,:,, n 1s \.ery simiiar to the frequency modulation. The only difference is that the phase of the
.r -. r'aried instead of varying the frequency. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
- i-l'l is r-rsed for generration of FM.
Modulating voltage
No Phase Carrier:-- - :::.

Change Carrier Stretching D-:..
(Phase Lag) -..:
Fig. 1.27 . Phase modulated signal
DIG:-ni C,l'.1'.TUNiCATIONS
1.12.4. Pulse Analog Modulation (PAM, PWM and PPM)

F,rL I--- :-'.1 :l'l ...:rd PII discussed in the previous articles. the carrier is a sinusoidal signa,
Hou'.''. '' -. . .r,.. nrodr-rlation, the carrier is in the form of pulses instead of being a sinewar-.
In P \1,- -- :,:rrplitr:de modulation), the ampiitude of the pulsed carrier is r.aried in accordanc.
'.'r::-':'-. , :,::'.rde of modulating signal. In PWM (pulse width modulation). rvidth of the pulse.
.i rr . ::.'l Pr-rlse positi.on modulation), the position of pulses is varied in accordance with th.
: r.. : r-= -rgrral. The PAM and PWM signals are shown in figure 1.28. I
Baseband
Signal
(Modulating
Signal)
0
Carrier
PAM Signal
PWM Signal
T. = Sampling Period
Fig. 1.28. PAt\,'l, PWM signals (pulse analog modulation)
1.12.5. Pulse Gode Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM)

These are the digital pulse modulation systems. Here, a train of digital pulses is transmitted
by the transmitter. AII the pulses are of constant amplitude, width and position. The information is
contained in combination of the pulses. The digital communication has higher noise immunity
than the analog communication system.
1.13. DEMODULATION OR DETECTION

Tht nr,rclr-r1atecl signals are transmitted by the transmitter via air medium or wire medium. These
stslrLi. then i'each the receivers by travelling over the communication medium. At the receiver, the
.,i'iqi:rr rirlolnrrtion signal is separated from the carrier. This process is ca1led as demodulation or
deter:, n. Dtrrciion is exactly the opposite process of modulation.
1.14. MULTIPLEXING
\Iultrplerxir-rg is the process of simultaneously transmitting tu.o or more indrviclual signals over a
single con.rmr.rnication channel. Due to multiplexing. it is possiirle to increase the number of
comn.tLtnication channels so that more information can be transmittt,cl. The t1-pical applications of
multiplexir.rg are in telemetlr"ancl telephony or in the satellite .rrnrniLli)ication.
INTRODUCT]C)\ <
" - : -:::: or Multiplexing
r,::ririe rlr-rltiplexer is illustrated in figure 1.29. The multiple-rer.-.t :. :-
-' r.rr: inpr.rt signals"
' :_r. i)Lttput which
- --.-= r'ontntunication
-r\Ft combines 6]]
I Multiple
-:r ;.- conlposite ^lnPut
'i -,
Signals a ^- - -
-.:. ti: tl OVer the
- .,',ll'r. Sorletimes, the
rls.ci to modulate a
'- rlsmission. At the Single Communication
::'.nt,.tnication link. a Channel (Wire or Radio)
- ::r1 to sort out the Fig. 1.29. Concept of multiplexing
r , -irnal form.
- - -r, ces of Multiplexing
: ., : iar.rr: lasic types of multiplexing. They are as under:
. : - ,.t:c\- Divrsion Multiplexing (FDM).
.:-. Division }Iultiplexing (TDM).
'-, '.i.ngth Division Multiplexing (WDM).
.-
' ".:-,- ation of Nlultiplexing
, ::- -rrtlplexing techniques can be broadly classified into two categories namely analog and
-':r'-ic,s multiplexing can be either FDM or WDM and digital multiplexing is TON,{. Figure
- .. the classification of multiplexing
,,,,.s
Multiplexing
--,-.ts. fienerally, the FDM u.ra wou
.r- j are used to deal with the anaiog
ilon *'heareas the TDM svstems ,r" ;;;;
--------l
ru:
,::,ile the ciigital information" 1, FDM, *u.,v Analog
t
Multiplexing Digital Multiplexing
- .ile rlarrsrnrrted simultaneousl5. where I
signal occupies a diffe,ent frequency slot +
'-: a corlmon bandwidth. In TDM, the signals FDM
:. -.ECl
l
WDM
:,tt tran,qmitted at a time, instead they are Fig. 1.30. Classification of multiplexing
TDM
t- i: techniques
'.mitted in different time slots.
t' t t\-
, 15. BASIC MODES OF COMMUNICATION
l:ere are following two basic modes of communication:
1. Broadcasting
'l:g -
' :he 2. Point to Point communication
- I(lr ' 15.1. Broadcasting
In broadcasting, a single powerful transmitter is used which transmits information in all ::-.
-rections. There are several inexpensive receivers which receive this information. In broar.lra.:-
-
-lode' the flow of information is always from the transmitter to receivers i.e. one way as sr ., .
; , qure 1 .3 1. Exarnples of broadcasting are radio transmission,
-:f Of TV transmission etc.
: lsof 1.15.2. Point to Point Communication
Here. the cotutnunication takes place over a link between only one transmitter a1 i r
:1SShowninligure1'32.Theflowofinformationisgeneraiiybidirectiona1.T.
INTRODUCT,]', <
" . .-:i:. :. \rultiplexing
-
.i :ti signa,
: .- :_ii ntr-rltiplexer
i:-lleUra\'c is illustrated in figure 1.29. The ntultri l-r-
- jr-: nllut signals.
j - -'{rtdaltcr
--: ,_Ltrllut which
:ta pulses
, . I'ith the rrl ni u n tca tion
. :ri.r. combines all Multiple
, - t--lle conposite
^lnPut
. : rr-ii _ ,, o,."a thu Signars
a -- - -
I-.-.in Sontetimes. the

, -: -.ir_il to rnodulate a
: -.:: :slt.rission. At the
Single Communication
: :lnir-rnication iink. a Channel (Wire or Radio)
. -: .-1sed to sort out the Fig. 1.29. Concept of muttiplexing
..-.-r.,:,riginal
form.
r: -y,pes of Multiplexing
- i.:.. thi,ee basic types of multiplexing. They are as under:
:'r, ririenc\- Division Muitiplexing (FDM).
--, :r. Dir.-ision Nfultiplexing. (TDM).
',I,-rrr.elength
Division Multiplexing (WDM).
.- lassification of Multiplexing
The multiplexing techniques can be
broadly classified into two categories namely
iigital' Analog multiplexing can be analog and
"itt ""
,.30 shows the classification of muJtiplexing
r'onn
""
wDM;;"ii*i,ur multiplexing ls ToN4. Figure
'echniques. Generally. the FDM *"a'iVOnt Multiplexing
.r.stems are used to deal with the analog
.rformation wheareas the TDM systems , I
o handle the digital information. ";";#

I" pOlf, Analog Multiplexing
-ignals are transmitred simultarr"or=5:'*h"""-""y " Digitat Multiplexing
.nch signal occupies a I f
.a.i{fer_enjj1"q"u".; ;l;; ffi

ri-ithin a common bandwidth. I
- I :ied tn fOlf, tle .ig.rut. pgt/
- WDM
];Jfl|,rffi:r;r,r?j.:r,i#;i1ll"ad they are Fis. 1.30. crassificatjon of murtiprexins techniques
:ris rDM
. nit),
1J5. BASIC MODES OF COMMUNICATION
There are following two basic modes
of communication:
iiese 1. Broadcasting -
.: the 2. Point to point communication
-. ,it Of
1 .15.1. Broadcasting
In broadcasting' a single powerful translnlriei'r-.
used which transmits information in
directions There are several inexpensive
recer\ el's ,, hich receiv; thi. irrfo.*ution.
ali r:=
.rode' the flow of information is aiway. In broaricas:,:..
. -_ r\-gf a f"om the transrnitter iol"."i,rur. i.e. one
iigure 1 31' Examples of broadcasti"g,r" wav as sh ..,.-.
t:t lter of ;uaio transr-rission, TV transmission etc.
. .ions of
1.15.2. Point to point Communication
Here' the communication takes place over
a iink between onry one transmitter
as shown in figure 1.32. The flow of information ar.rri r,- - . :- :r
is generarly bidirectionar. To -.-- --,: i.. -
transmitters and receir-ers are used on both the ends. Example of point to point communication
the communication between two telephone subscribers.
Transmitting
Antenna
Bidirectional
Flow of lnformation
Unidirectional
Flow of
\* lnformation
,1 \r
@ t\
V r-r @
lnecsl
@
Fig. 1.31. Broadcasting Fig. 1.32. Point to point communication
1.16 PRIMARY COMMUNICATION RESOURCES

As a matter of fact, in a communication system, there are following two primary communication
resources to be employed:
(i) Transmitted power, and
(ii) Channel bandwidth*
The transmitted power refers to the average power of the transmitted signal.
The channel bandwidth is defined as the band of frequencies allocated for the transmission of
the message signal.
\orl'. the most important system design objective is to use these two resources as efficiently as
possible. In most con.rmunication channels. one resource may be considered more important than
the other. Because of this. \\re ma]- classifl' communication channels as power limited or band
limited. For example. the telephone circuit is a typical band-limited channel, whereas a space
communication hnk or a satellite channel is t5,pically power-limited channel.
Let us consider a particular case as under:
When the spectrum of a message signal extends down to zero or low frequencies, we define the
bandwidth ofthe signal as that upper frequency above which the spectral content ofthe signal is
negligible and therefore unnecessary for transmitting information. For example, the average voice
spectrum extends well beyond 10 kHz, though most of the average power is concentrated in the
range of 100 to 600 Hz, and a band from 300 to 3100 Hz gives good articulation. Accordingly, we
find that telephone circuits that respond well to this latter range offrequencies give quite satisfactory
com mercial telephone service.
Another aspect of utmost importance is the unavoidable presence of noise in a communication
s)'stem. A quantitative way of accounting for the effect of noise is to introduce signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) as a svstem parameter. For example, we may define the SNR at the receiver input as the
ratio of the average signal power to the average noise power, both being measured at the same
point.
A fundamental question that arises in the study of modulation schemes is the following:
With channel bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio being the two principle parameters that are
available to the designer of a communication system, which particular rnoduiation scheme provides
for their most efficient use? or in other words we can say for a specified channel bandwidth, which
* Bandwidth is the spectrum space occupied by a signal, the frequenc:' range of a transmitted signal,
or the range of frequencies accepted by a receiver. It is the difference between the upper and lower
frequencies ofthe range in question.
r'-rcatlon rs
.,llrjationschemerequiresthesmallestsignaltonoiseratioforapfeil-I,.]
-
1.f mance.
lies with information capacitl' theo|t::'
: : '
The answer to this important question
Ir.rformation CaPacitY Theorem chanlle, -i. ' . -
given by Shannon, deals with a continuous
The information capacity theorem,
ratio are exchangeable in the sens' ::'-'-': '
:
:r-ris theorem,.h"r;;i;;;dwidth..ra.ig,,ut-to-noise o.f one n-rotii'':'- ' "
r.-,\ trade off one fb, ;;;;;;- io, * ,r"=.rru"a .yrt"* performance. The choice S]'Si<r]-' -:
signal in the communlcatlon
. :reute over another for the transmission of a message between channel bandri'idtl' :- r-
the interplay
.-.,"rZ :t.. dictated by the **r" of this trade off. Infact,
=*;1
:-
I
:.-]lal_to-noise ratio, and the limitation that
they impose on communication, is highlighted
bv t:-=
, 'rtrntation capacitY theorem' ratio' The

sNR denote the received signal-to-noise
Let B denote the channel bandwidth, and
:a: cn
.1.':lr.nrationcapacity,r,"o,"*statesthatideallythesetwoparamebersarerelatedby
C = B log, (1 + SNR) b/s
,. rrere C is the information capacity'
TJleirtformationcapacityisdefinedasthemaxinrumrateatwhichinforrnationmaybe
: ::-,r-rt-Lication it *"utlr red'rr bits per second ft/s)' Above equation
rnsnritted without error through the chann"I'
It
-
..ar]vshowsthatfbraprescribedinformationcapacity,*"*uyreducetherequiredSNRby transmit
-::creasing the channel bandwidth,
ir"r.." it ad"u"tuge-of using a broad bandwll:11-to the noise
"
provides an idealized framework for comparing
:r-cssages. Moreover, above eqttation
':.rfortance of one modulation scheme against another'
. . ltssion of
1.17. SURVEY OF COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS
- -tet-rtl5r as
' than Communication aPPlications
t'::r:-rt
: -. r' band
- r. a space
simPlex (one way) DuPlex (Two waY)
r':tne the
r AM and FM broadcastins : Ifl:flffff "
r TV broadcasting o Radar
' - .' .'{nal is r Cable TV o Sonar
. .-. .Je voice o Facsimile (Fax) o Amateur radio
' ,'-,i in the r Wireless remote control o Citizens radio
r Pagers o Data communications
. :-itgly, we o Navigation and direction finding o Local area networks
- .'illfactory o TelemetrY
o Radio astronomY
.:r'-,.:tlication
o Surveillance
o Teletext and view data
, ':l ,tse ratiO r Music services
- -l-,1-r''it as the
Fig. 1.33. Comnrunication applications
'-: ihe same
applications' Most of the appli''all
In this article, let us discuss various communication telephcne' radio and televisic'r' l-
- _ ,,i-tng: , ri.r- familiar to us. The most common uppii.uiio"t are
CB radir'
-: :.1's that are r:rav also use other f;;;;i communicalio". t""ft as cellular telephones' -
Figure 1.33 summat'izt=
: '-::t€ provides .mote controls. There are many more apprications. are divicied basira-"' :
-
.r.plications of to**"itutio'"' 6i"t" applications

.,..dth. which
applications' simplex applications crrl'11.:
:
"lectro"l" '
:.-rrmelr. simplex applications and duplex
..::-.tted signal, ..1,p1ications *hnru.."J,rpt"* uppti.uiions correspond to two way applicatii'l'"
!::.=r end lower
I !r!!! !!!! !!
> DIGITAL COMMUNiCATIONS
1 18, ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

a quick view of analog and
3:iore \\,e discuss Analog and digital communications, Iet us have
irgrtal signals. DOyOU KNOW?,
The analog signal is that type of signal which varies
smoothly and continuously with time*. This means that Devices
called modems permit
analog signals are defined lo, uu"ry value of time and they
digital data to be transmitted over
networkg'
take on continuous values in a given time interval. Thus, we
the analog telephoue
can say that analog messages are characterizecl by data whose
values vary over a contintious range. The signaidepicted in
figure 1'34 is an analog signal' In fact'
is analogous to the physical
for analog signal, the name derives from tlie fact ihat such a signal
it majority of signals in the
represents. The vast world around us are analog' For
signal that
the temperature or the atmospheric pressure of a
certain location may vary over a continuous range and may
"*-.-u*pi".
assume an infinite number of possible values' Similarly' a
speech waveform is an analog signal since it has amplitudes
that vary over a continuous range'
An alternative form ofsignal representation is that ofa
sequence ofnumbers, each number representing the signal
Fig. 1.34. An analog
magnitude at an instant of time. The resulting signal is
called a digital signal. Digital messages are constructed with
a finite number of symbols. For example, the printed
language consists of 26 letters' 10 numbers' a
space and several punctuation marks. Therefore, any text
is a digital message constructed from
about 50 symbols'
we can use any number
Now, since a digital signal is represented only by digits, therefore,
practice, generally use binary number system
system to represent a dig'ital signal. However, in we
to represent a digital signal. In a binary
s1'stem, each digit in the number takes
on one of only two Possible values,
denoted 0 and 1. Correspondingly, the
cl:gitaI signals in binary systems need
have only two voltage levels which may
be labelled 1ow and high. Logic values -;
Frg'.ire 1.35 shows a digital signal. Fig. 1.35. Variation of a binary digital signal with time
Here. it ma1' observed that the
;;;;i; t.';;;;;rain with 0 v representing a'0' signal or logic'0' and + 5 v representing logic
,1,.
1.19. CONVERSION OF ANALOG SIGNALS TO DIGITAL SIGNALS (Important)

with analog signal' however'
In communication systems. sometimes it happens that we are available
we have to transmit a digital signai for a particular application'
In such cases' we have to convert
an analog signal into digital signal. This means that we have to
convert a continuous time signal in
the form of digits. To ho* i signal can be converted from analog to digital form' let us consider
get sample of this signal according to
an analog signal as shown in figule 1.36(a). First of all' we
"e""
time-instants to. ,.t. .; u19,lo^9n, ateQual time.
sampling theorem. For this purpose, we mark the
time-instants, the magniiude of the signal is measured
intervals along the time axis. At each of these
-. Lf*;i* G,.ril'v ;h", ;"1" ; st*ia;G G;;;'*"tr''
b dt * *i; ; ;* *;
voice o" "
video. Digital signals are binary pulses or codes'
variationssuch as
\ -=_ _
.:-_,,rs samples of the signal are taken. Figure 1.36(b) shows a repfesrll:-1 --
= I :16 (a) in terms of its samPles.

s and .'.' T . we can say that the signal in
= i 36(b) is defined only at the
sampling
i:-.is, This means that it no longer is a
:,ermit :.:-..r.)Lls function of time, but rather, it is a
e,f over -::e-time signal. However, since the
--_t-^
I [>, .:--::'rde of each sample can take any value in
.. :,:'.uous range, the signal in figure 1.36
(b) is
Sampled
lr fact. ..:: analog signal. signal
'-
--'''-.ical , ::rs difficulty is neatly resolved by a process
,. l. For '. :-. as quantization. In quantization, the total
, :,rcle range which the signal may occupy is
:-,i into a nr.rmber of standard levels.
r,. .horvn in figure 1'36 (c), amplitudes of the
. s,r, Iie in the range (- mo. mn) which is
.magnitude Ouantized
.:,:r-necl into L intervals, each of signal
\ .t,..
----1 m-'
= L , \ow. each sample is approximated or co x(t)
Quantized samPled of x(t)
-.r.rl off to the nearest quantized level as (dN -f
, :, :.r ligure 1.36 (c). Since each sample is now d-:

,
!>
u6)
- rr::rated to one of the L numbers. therefore
DCIS, A q)
::: - i'n-iation is digitized. 3 2mp,l
,i from o
-:'.e qr-rantized signal is an approximation of LA
\r (c)
.,Lmber
-r:rna1 one. We can improve the accuracy of -mp
- . . irltrzecl signal to any desired degree simply Fig. 1.36. (a) An analog signal, (b) Samples of
:r'stem
:-- - r'rasrng the number of levels L. analog siagnal, (c) quantization
20. ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

as undel:
. -:r,:.it-rg upon the message signal, communication may also be classified
. AnalogCommunication,
. Digital Communication.
-,*'
2O 1. Analog Communication
' l rle
r::irrl* communication is that type of communication in which the message or information
analog communication the
:. . -:'rg logic ---:, :,:, be transmitted is analog in nature. This means that in signal ma1'be
r,.,.rtir-rg signal (i.e., baseband signal) is an analog signal. This analog message
: ,-:-. C from sources such as speech, video shooting, etc'
nportant)
output
Analog lnput
- rowever, :-nessage Transducer
ssage
: ' convert
:= srgnal in
... consider
::,1'ding to
-;ua). time-
: rleasured Fig. 1.37. Basic analog communication system
soule ]-ii'
'*= voltage ,:-. -\r-ralog communication, the analog message signal modulates
:- :1: transmitter to produce modulated signal. This modulatecl :ir:--:' '
At the receiver'
r..::: :he hetp of a transmitting antenna to travel through the transmission channel'
rec&er the original message signal' Figure 1'37
.:.-: nodulated signal is received and processed to
of an analog communication system'
=::,:*'s the block diagram are examples of analog
Presently all the AM, FM radio transmission and T.V. transmission
::,mmunication.
1.20.2. Digital Communication
is digital in nature' This means
In digital communication, the message signal to be transmitted
in digital form'
rhat digiial communication involves the transmission of information
Kerala, sem. Exam; 2005-06)
1,20.3. Model of a Digital communication system (c.G.u.T.,
The overall purpose of the
Figure 1.38 shows the model of a digital communication system'
coming out of a source to a destination
system is to transmit the message or sequences of symbols point are physically
point at as high u,utu urra as possible. The source and the destination
"..rri.y
separated in space and a communication channel connects the source to the destination point' The
signals and the output of the channel
communication channel accepts eiectrical (i.e., electromagnetic) nature of the
is usually u ..n"rr"J or distorted ,rerrion of the input due to the
non-ideal
signal is also corrupted by
communication channel. In addition to this, the information-bearing Thus' the
and natural causes'
unpredictable electricai sigrruls (i.e., noise) from both man-made
being transmitted and limits the rate
smearing and the noise int"roduce errors in the information
the to the destination'
at which information can be communicated from source
Discrete
information
source
Fig. 1.38. Model of a Digital Communication System

receiver is often used as a
The probability of incorrectly decoding a message symbol at the at
nleasiil.r of perlbrmance of a digitai communication-system' Now
let us have a detailed ]ook
each oi tre functional blocks in a digital communication system'
1.20,3, 1. Discrete Information Source
upon the nature of their output
Inf,-,r.::taiion source may be classified into two categories based
sources. In case of analog communication'
i.e,. ar-i.t1, ,: :t-iiormation.orr.". and discrete information
sources, such as microphone actuated by
the inio.l..a,ror-r =or*." is analog. Analog information
speech. en.rit ot.ie or more continuous amplitude signals'
slgnLal which is
In case ol digital communication, the information soulce produces a message to
not continuo,.,.1. with time. P,ather the message signal is intermittent with respect
"uryirg or the nr'tmerical output of a
time. The ourpLrr of' ii.c"ete infcrrmation sources such as a teletype source may
An analog infoi'mation
computer aor-r.i.r. of a sequence of discrete symbols or letters'
information .oL.." through the process of sampiing and quantizing'
be transformed into a discrete
parameter-rl
Discrete informatron sources are characterized b-v the following
from the
(i)
Source alphabet: These are the letters. cligits or special charactei.s available
information source.
... .-=^_-,<
$€ oer r ::
":
-'::^,.. j
(ii) Symbo,::::lJ ;;
:
.
-"-er.
],.Jrx"kt m:: *"#nt::l* "o
;l l';,'''
,1 r
.ir'l'ence rate
*: x:'l'+:q::";k*#
itr t::'-t.H;;;enc"
of source
ffi
alpnauet Larr ".-- "T.""*Tl
.:-- liog "ach
t'',,rlip."o"bilistic
l;*|it.'!]:tlJ.J**u"i'u'io',
depe|,?riJff,"rT'u
bors in a seoue^1fl,li:.*j:lT;'iT-:i;ili;";_',
;i1y::l"al..,iu".
sequence'. ''1il:;.;; average,_,,
,,,;;;;;"blistic 1"L"l,1,"";ff,",-i"Tffi;iT
ourti.uiur the o,, ,..,
-ach source alPhabet
J;ffi ;i' û"'L*_u*,:t"Ju',.,
per svmbol
:;;;; con,en, - ii':JJ:i
i ans
:----
;: inilT'J' "i
*"ilIH::
l,-:lif::tl;t[],1]-.,H:^ and source entrop\
or svmbol rate
. rl i-06) ,^:".:^,,o,.,,,," is the product
th
- ithe This means that
:--:iiion . Svmbol rate
t"Hi,".,J,irTJ,
- .:rallY ,r,rormation rate = I to transmit
*^^,,ired to
'.'. 'lhe (svmbols/sec') data rate required
(Bits/sec.) -:Jil;.r"ru*"
. . :--:inngl
:. i the r hus' the t*"'-.i:?; -;1' :"::iil:t""*'
': :.d bY
.',.. the
';ffi:"Ji:""";:i#;m,"+;::i!:?:dlil#$i;Hfi::f#,I_T3."Hi*
- -'--. i'ate
rhe s5 mbols'I"oIo.;J.ir. tr,"1 o_r:*:"";;0",..
"T rfi;;:;:';"u, For each dlstr
,u':l^ll"= codewords ro rne s
I::T.l'l;1T[:H:'""J"a".
encoder assrs:ts in each
-:i:;ilJil:ffine ,""-.- Ac rhe number or bits are increased
"' r ^" "-:}j ilil;in' '' 'u ::::J:?5x-J"'^*:,'i'^:":{;. ;r,. mea,1s that.r"*uot=
8.bits mav
that ma)
,,rro.d. the sy'mbols I::'J; ria ut=r,".,.ouo*,,.,"".enr 216 = 65bBkj ôa
':.
:]l;;"ll:l:;:}lt$"Jl1ri'J{{:xi::{';'l'*:'T;lJ"#il1''a'''u'o"vec'iorquan'iizers
, t;. i',ini. u.=3;::
*" ",:^:. i:','"t
i
r
T;: I; Iil;i^',t " ""'
p u' m t a
tT t
d i s tj nc
[f" I:[t ;:'^:""1"";;i::l
il
",,"*
:
size describes - - mb r or
the" maximu:i:'":;;r
nu e
or uils
::
1i
t:
.ed as a
B10ck " " ",,* ewo'r ds
,". li.i*;; ;".: d;l i 2 5 6 c od
: 166]r at :"]lJ: l;|j[l'":X " "
an exa npl
, :#::J:-* "i
i bits used ,",,"ri",=iJi-:fl'*,iil::T$.^=
ord I
* o'd'::f: :;'"""i;e*co de w
: -:a otltput
' -
'
tlls
d*
afe asslgneuI
i:tv \$-- :l:.'.:t'$:;' r r^
I
I
.'-.t-'ication'
f
:i'.ialed bY
"' i.1.".: -3 :lil il:' :, n . : i'^,-l :, 111'= fl :".il iiJii }J*i,,1: H"' l,'ff [' I : :
..l t'hich is ia,.

a., u=.ign.
*H:\',:" jr#:*x,:;';,::n::r:;J::i,*
r,a,a 11
to
- 1g-rpect
,utPut of a - r(r rhan.rh"rlo';ilt*gth of codt
- -'tce encoder
z
soLlICe may x codeword length

,, -i", *""1t
cltrantizing' 5:f;[ = Symbor rate
h1e from the = 80 bits/seconds
Data rate
Also. since :he information rate is the minimum number of bits per second needed to conl'e'
informatror :r.c,m source to destination, therefore the optimum data rate is equal to the informatic-
rate. Hon..r'er. due to practical limitations, designing such type of source encoder is quite difficur:
Thus. t:e ayel.age data rate is higher than the information rate and hence symbol rate also'
(ir-) Efficiency of the Encoder
The effrciency of the encoder is the ratio of minimum source information rate to the actua-
.,urput data rate ofthe source encoder.
In last, it may be noted that at the receiver end, some sort of decoder is used to perform th;
re\-erse operation to that ofsource encoder. It converts the binary output ofthe channel decoder
into a symbol sequence. Some decoders also use memory to store codewords. The decoders ani
the encoders can be synchronous or asynchronous.
1.20.3.3. Channel Encoder and Decoder
After converting the message or information signal in the form of binary sequence by the
source encoder, the signal is transmitted through the channel. The communication channel adds
noise and interference to the signal being transmitted*. Hence errors are introduced in the
binary sequence received at the receiver end.
Therefore, the errors are also introduced in the symbols generated from these binary codewords
Thus channel coding is done to avoid these types of errors. In fact, the channel encoder adds some
redundant binary bits to the input sequence. AIso, these redundant bits are always added with some
properly defined logic. As an example, let us consider that the codeword from the source encoder tc
mai.u ii 4-bits long. This fourth bit is added (i.e., 1 or 0) in such a manner that the number of 1's ir'
the encoded word remain even (also known as even parity). Table 1.4 gives the output of a source
encod.er, the fourth bit depending on the parity and the output of channel encoder.
It may be observed from the table that each codeword at the output of channel encoder
contains euen wmber of 1's. Now, at the receiver end, if odd number of 1's are detected, then the
receiver comes to know that there is an error in the received signal. The channel decoder at the
receiver is thus able to reconstruct error free accurate bit sequence and reduce the effects of
channel noise and distortion.
TABLE 1.4.
Output of Bit to be added by the channel Output of a

source encoder encoder for au even paritY channel encoder
bs b2 b1 bo b3 b2 b1 bo
1 00 0 1100
0 10 1 0101
0 00 0 0000
1 11 1 1111
:
This means that the channel encoder and decoder serve to increase the reliability of a received
signal. Hou'e1.er the extra bits which are added by the channel encoders carry no information,
,u]h"r, thel- are used b1. the channel decoder to detect and correct errors if any. The coding and
decoding operation at the encoder and decoder needs the memory and processing ofbinary data.
Howeve"r, in the modern time, due to use of microcontrollers and computers, the complexity of
the encoders and decoders is much reduced.
-* N"G i";y i"t*f"."rr."-tfrut ai.t".X tf* f"g.Uf- t"."."ritS"rr "f " Sg""f . li-"i.*i. pr6-auEA-fv-
the atmosphere, heavenly bodies. manufactured electrical equipment. and thermal agitation in
electronic components.
parametel's:
have the foilowing important
:,\-ey A channel encoder must
i-iioI1 (i)TheCodingratethatdependsupontheledundantbitsaddedbr.theIj.-ll-......
to the crata r"
ratio of data rate at the input
: t'.11t.
i,
lli::il"J:1ilJiliT,li,.,n"
outPut of the encoder'
, rr') Error control
caPabitrities
1:Ua1 decocler'
rtl puu,iUitity of the encoder and
,-
andDernodulatot". , , ,- :^ S\''ii::].
:ti the 1 '10.3.4. DigitalModulators neecled in communicatiot.t
we discussed why modtrlaton'is -^ techniq'e.
: - 1ldeI
Earlier in this.,*,",, iigital modtilation
: -r and ti u.;*;;;;;"ra.l,
, .,,,. if the modulatinlf .*";il, Jigitulaignî'';;i;;"" 'r'"" to"ti""o"= sinu-qoidal wa\.e ::
is alwavs
-::' r"1Se d. The carrier-dili;;Ji''
.
*i;* ::*:{mrty, ll,,,J.iln;ffi:ljtii:t"o.;,::
:=. r,"q.,n,.r.r, r*JJ,*;,ii
For example' t
to r,',".;1.oi,.,",r'o'"'u 'iffi::*
,notog signal wavef<.rrms'
''' the
-
=- adds
- is s,(t) signal
-:,:r i*:;i.:,;:*X f"l':H""1t"r'-t
s,(t) has low frequentJ":::i#il"*r;1ffi ii'discrete (i'e'' in steps)' This
:: the H.r.
the
'.,,oiulated
slgnat'seems to be conttn j.lo't*o because of digitai
*u.,ufo'*t triti'"a s'(t)
-'..,rrds.
...:,.ns that . .i*rui..l;i;;;;.""rtua
.: iO[1e r',iiation'
'.: t', :ome
' . ,lcr to
:1sin
, :.lrltfce
I ,1, I .i, I olo

Fr,*Fr, -{
'-r'oder I
: --.'n the
t
sr (t) s, (t)
-'.t the "],, "1,,

Fig' 1'39' The output of a digital
modulator , !:*^
.:l:'tS Of
require four
symbols,
it'.,*, tr,"."..oa"*ords will
\,liv.ifthecodewordconsistsoftwobitsandtheyaretobetransmittedatatime,thenthere
1.". ff;;;;J' known as M-ary
-o be 22 i'e., 4 distinct of moduiators are
:- ]cr waveforms for transmissior-r r.rffi'st"r""" tr-,irt rt"vi'''g"(PiK)' freqtrc.cv shift keving
aroi.s. .qrp'tri';'.;,il';;;;*
,1ski. o*,^t" examplcs
i'"'*e tMSkr at'e the wave'
r._ ciiife'ential pr,ase shift keying topsill ;;; ;i;i;'* 'niri a continuous carrier
ii.lous digital *oJrrlu,or..
However,.s#J',hJ;;d"lt'o'" "'L end' the digital demodulator
aigiirr cw ;;;i;;";.. At !!:
'n"li*'
.,.:iore they are ",.Jil";;;, of binarv bits'
' :'LtS the input J;l;fi tig"nai into ih" t"q'""te parameters:
have following important
\ digital *oauuiilr. *"tuoa must ihe signal'
:r Bandwidth needed to transmit
or bit error'
,Lr Probability of symboL of detection'
-tLr Svnchror'ot" o'
asynchronous method
-''. I Complexity of implementation'
r'.'teived
':'1l111tion1 ,3.5. Communications
Channel ti--' '
-i-r +?qnemitter and receiver is estabLishecl
between transmitter
iiing and the connection ':"";ff:;"*T ;t=t':ilif
wirr:line-c $'1r'.' :-
.-,' discussecl earlier' tt"-Cf" place through
' -,l r data' .::r.nr-rnication channel. The commuJ;;;;;; ar]d dFk' =
r.t,Ie-'(ity of media t";;;t ;;';aI disks' magnetic iape' rh' ' -
.' ,.rptic tl'utttnt"'Til;;h"' data tlu'or'i!t-L
.rrr-tui .ir1l;"th", can alsocar'fy l r' .
. cal1ed.= u "o**ir,1i.urior..t
:-e Jur.rr"l has sorne inhei'e r:'r
---:1-
.ir.rceo 0Y ,..,., l_.e noted thaieach and "rrurr.o*Jr;;;;;i;;
, - iiltion in
The signal attenuation in channel occuls due to the

internal resista:' -
(i) Signal Attenuation:
ofine channel and fading of the signal'
The transmitted signal is distorted in amplitu:-
(ii) Amplitude and Phase distortion:
andphaseduetothenon.linearcharacteristicsofthecommunicationchannel. jnterr''
(iii) Additive noise interference: Additive noise interference is produced due to
a communication system'
solid state devices and resistors etc., used to implement
communicatt ' :
(iv) Multipath distortion: The multipath distortion occurs mostly in wireless
channels.
Infact,thesignalscomingfromdifferentpathstendtointerferewitheachother.
1.21. ADVANTAGES AND DTSADVANTAGES OF DIGIT@
of digital communicatic:
In this section, we shall discuss the advantages and disadvantages
briefly.
Advantages:
Following are the advantages of digital communication:
(i)Thedigitalcommunicationsystemsaresimplerand.cheapercomparedtoanaic,;
in the IC technologies'
communicatio. .v.t"-. be.ur." of the advances made
merged and transmitte:
(ii) In digital communication, the speech, video and other data may be
over a common channel using multiplexing'
the transmittec
(iii) Using data encryption, only permitted receivers may be allowed to detect
data. This prop"rtv is of iis most importance in military
applications.
the channel encoding is used' therefore the nois'
(iv) since the transmission is digital and
does not accumulate from repeater to repeater
in long d'istance communications'
a large amount of noisr
(v) Since the transmitted signal is digital in nature, therefore
interference maY be tolerated'
the errors may be
(vi) Since in digital communication, channel coding is used, therefore
detected and corrected in the receivers'
processing such
(vii) Dieital communication is adaptive to other advanced branches of data
as digital signal processing, image processing and
data compression' etc'
Disadvantages
advantages as discussed above' it has some
-\lthough digital communication offers, so many
cira',i-backs aiso. However, the advantages of digital
communication outweight disadvantage'
Thc di.sadvantages may be listed as under:
it i Dr-re to analog to digital conversion, the d.ata rate becomes
high. Therefore more transmission
narcirvidth is required for digital communication'
ir. D:giri.rl communication needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation'
l,2l,l.PerformancecomparisonofAnalogandDigitalModulation
Table 1.5. sives the comparison of analog and digital modulation
}P
INTROD,'-:'. <
TABLE,I.5.
. r'esistance
-\nalog modulation Digital modu1.,:- r'
:-mplitude modulated signal analog in Transmitted signal

digital pulses.
,, i.rt"r.rut Amplitude, width -
-:t:em. transmitted Pr"llsi'- -
message is transr-l-lit :.
:runication words.
. .::rr.r.L,.rt-titf is poor for AM, but improved Noise immunity
:'
to separate out t is possible to se]laii:: :

ON Therefore, 1'epeaiers :
': re. 1]epeaters cannot be used' -
:r rnication '.. .: llot PosSible. ing techniques c..r-.

and correct the e-'i'l'ot'.
. . ,'. :cirh required is lower than that for the Due
to higher bit r':'.:..
bandwidth is recluii'. :
. -..- modulation methods.
' I I -. ,,r,.ed for multiplexing.
, : r analog . .ititable for transmission of secret Due to coclingtech:-' ' . -
:: military applicati :--.
- r .]lsmitted .-r ..1,,g rnodulation systems are AM, FM, PM, Digital modulatrr-,r.r ' -
- .\l P\Yf, . etc. ADM. DPC\'I. cti

-r ..rlsmitted
:: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SPECTRUM
. :he noise :'i:foffact.theinformationsigna1shou1dbefirstconVeItedi]1:
,- -1S :- r.i trsosrrlission because the wireless transmission takes place r't'-. ' -
- - :--. eLectromagnetic waves consist of both electric

and magnetic fielri'
. : ul noise -1-
- .,:-, ii'a\:el a long distance through space' The electromagnetic
. tf equency (RFi waves. The EM waves osci1.late, they are sintL- I
' : nlay be -..l.rclinHz.ThefrequencyoftrMsignaiCanbevelyloworitcall:..
I..nse of frequencies of EM waves is called as Electromagnetic sIlEi-:I - ''
::lIlg SUCh
€ Wavelength (Meters) 1
C
i!
-C
-<fo
r
. -. lias SOme :=
OCAAAJ
: r'.-intage.
. :- ...rlsmission 4".
N N
r N:tr
N NI N I
'.lirr]-L NI
N
N IY NI=N I (, Millimeter lnfrared
ro Iv lzo I=I r11
o o
O WAVES
oo
(') co (r) crOcDd)
c, co cr) (Y) CD
Low Medium , High
(Ell --=
Fig. 1.40' lllustration of complete electromagnetic
t'
Th'' electromagnetic spectl'um ('onsists oi signals sut'h ;i- I
-- Th"=io"t*-;g*"ti..p".tr"- it tf"t tu"gu of ftA";t*'-nLttl -- - -

..ght over which electronic communications take place ..-
The radio freQuencies which

are DOYOU KNOW?
signals at the lower end'
,.,sed ror the two *,r;;;;;;,.";;;11i'ii:'"tl"T?::";fi rhe hi,gh-rrequ"l:I- :-Ts,:
r:
:::,*x'::ill,xl1ff.::",fl:+:d;;::4li::t'*ii*
light are at the
two-wav
ir'" ertn L'.::11I*lliil,'il,"wave'
used for worldwide
and broad.
i,rriurua and visible '0";;;;;r
the entire:;H;;;;;;tt;
spectrum. Figure r'+d 'no*' ;;;;""i""i'""
Wavelength
107 to 106 m
(ELF)
ExtremeiY low frequencY 1oo to 105 m
Voice frequecies (VF) 105 to 1oa m
3-30 kHz
V"rV to* frequencies (VLF) 1oa to 103 m
30-300 kHz
Low frequencies (LF) 1oB to 102 m
300 kHz-3 MHz
ftn.ai"* frequencies (MF)
102 to 10 m
3-30 MHz
Hign fr.q.r"113iss (HF) 10to1m
30-300 MHz
\ierv high frequencies (VHF) 1 to 10-1 m
300 MHz-3GHz
Ultra high frequencies (UHF) 1o-1 to 1o-2 m
3-30 GHz
ffi", high freQuencies (.SHF)
1o-2 to 1o-B m
(EHF) 30-300 GHz
r"t-t",,av high frequencies 0.7 to 10 Pm
0.4 m to 0..8
Visible light
DO YOU KNOW?
1.22.1. FrequencY and Wavelength rs
frequency as well as The electromagnetic spectrum
In the EM spectrum' we have used from
ti*, ,uog" of frequenciesvisible
various segments' Now'
rr'ar-elength in order to define 30 Hz to
therefore. iet us define ihut"
t"'*t and the relation between rooro"it-,iutelY
electronrc
f islrt over which
them. co-"mmunications take Place'
1. FrequencY
number
Basicalh-. frequency is defined 3s.the Amplitude
isexPressed
.*i.. of , tt ut'"fo"' p"' t"to"d-'(kHz)'
-I-t Megahertz
"f
in hertz tHz t, \\-e can use kilohertz
(GHz).
iiiii,i Gigahertz
""a iri'il l" f'3:1,':..11?T:
with the basic unit Hz -0
iiffJ#: '=r"'ion
is as follows:
1 kHz = 1000 Hz 1 cycle ---------->1
1 MHz = 1000 k]Hz = 1
x 106 Hz
1 GHz= 1000 MHz = 1 x 10s Hz Fig. 1.41 . One cYcle
radio waves. r,r *h

-rt;scillating electric and
---
iTt gruutest portion-?f th: t?""t-':f,:::::t
"
*;;-i;fi;la, it.tut radiate for long distances'
: iVa.,'elength (1,) F-- 1 wavelength
.-ically. wavelength ()'l is defined

range .li:tance between two Potnts oI
,..:.ve. is - ri' 'lr-cles of a periodic wave as shown
i 1.way r ,o
- 1i l +i.
: r'oad- ''''.''elength may also be defined as 'l-l wavelength
. .tur-rce travelled bY an electro-
-
l'-,. rvave during the,time of o13 Fig. 1.42. Definition of wavelength
,....;M;;""tIravel
:: ilt at the sPeed
ffi :"; ;;;;"'*'r
e.
w averen gth i s giv en bv'
.',.,' I ;:', J"'tlJ
- - light 3x108
Speedof m/s ...(1.1
t\ -
FrequencY f
in frequency'
r:ll:e . rvavelength decreases with increase DOYOU KNOW?
' Applications
,? 2 EM Spectrum and Gommunication Electromagnetic radiation does
waY
.- radio communication system, the
:i-re
frequencies not proPagate underwater the
.
it d,oes in air' Long-range
-,..:iromrt"*fifoi'"'t'ztomanygigahertzallarebeing
Let us iitttltt the applications .o**.,rticution underwater has
- : 1 r-arious ou'o*"t'
- ils frequency bands' The frequencie'q
most commonly *""ir, been based on sound
:: *"lu}*o* uuotti 300 kHz.to " *'-1 id
!a1'1:r auv, waves.
.i1ec1 u= *Ldi..* frequencie"
(MP The frequencres
'.: ]'ange 30 kH; ;; s6o kH' are known as the low DOYOU KNOW?
3 kHz to
.,..;";;i;; (r,r). trte rrequencies in the ranse Electromagnetic signals are
li:alecalledtt'*'vf"*frequencies(VLF)'Onthe
(HF) will cover the nroduced PrimarilY bY heat
- :r'equen"V tia", itigft frequencies
- r' Inl,r.".are called infrared' TheY
very high
.::Jl- r&flg€ tro*'JffH' to so N4u""Then cover the 0'7-to-100 prm range'
MHz to 300 MHz and so on*'
' iuenct ffHF) tt"* S0
.. l-e 1.7 presents the
details of entire usable frequecy
rr-ln] and its aPlications'
(RF) spectrum
TABLE 1.7. The radio frequency
)vi?
Wavelength Applications
:-: -': lilm is
104 km to 103 km
Power transmission
. l. . ,-. from 300 Hz.
--- :. r'rsible
30 Hz -
ExtremelY low
. -. ronic
,,
'-'t frequencies ELF'
= -:-'-'e' 103 km to 1oo km Audio aPPlications
300H2-3kHz'
Voice frequencies (VF)
100 km to 10 km
Submarine communications'
1.,, 3 kHz - 30 kHz

Navy, MilitarY communications
Very iow frequencies
(VLF)
10kmto1km Aeronautical and manne'
- 300 kHz'
30 kHz navigation. these fteqrr'l
-
Long waves'
Low frequencies (LF) act as sub carriels'
-
= --;;r[;;h*'*;l'-"0';;1t"1i''zo; zo.ooo u;r1".";;:
is i:;l;:i
lor
'' ' '
$.oli[" : '
range (3 t" 3; M;;i' o' wave' used'
,.- .iectric and I: The high-frequency "t'ott
--:' r: and broadcasting'
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
5. 300 kHz - 30 MHz 1 km to 100 m. AM radio broadcast, Marine

Medium frequencies Nledium waves. and aeronautica-l communi-
(MF) cations.
6. 3 MHz -30 MHz 100 m to 10 m. Shortwave transmission,
High frequencies (HF) Short waves Amateur and CB
communication.
7. 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 rn to 1 m T.V. broadcasting
Very high frequencies FM broadcasting
(VHF)
8. 300MHz-BGHz I 1-to10cm. UHF T.V. channels.
Ultra high frequencies I Microwaves. Cellular phones,
(uHF) |
M iII it ary applications.
o 3 CHz - :r0 GHz rSHF) 10-1mto102m Satellite communications and
Radar
10. 30 - 300 GHz (EHF) 10-2 m to 10-3 m Satellites and specialized radars
1.22.3. lnfrared Signals*

The EM signals having frequencies above 300 GHz are not referred as radio waves. The
signal occupying the range between 0.1 mm and 700 nanometers (nm) are called infrared signals.
These are used in various special kinds of communications as listed below.
(i) In astronomy to detect stars and other heavenly bodies.
(ii) For guidance in weapon systems.
. i,.,','',.,' S,O YOU: I(NOI-Y?,., ., t,,,:...
I
(iii) T.V. remote control.

In radio applications. keep
1.22.4. Visible Light resistor leads short to minimize
Basically, iight is a special type of electromagnetic inductive atrd, cah aei:tiv,el eff€cf s', r I
radiation. It has wavelength in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 ptm.

Light is used for various kinds of communications. Light waves can be modulated and transmitted
through the glass fibers in the optical fiber communication system. Light signals can also be
tlansmitted through free space. Laser is a type of light, which can be easily modulated with
voice. r'ideo and data information. Beyond the visible light, there are X-rays, gamma rays and
cosr.nic ra1's. But. they are not useful for the communication applications.
1.23. FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

(RTU, Kota, Exam; Sem. Eam., 2003-04)(5 marks)
While designing a communication system, an engineer generally faces several constraints or
Iimitations. These are noise limitation, bandwidth limitation and equipment limitation.
1.23.1. Noise Limitation
The noise ma1' be defined as an unwanted form of energy which tend to interfere with the
transmission and reception of the desired signals in a communication system. The noise cannot be
eliminated completely. Hou,ever. the effect of noise on desired signals can be minimised with the
help of several techniques. \oise can be classified into two broad categories depending upon its
source: external noise and internal noise. External noise is that type of noise whose sources are
* Electromagnetic si.gnals produced primarily by heat sources are cailed infrared. They'cover the
0.7-to 100-pm range.
:.lL:.communicationsystem'Theexamplesofexterna'lnSiseareatnlL:'':--
r" -l - ,:-,-i:ldr-rstrial"oi'"'O-tfteotherhu"J'it't""'alloiseisthattypeofnoise'r'l.-:
The examples of internal noise
are thel'mirl :1 --
'11 ..i- :-r u.ott""'"iJ#ot'-tytt"m'
..l:list-vpeof,"i."i,inevitab]ei,'".,",i..o.*municationsystemandformsa,ba..
.,-,,.r-r-rraaion and reception of signals. r -r ^î-^,r message cur'r': "
,-aecq op r-,.)
to identify the intended or desired in micror-t'l:'
:.:act. lhe noise limiis our ability are measured "
1
_ ,rits information transmissio.r. rvpl..iroise variations
I
arl-' - "r'
systems operating with a limited
':il.Infact,inmanypracticalCommunicationsystems,theeffectofnoiseisgtr-..,
-rr.eable. However, in long-distance communication the noise' Thus' rtr ' -r --
or even smaller than

I
. .::a1 power, tir" .'i'g# il;;be-1. small as noise of a communication svstem'
-:: ih€ presence "i?';;;" ;;;"'allv limiit th" capabilities
-=
I " 23'2' Bandwidth Limitation* 'rr constraint in a communication
*":::?i,ti,,f
limitation is another
addition to noise, the bandwidth
r*["""., neede-dfor a particulari'H";;;;;
given transmlssloll 1s
I
-:'.
.- lnd . :, ::r. The frequency range or the band
"r .Lq'l'"a for a particular transmis'qion
is also
I
,. :r as bandwidth. This band of
t"qr".tii". is alwavs
bur-ra*iJtu ror a particular transmission
i sdars.l I .-}-rannel. This band of frequenciu. o,agencies. This type of regulation is essentiai to avoid
...:ecl b5.some rnternational
regulatory this aliocated
- r.:irence among the signals having .u*" Ir"";;;ncy. But, fo' u giu"l transmission'
.i'." rdth may not be sufficient
to convel' the entire information' of a
.'fs. The theory states that the greater is the transmission bandwidth
the information
,:rlacr. Let us consider a
transmitted'
, i signals. is the inioîlr"ii".-,rr"' canbe
::.,ur-iication system, the more radio' The complete amount of
: -+ example. Suppose one is
li.t"rl.rg i"o u *rr.i. in an ANI
:.:rationavailabletothehumaneariscontainedinafrequenryrangeupt"'u:1'jt""musical
rn ANI radio the maximum
modulating
u? - ratron extends
upto a frequency "f-1;;;;.-H;*"t"r,
'kHz"and of AM transmission is
...rlc! is re.trictJi;o;; ;
;""* il *u*i*.t* bandwidth
. :. keeP
the music
='-:rtmize '
an AM radio receiver cannol,':'p'*'1:
u'l-'5ti:".T?;:";i:;f;leduin
. . -:lects' I'.r.ro,". bandwidth allocated to a
3;ft; o; the: other hand' thereproduce
..,:se this will require a bandwidth-of the transmitted
- . :r.ansmission is about 200 kHz. Thus on FM receiver.ur.'"u.it, t,"tt"' fidelity than an ANI
.'-. r.r-ritted
This -"urr. that a FNf system
iru. u
, :lso be r..rrrtion without any distortion. to a FM radio than an A\i
one p,."f",. to litten
' . ,r, r'vith . :i: ,r. -\Iso. it may be observed lr, .o--o. tri" that
major fundamental limitation
of a communicatiot]
- : :l ''--c &nd we can;;;1"; that bandwid;;i;t
.,.,r]n",
' 23 3. EquiPment Limitation or cannot be achier-ecl rrr
bandwidth limitations dictate theoretically what can
and ma1'not be realisr.'r
Ho*utr"t, this-theoretical limit
- . Lir r.narks) The noise
perforlnurr.J,, u communicat-" rr)*rr. tt b:'u r
- tillllts oI . .:-. of
ar" i" u;;;;i;. F;t ;;""'n,e' the theorv might -reqr'rire
i rr.ilcrical .yrtuJ "qrtp*"rt of 1 kHz' such a filter calit-ti'i
100 at a centre frequer:rcy
-= irLter with a quality factor of is built' the c'''I ::
in p*u.ti.J. Buen if a fiiter with ri"r.i, la""tical 'characteristics lir''Lrl:r:'
.,-secl wants bo pay' Thus equipment
' ,',' ith the - :Ed u,hat the user of the communi.uiiu.r.yiu* svstem'
- ritlnot be . ,n., major problem in a communication
- u'ith the
r
l1[t*+1'fra1 ;;;;'; fnJnit"a States' the FC---
C l'e gil il :'
I
: - ,.tpon its ' pectrum,nu'u il to the conr,.t''rr:r

: -,iLIC€S 3'f€
S
:r.1.,ipectrum ,rd;;;;;;;;i Ei;;;"";".;;;;;ications accorcling
..
,v11.
--over the
.'''..': --;j.: . ""!': :''
. ' .: : ;.'::-..::i
; :".,1!
.:li :.::: r:,:',"i;...;
"x.
,' DlclTAL COMMUNICATIONS
1.24. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The Evolution of Modern Electronic Communication

The electronic communication has undergone through a chain of dramatic developments even
since the first electronic communication invented by Morse in 1838. However, it may be noted that
this development became possible due to the parallel development in the field of electronic devices,
circuits, etc. To provide historical perspective, the important developments in the field of electronic
communication are listed in table 1.8.
TABLE 1.8. A Chronology of Electronic Communication
Year Development
1800-1837 Preliminarl, developments
1838 The invention of telegraphy
t845 The Kirchoffs circuit laws enunciated
1864 Maxwell's equations predict electromagnetic radiation
1876 The invention of telephony
1887 The invention of wireless telegraphy
7904 Commu nication Electronics
1920 Transmission theory
1923 Invention of television
1927 Federal communications commission established
1931 Teletypewriter service initiated
1934 H.S. Black develops the negative-feedback amplifier
1936 Armstrong's paper states the case for FM radio
1937 Pulse code modulation
1938 Radar and microwave communication
1948 Information theory and coding
1950 Time-division multiplexing applied to telephony
1953 Colour T.V. Standards established in United States
1956 First transoceanic states telephone cable (36 voice channels)
1958 Long-distance data transmission system developed for military
purposes.
1960 Maiman demonstrated the first Laser
1961 Integrated circuits go into commercial production.
t962 Satellite communication )cegins with Telestar I
1962-1966 High-speed digital comnr,unication.
1963 Solid-state microwave oscillators
19& FuI1 electronic telephone switching system goes into service.
1965 Jlariner IV transmits pi<:tures from Mars to earth.
1966-1975 \\-ideband communication svstems
1979 Intercity opticai links
1988 Under sea fiber optical link
TNTRCI-:-:.' <
r'r.rrtion is the process of establishing connection or

link between two polnta - l' -
'.: s even purpose' are called com:r"r--'

:=r1 that ...ir.oDic equipments which are used for communication
.-rs,Ditl'erentcomrnunicationequipmentswhenassembledtogetherformacommunicarl.l=,.
i.r-ices, radio telephr:-' -':
system are line telephony and line telegraphy,
:\ilmples of communicatio,
: -:IOniC and mobile communication. comi ': :::
_ . :t e ph],, ,uaio nrora.u.iirrg, poir.t-,o-point communication
radio teiemetry' radio aids to naviga:- :
:-:rt-rtion. radar communication, televisionbroadcasting,
, is to aircraft landing, etc'
-,st fr.lndamental sense. communication involves the transmission of
information from one poilii
:1..
lii' through a succession of process'

I ..iOnofinlbrmationsourceistoproclucerequiredmessagewhichhastobetfansmitted.
.:.:.ll.lcelisadevicewhichconvertsonefor,mof".'n,gyintoanotherform'Themessagefromthe
u tut" when the message produced by the
I
..iiro. source may or may not be electri"ul i.r rrutr.a.1,,

..:llon source is not electrical in nature, u" i"p", transducer is used to convert it into a time-
- '-"tt'it'al signal. in
. the electricai signal from different aspects' For example
r.riion of the transmitter is to process
ottuirrua f.o- soundsignal, is processed to restrict
its range of
,._rrcicasting,h" i;;;;i;;i.ig"rl amplified'
r..-!tLlencles (upto 5 kHz in amplitude ,rrodrlutio,1
raclio broadcast) and is often
is to provide a physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver'
I :--. tion of the channel
channe}s and broadcast channels. Examp)"es of
I :,: li.t t\\o types of channels, namely point-to.point and optical fibres' Wirelines operate by guided
-.: -point channels are u,irelines, -i.ro*utl" inks
:rrrgnetic *ur". ,r.J they- are used for lo.uitJ"pi,otte
iransmission' In case of microwave links'
- ,,--.-ittud signal is radiaied as an electromagnetic wave in free space'
-: : irn unwanted signal which tend to interfire with the required signal. Noise signal is always
point in a communication svstem' However'
::- Ln character. N"ii" -uv interfere with signal at
any
' -:: has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel'
signai in electrical form from the distorted
:._.r. fu'ction of the receiver is to reproduce the message by a process known as the
= 1 signal.
This reproduction of tir" origirrul signat is accomplished
is the ,u,ru,,lu process of morlulation carried out in transmitter'
:.r,ation or detection. Demodulation
signal into its original form'
. - irron is the fi.nal stage which is usetl to convert an eiectrical message works as a transducer, i'e' it
which
-..rr.p1e in radio nroud""a.tir-rg, the destinati;;i. ^
loudspeaker
.-'...1-,.electricalsignalintheformoforiginalsoundsignal.
sources of information:
: .: rcomnlul1ication environment is dominaied b,v the following four important
::- :atlh
.' :r'ision
.. .irliie, and
'-:r' jcnal computers
message signals' These message
, . .
infbrmation which are responsible for the generation of
. - sources of
- - '.'.-. need to be transmitted to the destination point'
. - -..,h'. rl,e sha11 consider fbllowing channels:
.--ephone channels
'- trcal fibers
::- ,bile radio channels, and

- -.llitP channels. mechanism is knowt1 as cll'r':rl
This switching
- - :!hone network makes use of a switching mechanism. link on a temporary basis'
- . ,llnll and i.t is .,""d to establish an end-to-end communication
which transprli'
. ::,r.ood cornmr.rnication channel, an opiical fiber, is a dielectric waveguide
-
......fromoneplacetoanotherjustasametallicwirepairolaco-coxialcable'transpor.t:..
core rvithin which the propagating electrornagneti-
i-:' : -
. fiber consists of a central
1_:ica1
l .'l]lrch i. s,].,ou,,ded by a clad.ding Iayer, w}rich is itself surrounded bv
a thir-L !! :.
....-!lrclcommunicationchannel,mobi]eradiochannel,exier.rdst}-r".]
1 r '''r -
:. ,-rei*ork b5, introiucing mobiiitf into the ,et*'ork
.rmr-rnicatin.r.
$ffi
continental as well as intercontinental sense'

-\ satellite channel provides broad-area coverage in a is also a
Nloreover, access to ,"*or"-ur"ua not covered tiaot*""t-"al cable or fiber communications
distinct feature of satellites'
offer the following unique system capabilities:
communication satellites in geostationary orbit
(a) broad-area coverage
(b) reliable transmission links
(c) wide transmission bandwidth'
soulce is known as baseband signal' This baseband
The message signal generated from the information baseband signal is transmitted
-Thit"tut"tIf,the the
signal may be a combination of two or -or" *"ttug"'tig"urt' baseband transmission does
that
directly, then it i, t rro*n-u. Uaseband trurr"-irlo"' may be both analog as well as digital'
not used modulators ,rrJa"rrroa,rfators. The U"-"i-r"Jtignal
The analog baseband signal varies continuously
with time and has continuous amplitude' The digital
Urr1f ."a lignal is discrete in both time and amplitude' Inter
frequencies andfor.short distances' However'
The baseband transmission is preferred at low transmission'
Symbol Interference dI ; ifr"
-u:o. problem u."o"iut"d with the baseband
Regardingthemodeofpropagation,communicationmaybedividedinthefollowingtwoforms:
(i) Line Communication
(ii) Wireless or Radio Communication
is a pair of conductors called transmission line' This
In line communication, the medium of transmission
is also called as line channel'
through open space by electromagnetic
In wireless or radio communication, a message is transmittedthe transmitter in open space through a
waves cal1ed as radio waves' Radio *u"., url
radiated from
device called antenna.
Modulationmaybedefinedastheprocessbywhichsomecharacteristicofasignalcalledcarrierisvaried
.,ru1,ru tf unolh"' tlg"at cuu"qmodulating signal' Signals containing
in accordance with the i.r.ir.rtu.r"o.,, This information bearing signal is also
information or intelligence ,r" ,"fu.rud u. ,"rd;i;;i"g-sigt"lt' the modulating frequency' The signal
baseband signal. The carrier frequency it
gt""ut"" than
called
modulated signai'
resulting from the process of modulation is called
the modulation process is known as continuous wave
when the carrier wave is continuous in nature, wave modulation are Amplitude
(CW) modulation or .".f"g *"J"irti"". Examples of continuous
Modulation and Angle Modulation'
the modulation process is known as pulse modulation
I When the canier wave is a pulse-type waveform'
two primary communication resources to be employed:
I In a communication system, there are following
(i) Transmitted Power,
(ii) Channel bandwidth
power of the transmitted signal'
The transmitted power refers to the average of the message
the band of frequencies allocated for the transmission
The channel bandwidth is defined as
signal.
we are available with analog signal' however'
we
In communication systems, sometimes it happens that have to convert an analog
have to transmit a digital signal for a particular lffiuiio"'
In such cases' we
:ignal into digital signal.
may also be classified as under:
Depending upon the message signal, communication
. .\n:1og communication.
, r:, Dr:r.al e ommunication.
in which the or information signal to be
Analog communication is that type of communication 111sase the modulating signal (i'e '
communication
transmitted ts analog ;r".rtirr.. hhi. -uurls that in analog maybe obtained from sources such as
baseband signali is an analog signal. This analog m".tug"ii*"'t
speech, video shootrng, etc.
is digital in nature' This means that
In digital communication. the message signal to be transmittedin dig1tai form'
information
;l;it.;i;;;-unication i;.'"i.;;. lfr" tr"u.r.-i*sion of
Following are the advantages of digital communication:
compared to analog communicatior
(i) The digital communication sl,stems are simpler and cheaper
systems because of the acivances made in the IC technologies'
:..tnental sense -.llt-l-t'.it-l.ication,thespeech'videoandotherdatamaybemergedanc::.:-....-.
. r.:ions is also a
- .:ant-iel r"rsing multiPlexing'
-:'.:llcl'\'ption'"onlypermittedreceiversmaybeallowedtodetectthetla:-':-'
. ,-ileS: .'.:].t\i.'olitsmostimportanceinmi.litaryapplications.
:..=thetransmissionisdigitalandthechannelencodingisu.sed,thereforethen.lis:i..
communications'
.' -.ttuuLate tro* ,"i"ut"' to repeater in long distance
therefore a large amount of noise 1r-ir :-:
S:r-rce the transmittlcL signal is digital in
nature,
, l::ts baseband ...,r be tolerated. *^,. k^,t-i- -- '
. :r'ansmitted Srnceindigitalcommunication,channelcod-ingisused,thereforetheerrorsmaybedeter:--
.:rission does -r.rl'rected in the receivers' . r- - - d-:-'-'-
'
branches of data processing such as
. .. .r-i digital' Diqital communication is adaptive to other advanced
- r.. The digital etc'
.,gr-tal processing, image processing and data compression'
- :: .r'ever, Inter
. -:, n.
- ,-:]ls :
frequencies occupied by an information signal before
it modulates the carrier'
b*r,i
"f by an information signal'
...r r ier: -\ signal that can be modulated
=.lr--'d/1.L"
rannel: A path for the transmission of signals'
- -- nline.This :.lortion: Anl'undesirable change in an information signal'
is varied by an information signal'
' - ll omagnetic I ,lulation: 'I'he process by whi.ch some characteristics of a carrier to another using a mixer-oscillator
-- .. i through a : : equencJ'translation: Movement of a signal from one frequency
t :t lrr icltl
the baseband signal from a modulated signal'
.:',.ler is varied - -r1odulator: circuit to recovel
- .:.. = containing
. -.inal is also
The signal
' , .., t thc basic constituents of a communication system?
- : :.ill1ous wave ..l...biockclragramofactlmmunicationsystemandexplainthefunctionofeachblock
' : ,' .\mPlitude '(-lhannel' as applied to a communication system'
: : j: lIL'ilnt b1'the term
svstem?
- -' :r-rod.ulation' -.high-lrequencv carlier needed in a communication
rr
in communi'cation system?
: i employed: . ., i.-ir r}-Le need for rnoclulation a
: -. .ll :lit' r.aclio frequency spectrum used in
communication svstem'
of communication svstem'
: . ',r-, thi' fr-tnd:rmental limitations a
. ' :r the difTerence between analog and digital comrnunications'
I : the message ' .' .r, r-ou convert an analog signal into a digital signal' system'
- :r advantages and disadvantages of a digital communication transmission'
and bandpass
- - .,-. however, we : . , :: tl-ie difference between baseband transmission
:' . Prt an analog
- ': :he correct choice:

is
.-,- righest modulating frequency used in AM broadcast svstem
' i:r-'n signal to be kHz (c) kHz (d) 2 MHz
, I <Hz G) 15 5
.,il1r1g signal (i'e''
'. .i- :r)L1IC€s such as - r :n ii'eqllenci' (HF) range extends from (d)
(c) 30-300 MHz 300-3000 MHz.
. :: -,r-i-3000 kHz (b) 3-30 MHz
' This means that
:,''.'hrgh frequency NHF) range extends from
:, ,\lHz (b) 30-300 MHz (c) 300-3000 MHz (d) 3ooo-30,ooo \IHz
,.. qcommunication .,:r'rr lrsh frequencl- ruHF) range extends from (d) 3000-30.('r'l,l--
' l'IHz (b) 30-300 MHz (c) 300-3000 MHz
> DIG}TAL COMMUNICAIIONS
The lirnction of the input transducer in a communication system is

(a) to transmit the message signal (b) to modulate the message signal
(c) to convert message sound signal into electrical signal
(d) none ofthe above
6. Communication is the process of
(a) keeping in touch (b) broadcasting
(c) exchanging information (d) entertainrnent bv electronics I
7. Two key barriers to human communication are
(a) distance (b) cost (c) ignorance (d) Ianguage
8. Eiectronics communications was discovered in rvhich centurv?
(a) sixteenth (b) eighteenth (c) nineteenth (d) twentieth
9. Which of the following is not a major communications meclium?
(a) free space (b) water (c) w.ires (d) fiber-optic cable
10. The communications medium causes the signal to be
(a) amplified (b) modulated (c) attenuated (d) interferued with
11. The process of transmitting two or more information signals simultaneously
over the same channel i.
cailed
(a) multiplexing (b) telemetry (c) detection (d) moduiation [ ' ',
D.
12. Recovering information from a carrier is known as
(a) demultiplexing (b) modulation (c) detection (d) carrier recovery
t
t.:
13. Radio signals are made up of
(a) voltages and currents (b) electric and magnetic fields
I
(c) eiectrons and protons (d) noise and data

t:
Answers
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) a.k) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a&b)
a :--
8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (a) t2. (c). 13. (d) &
0
1JJ a
f:
].
f, --
Dl:
) -.
D -.

Chapter 1 Digital Communication - Compressed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 Digital Communication - Compressed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

D

.-......655 I The Communication Process: l_--.

-.".....658 I Communication Channels

+ Conversion of Analog Signals to

The Electromagnetic (EM)

rualsds uoIJBJrUnUrtUOs E JO SluArUala sE

.. : -'.: one j-:.

.: --,: 3.Ie i'u'ln:+[frlil;1*.t11ff mocrl:':'': ' :

1.3, CONCEPT OF BANDWIDTH

; :; .". ; ;; .' *.1' 1,.,t":':. i::l ::f

Thus, we writeBW = fr-ft

for its transn-Lis'l rll'

dimensional Four dlmensronal

s8uluearu rlaq+ pue syoqur-is .rau:i aq] p: .

TABLE 1.3. Control symbols used in ASCII code set

ESC Escape US Unit separator

1.5 COMMUNICATION CI{ANNELS

""h-uln"r. communicati( channels

1n lrLlurE 1!Lr \!!"

(a) Use of equalizer o{ the telepho"€

(a) lnsertion loss (b) EnveloPe delaY

Fig. 1.9. Characteristics of a typical telephone channel

Shielded multiPle twisted Pairs

Fig. 1.10. Twisted Pair cables

were the first : - .--.:LI1C€ COmmUnICatIOn

INTROD-l- :" <

is metallic braid and used for the PurPo-'

'-::r-.sion svstems using the co-axial

impedance are available'

: 5,3. OPtical Fiber Cables

- lllEs. than the other two types but i:-'r'"'

--.-r' :';- ' 2z

> DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

- :pecial Characteristics may be listed as under :

in the backbone of nerwo,ks' current

rhe sHF and EHF bands are userl

' IepEr puE s r1o1 11r rrtrlllrlT:::li11i':'

pallEr orE zH'-r i r ''l1n

i;r.a,rrr,(ue e>1eru +oli op s{urr osaql ,T"J;,Hliliij#**::;H:'j.1::H':ft 3,

>Iurl aA€'^aorcltu Jo sarnl€oJI

aq1 '-ra'nol q'Srq ;ialaru

\d 1n.r:r. ar{J "lq':^^-1-.i:::":

rerlrusu,[ ,sJasBl 'f"rorj.r, uaLIM t.Y'01:i

'add1 au'{Po'relaqradns a're

" il;jil##::tt"" will be affectecl b.' the thunderstorms, and other

- ir :ind the alignment of earth station

:r -,r-ig 12 transponders on the satellite.

- : '' - 1'r transponder uses approximatell- 36 MHz bandwidth. A transponder can

I - c ex Half Full Analog Digital Baseband

communicateil in only one direction' For

communications is the information Fig. 1.16. Types of electronic communications

3. FuIl DuPlex SYstems place in both

u"u-pi", the telephone svstems How-ever' the bulk

r-:: j 3cmmunication Electron ic

'-: -]erJl ,--:..---g modulation can be pulsed communication

(i) Noise affects the signal quality

> f iGITAL COMMUNICATIONS

' 3 2 Digital communication

1.9 BASEBAND AND BANDPASS SIGNALS

FiS. 1.22. Concept of modulation

1.10.3. Frequency Translation in Modulation Process

- r : )'I ixing of Signals

Fig.'1.23. Modulation avoids mixing of signals

-- Th"=io"t-;g"ti..p".tr"- it tf"t tu"gu of ftA";t*'-nLttl -- - -