University of technology

Oil &Gas Engineering department

Supervised by:
Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim
Asst. Lect. Mohammed A. Ahmed
Asst. Lect. Jassim M. Jaleel

Submitted by:
Aisha aziz ali
Ali Hammed Zighayier
Murtadha Anaam Taha
Rasool Sabah Jumah
Zaineb Hayder Obaid

‫م‬0202 ‫ هــ‬5441
Introduction: -
In this report, we will evaluate Ratawe formation-Abu Amood oil field by
using well log data and core analysis and calculate the petrophysical
properties to build statically model.
Formation evaluation: -is the application of scientific principles, engineering
concepts and technological innovations in the exploration and prospecting of
hydrocarbon resources in geological formations in an environmentally
sustainable and responsible manner. It involves detailed and systematic data
acquisition, gathering, analysis and interpretation both qualitatively and
quantitatively while applying scientific and engineering principles. It is an
ever growing and evolving field of petroleum engineering.
Ratawi Formation
Ratawi Formation: -rocks are considered as source rocks and task potential
source rocks that are hydrocarbons generator in Iraq and are dating back to
the cycle Berriasian-Aptian.
 The logs that we will use it to evaluate Ratawe formation-Abu Amood
oil field can be summarized as follows:
(SP, Caliper, Gamma Ray, Resistivity, Neutron, Density, Sonic) logs

Techlog software:
It is a program owned by Schlumberger, an international company that
operates in the petroleum field. The program aims to collect and complete
all data and information related to drilling wells. It also allows the user to
interpret and analyze basic and recorded data. It sets out to create a single
platform capable of supporting all data for well drilling, integrated
workflows and analysis, reducing the need for many highly specialized tools.
Theory: -
In this report well will estimate petrophysical properties to build statically
model like porosity, shale volume, permeability, water saturation and then
determine cut off values and net pay thickness.

Porosity: is defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of a
substance. And it can be estimated by:

There are two type of Porosity (Total Porosity and Effective Porosity) and
we will conserved with Effective Porosity because it refer to as the ratio of
the interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of a material and given
by: ФE = Ф𝑁+ФD/2

Shale volume: One of the most controversial problems in the formation

evaluation is the clay effect to reservoir rocks. Shale is usually more
radioactive than sand or carbonate. Therefore gamma ray log and other logs
can be used to calculate the volume of shale in a porous medium. The
volume of shale expressed as a decimal fraction or percentage is called Vshale.
The volume of clay can be calculated by two sets of well-logging indicators
which are Single Clay Indicators (SCI) and Double Clay Indicators (DCI).
The minimum value of Vclay is the closest to the truth.

Permeability:-Permeability is a property of the porous medium that

measures the capacity and ability of the formation to transmit fluids. The
rock permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it controls
the directional movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in the
formation. Darcy's law is an approximation used extensively in the earth
sciences to determine the Permeability.

Water saturation: in the reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume
occupied by water. By the same definition, hydrocarbon saturation in the
reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume occupied by hydrocarbons.
The sum of the water and hydrocarbon saturations in the reservoir rock is
equal to unity. This relationship can be expressed simply as: Sh + Sw = 1 or
Sg+So+Sw=1
Formation evaluation: -is the application of scientific principles, engineering
concepts and technological innovations in the exploration and prospecting of
hydrocarbon resources in geological formations in an environmentally
sustainable and responsible manner. It involves detailed and systematic data
acquisition, gathering, analysis and interpretation both qualitatively and
quantitatively while applying scientific and engineering principles. It is an
ever growing and evolving field of petroleum engineering.
Why do we evaluate formation?
This question will lead us to other questions, which are:
 Is there any oil or gas there?
 Where are they located?
 How much of it?
 How much can we produce, which answers the question, “How much
money can we make?
The main objectives of formation evaluations based on Well logs which are
the keys of information about the reservoir formation will answer about the
above questions can be summarized as follows:
1. To estimate the porosity and permeability .
2. To detect reservoir type (lithology) and thickness .
3. To determine clay volume from well logging data.
4. To determine fluid type present in the pores and saturation level .
5. To find the prospective zones of hydrocarbon.
Ratawi Formation
Ratawi Formation: -rocks are considered as source rocks and task potential
source rocks that are hydrocarbons generator in Iraq and are dating back to
the cycle Berriasian-Aptian. Formation consists of shale, limestone,
argillaceous limestone, chalky lime-stone, detrital limestone, and sandstone.
The Ratawi Formation has good petrophysical properties, with porosity up
to 30% and permeability up to 1000 md. The formation is also characterized
by a high content of hydrocarbons, with the oil-to-rock ratio reaching 15%.
The thickness in typical section for the formation in Iraq is ranging between
200 and 350 m with increasing thickness near the Iraq-Kuwait border,
which conformably and gradu-ally overlain by the Zubair Formation and
unconform-ably underlain by Yamama Formation.
The Study Area
The Abu Amood field is located in the Dhi Qar Governorate, 250 km south
of Baghdad and 23 km southwest of the Dujaila field. The Abu Amood field
covers roughly 208 km2 and has a structural orientation of northwest to
southeast. Longitudes in the area range from 45.30 to 46.30 degrees, with
latitudes of 31 degrees

The logs that we will use it to evaluate Ratawe formation-Abu Amood oil
field can be summarized as follows:
1- SP log: The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences of
self-potential between an electrode in the borehole and a reference at the
surface.
2- Caliper log: Caliper tools measure the hole size and shape of the interior
hole.
3- Gamma Ray log: The gamma ray log is a record of formations radioactivity.
The radiation emanates from naturally occurring Uranium, Thorium and
Potassium.
4- Resistivity log: is a measurement of a formation resistivity, which is its
resistance to the passage of an electric current; it is measured by resistivity
tools.
5- Neutron log: Neutron tool response is dominated by the concentration of
hydrogen atoms in the formation.
6- Density log: The density log is a continuous record of a formation bulk
density [ρb], matrix and the fluid ρma , ρf.
7- Sonic log: The sonic log provides a formation interval transit time.
Steps of formation Evaluation
1- Field and Well Selection.
2- Core Analysis and Digitize Logs by using Neuralog software.
3- Export and Marge lase file
4- Create new project, name it and import lase file to techlog
software.
5- estimate petrophysical properties such as:
a- Determine shale volume by gamma ray and cross plot.
b- Estimate Primary, secondary and effective porosity.
c- Determine water saturation.
d- Determine permeability.
6- Determine cut off for permeability, porosity, water saturation.
7- Determine net pay thickness.
Shale volume:
One of the most controversial problems in the formation evaluation is the
clay effect to reservoir rocks. Shale is usually more radioactive than sand or
carbonate. Therefore gamma ray log and other logs can be used to calculate
the volume of shale in a porous medium. The volume of shale expressed as a
decimal fraction or percentage is called Vshale. The volume of clay can be
calculated by two sets of well-logging indicators which are Single Clay
Indicators (SCI) and Double Clay Indicators (DCI). The minimum value of
Vclay is the closest to the truth.
We will use tow method to determine Shale volume
1- Single Clay Indicators By using gamma ray: in this method we will use
gamma ray log to determine shale volume as shown in below fig:

Interpretation
In fig above we have two zones:
The first one refer to the top of Ratawi Formation and it refer to the shale
volume value is very high and this zone will be impermeable zone depend on
gamma ray value and it will be very high for each well (AMM-1 to AMM-5).
The second one refer to the other section of Ratawi Formation and it will be
permeable zone that mean the value of gamma ray is very low each well
(AMM-1 to AMM-5).

2- Double Clay Indicators: The Density – Neutron cross plot is almost the
best technique to determine clay content due it is less dependent on
lithology, less dependent on fluid type in porous media and badly
washed out well bores. It is better to use it in gauge boreholes. The
uncertainty came from the highly under-compacted formation.
Interpretation
The fig above refer to cross plot between neutron and density log to
determine shale volume for each well and this fig show also in bottom the
gamma ray and the points with the color close to the red refer to the shale
and we not the points that have the red color is few and that mean the shale
volume will be low and the lithology of formation depend on the cross plot
and FGR it will be sand stone.
Histogram
The figures below it show the frequency for gamma ray for each well and it
show all well have the same frequency in the start point and that mean this
frequency refer to the shale value in the top of Ratawi Formation
Porosity: is defined as the ratio of the pore volume to the bulk volume of a
substance. There are two type of Porosity (Total Porosity and Effective Porosity)
and we will conserved with Effective Porosity because it refer to as the ratio of
the interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume of a material.

Types of porosity depend on diagenesis process to:

1- Primary porosity: refers to the natural openings or spaces within a rock
that allow fluids, such as water or oil, to flow through. It is created during
the formation of the rock and can vary in size and shape. Primary porosity
can be important in hydrocarbon exploration and extraction, as it
determines the rock's ability to store and transmit fluids.
2- Secondary porosity: refers to the additional pore space that forms in rocks
or sediments after they have been deposited. It is typically created by
processes such as fracturing, dissolution, or the removal of grains. This
secondary porosity can greatly enhance the permeability and fluid flow
within the rocks, making them more conducive to the storage and
movement of fluids like water or hydrocarbons. Understanding secondary
porosity is important in various fields such as geology, petroleum
engineering, and groundwater exploration.

Porosity by density log

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the porosity by density log and the Interpretation for each
zone will be:
First zone is refer to the high value of porosity because its shale layer and it is
more denies so the value will be high for each well
In Second zone the value of porosity will be high also so this zone can hold
hydrocarbon in its spaces.
Porosity by sonic log

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the porosity by sonic log and the Interpretation for each
zone will be:
First zone is refer to the low value of porosity because its shale layer and it is
more denies so the value will be low for each well
In Second zone the value of porosity will be high to medium also so this zone can
hold hydrocarbon in its spaces.
 Sonic log measure only primary porosity
Porosity by neutron log
Total and effective porosity (NS)

Total and effective porosity (ND)

Water saturation: in the reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume
occupied by water. By the same definition, hydrocarbon saturation in the
reservoir rock is the fraction of the pore volume occupied by hydrocarbons.
There are various models and equations used for the calculation of water
saturations in clean sands, shaly sands, and carbonate reservoirs are presented.
1- Archie Equations: Archie in 1942 defined this ratio as the “formation
resistivity factor FR” or: For a given value of E, Iw will be greater than Io.
Hence & will be greater than Rw and FR will always be greater than unity.

Relationships of FR to Porosity, Cementation Factor and Tortuosity

The degree of cementation of sand particles depends on the nature, amount, and
distribution of numerous cementing materials including silica, calcium carbonate
and a variety of clays. The less-cemented sands normally have higher porosities
and, lower resistivity factors. As the sand becomes more cemented, Ф decreases
and, therefore, FR increases. Archie derived, from laboratory measurements of
the formation resistivity factor FR with porosity, a relation between these two
variables, which seems to have survived the test of time and usefulness. The
general form of this expression is:

The exponent m, which is referred to as the “cementation” factor, is a function of

the shape and distribution of pores. It is determined from a plot of the formation
resistivity factor FR versus porosity on a log-log graph. Such a plot generally can
be approximated by a straight line having slope m.
For compact limestone, which are very highly cemented rocks, the value of m
may be as high as 3. It is important to emphasize that these empirical values of m
very often differ from well to well in the same or like formations. Where the value
of m cannot be determined, the following equation commonly referred to as the
Humble formula, can be used to estimate the formation factor:

In a formation containing oil and/or gas, both of which are non-conductors of

electricity, with a certain amount of water, the resistivity is a function of water
saturation Sw. For the same porosity,
the true resistivity, Rt, of this formation is larger than Ro(the resistivity of a
formation 100% saturated with brine), because there is less available volume for
the flow of electric current. Archie determined experimentally that the resistivity
factor FR of a formation partially saturated with brine can be expressed by the
following relation:
Water saturation by Archie

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Water saturation by Archie and the Interpretation for
each zone will be:
First zone is refer to the low value of Water saturation in wells (AMM-1 ,3)
And other wells (AMM-2,4,5) Will be low to medium .
In Second zone the value of Water saturation will be low in wells (AMM-1, 2,3,5)
And in well (AMM-4) Will be low to medium.

2- Water saturation by Indonesian:

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Water saturation by Indonesian and the
Interpretation for each zone will be:
First zone is refer to the low to medium value of Water saturation in each well.
In Second zone the value of Water saturation will be low to medium in each well.
 3- Water saturation by Simandoux:

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Water saturation by Indonesian and the
Interpretation for each zone will be:
First zone is refer to the low to medium value of Water saturation in each well.
In Second zone the value of Water saturation will be low to medium in each well.

Pickett Plot for shale zone

Pickett Plot for clean zone

Pickett Plot for shale and clean zone

Permeability:-Permeability is a property of the porous medium that
measures the capacity and ability of the formation to transmit fluids. The
rock permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it controls
the directional movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in the
formation. Darcy's law is an approximation used extensively in the earth
sciences to determine the Permeability.
There are two methods to determine Permeability:
1- Permeability Wyllie-Rose: - The Wyllie-Rose equation assumes that
the rock formation is saturated with a single-phase fluid, and it's most
applicable to clean, well-consolidated formations. It provides a quick
estimation of effective porosity, which is crucial for assessing how much of
the pore space is available for fluid flow in hydrocarbon reservoirs. while
the Wyllie-Rose equation is a valuable tool, it has its limitations and may
not be accurate in all geological settings or for all types of rocks. Wyllie &
Rose (1950) created an equation to calculate permeability in reservoirs of
medium gravity oils. This equation includes the values of porosity and
irreducible water saturation, and it is the following expression:

Permeability Wyllie-Rose:

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Permeability by Wyllie-Rose and the Interpretation
for each zone will be:
First zone is refer to the medium to high value of Permeability in wells (AMM-1-5)
In Second zone the value of Permeability will be medium to high in wells
(AMM-1,4). And in wells (AMM-2,3,5) Will be high.
 2- Permeability Coates: Permeability- Coates & Dumanoir (1973)
Coates & Dumanoir (1973) proposed a more expression for
permeability calculation. This equation includes water resistivity and
water resistivity of a formation at an irreducible water saturation zone
values, and some constants that are related to resistivity and density
values. The equation is t he following:

Permeability Coates

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Permeability by Coates and the Interpretation for
each zone will be:
First zone is refer to the low to medium value of Permeability in each wells
(AMM-1-5)
In Second zone the value of Permeability will be low to medium value of
Permeability in each well (AMM-1-5)
Cutoff values: -
Cutoff is the lump or extracted portion from net pay; Petrophysical cutoffs of a
hydrocarbon reservoir are among the key parameters to determine net pay, net-
to-gross ratio (NTG), original hydrocarbon(s) in place (OHIP) and reserves
estimation.
There is different method to determine Petrophysical cutoffs:
1- Simi log method (standard): Porosity is drawn on a linear scale vs.
permeability which is drawn on a logarithmic scale for each layer of the
reservoir and then making a straight line for each one of them using least
square method. Core data available for porosity and permeability at same
depths are used. Choosing cut-off permeability of (0.1) value then
intersecting each of these lines with this value to determine the cut-off
porosity.
2- statistical method: The statistical method is implied by calculating the
number of porosities obtained from core data in a certain value between
certain values of permeability; like calculating how many readings of
porosity equals zero when permeability equals zero as well, and
permeability is between 0.1 – 0.5 and so on, then determining the average of
each sum according to the total readings. Porosity percentage is drawn vs.
permeability average numbers for each step. The area of which many
readings intersect with each other is chosen to be the cut-off porosity value.
The cut-off porosity was calculated for the whole field.
1- Porosity Cutoff
The lower limit of porosity that identifies a proven productive part of a particular
formation. The porosity cut-off is used to discriminate between porous &
permeable and tight sand intervals in the gross sand interval, equivalent to the
porosity corresponding to the minimum permeability allows oil and gas flow.
Determine Porosity Cutoff by Simi log method (standard):
CORE PERMEABILITY VS CORE POROSITY
 Phi core

Cutoff porosity = 7%
Well1 zone 1/CORE POROSITY VS LOG POROSITY
Phi core

Phi log

Porosity Cutoff
well Porosity Cut Porosity Cut off log Porosity Cut off log
off core% Zone 1% Zone 2%
AMM-1 0.7 2.20 0.07
AMM-2 0.5 2.20.1 0.2875
AMM-3 0.75 2.20 0.10
AMM-4 - - -
AMM-5 0.39 2.00 0.30
Determine Porosity Cutoff by statistical method:

k=0- k=10 k 100- k 1000-

10 - 100 1000 2000
Porosity n n/N n n/N n n/N ṅ ṇ/Ṇ
0_4 1 0.07143 0 0 0 0 0 0
4_8 6 0.42857 0 0 0 0 0 0
8_12 3 0.21429 1 0.07143 3 0.07692 0 0
12_16 3 0.21429 9 0.64286 5 0.12821 0 0
16_20 1 0.07143 3 0.21429 11 0.28205 2 0.166667
20_24 0 0 1 0.07143 17 0.4359 7 0.583333
24_28 0 0 0 0 3 0.07692 3 0.25

Sum (N) 14 14 39 12

The value of porosity cutoff is 1.2 %

Water saturation cutoff:
Pores with SW greater than cutoff will have saturation of 1-Sgr
The water saturation cutoff is generally thought of as the highest Sw (or Swe in
an effective porosity methodology) that will still produce hydrocarbons, the Sw
where the oil- or gas-cut is roughly 1% or higher. Hydrocarbons exist in most
reservoirs in rocks that are not considered either net pay or reservoir rock.
Water saturation cutoff by plot phi with Sw
Well AMM-1 Well AMM-2

Well AMM-3 Well AMM-4

Well AMM-5

Well Water saturation cutoff

AMM-1 0.32
AMM-2 0.74
AMM-3 0.24
AMM-4 0.31
AMM-5 0.4
Net pay thickness: It is the thickness of those intervals in which porosity
and permeability are known or supposed to be high enough for the interval to be
able to produce oil or gas, water and gas is not included to the net pay thickness.

The goal of the net-pay calculations is to eliminate nonproductive rock

intervals and, from these calculations at the various wellbores, provide a solid
basis for a quality 3D reservoir description and quantitative hydrocarbons-in-
place and flow calculations.
Net Sand & Reservoir – Any rock within that has useful reservoir properties, &
the capability to store and flow fluids, (Net) Pay – Intervals of Net Reservoir that
contain hydrocarbons , Cut-offs are used as threshold values to quantify Net &
Pay, Many approaches for conventional cut-offs, Even more approaches for
carbonates & unconventional reservoirs, Some are company, individual or
economically defined Key in constraining STOIIP and Reserves.
Net pay thickness

Interpretation
The fig above refers to the Net pay thickness and the Interpretation for each zone
will be:
First zone it was impermeable zone and it will we remove it when we want
determine net pay in each well
In Second zone it was permeable zone so this will be a good storage and reservoir
depend on previous results so, in each well in the Second zone will determine net
pay by remove porosity, permeability, shale volume and water saturation in each
well
Woc calculation
Results and discussion:
From the previous Results and from FGR we note there is a good
accumulation of oil in the porous medium of Ratawi Formation and the
porosity cut off is 7% and the average saturation cut off was in FGR 50%
and our Results was 0.402 and the average porosity was 20% and the
average net pay thickness 16 m so this formation will be a good storage for
the hydrocarbon.

AMM-1

AMM-2
AMM-3

AMM-4

AMM-5
Reference
1- Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
2- Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
3- Net Pay and Net Reservoir/Steve Cuddy
4- Petrophysics MSc Course Notes – Permeability - Dr. Paul Glover