Material 1 1686729458

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry / Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
BOARD + MHT-CET THEORY
*1. Answer the Following Questions:
1. State and explain Avogadro's law

Ans.:
i. In the year 1811, Avogadro made a distinction between atoms and molecules and thereby proposed
Avogadro's law.
ii. Avogadro proposed that, "Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules".
e.g. Hydrogen gas combines with oxygen gas to produce water vapour as follows:
Hydrogen (g) + Oxygen (g) ¾¾
® Water(g)
[100 mL] [50 mL] [100 mL]
[2 vol] [1 vol] [2 vol]
According to Avogadro's law, if 1 volume contains n molecules, then 2n molecules of hydrogen combine
with n molecules of oxygen to give 2n molecules of water, i.e., 2 molceules of hydrogen gas combine
with 1 molecule of oxygen to give 2 molecules of water vapour as represented below:
Hydrogen (g) + Oxygen (g) ¾¾
® Water(g)
[2n molecules] [n molecules] [2n molecules]
[2 molecules] [1 molecule] [2 molecules]
2. Point out the difference between 12 g of carbon and 12 u of carbon.

Ans.: 12 g of carbon is the molar mass of carbon while 12 u of carbon is the mass of one carbon atom.
3. How many grams does an atom of hydrogen weigh?

Ans.: The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.6736 ´10-24 g.
4. Calculate the molecular mass of the following in u:

i. NH 3 ii. CH 3 COOH iii. C 2 H 5 OH
Solution:
i. Molecular mass of NH3 = (1´ Average atomic mass of N) + (3´ Average atomic mass of H)
= (1 ´ 14.0u) + (3 ´ 1.0u)
= 17 u
ii. Molecular mass of CH 3COOH = (2 ´ Average atomic mass of C) +(4 ´ Average atomic mass of H) +
(2 ´ Average atomic mass of O)
= (2 ´ 12.0u) + (4 ´ 1.0u) + (2 ´16.0u)
= 60 u
iii. Molecular mass of C 2 H 5 O H = (2 ´ Average atomic mass of C) +(6 ´ Average atomic mass of H) +
(1´ Average atomic mass of O)
= (2 ´ 12.0u) + (6 ´ 1.0u) + (1 ´16.0 u)
= 46 u
Ans.: i. The molecular mass of NH3 = 17u

ii. The molecular mass of CH3COOH = 60 u
iii. The molecular mass of C 2 H 5 OH = 46 u
1
5. How many particles are present in 1 mole of a substance?

Ans.: The number of particles in one mole is 6.0221367 ´ 1023
6. What is the SI unit of amount of a substance?

Ans.: The SI unit for the amount of a substance is mole (mol).
7. What is meant by molar volume of a gas?

Ans.: The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at standard temperature (0 0 C and pressure (1 atm) (STP) is
called as molar volume of a gas. The molar volume of a gas at STP is 22.4 dm3.
8. State and explain the law of conservation of mass.

Ans.: Law of conservation of mass:
i. The law of conservation of mass states that, "Mass can neither be created nor destroyed" during chemical
combination of matter.
ii. Antoine Lavoisier who is aften referred to as the father of modern chemistry performed careful
experimental studies for various combustion reactions, namely burning of phosphorus and mercury in
the presence of air.
iii. Both his experiments, in burning of phosphorus, he found that the weight gained by the phosphorus was
exactly the same as the weight lost by the air. Hence, total mass of reactants = total mass of products.
iv. When hydrogen gas burns and combines with oxygen to form water, the mass of the water formed is
equal to the mass of the hydrogen and oxygen consumed. Thus, this is in accordance with the law of
conservation of mass.
9. State the law of multiple proportions.

Ans.: The law states that, "When two elements A and B form more than one compounds, the masses of element
B that combine with a given mass of A are always in the ratio of small whole numbers".
10. Give one example of each

i. Homogeneous mixture ii. Heterogeneous mixture
iii. Element iv. Compound
Ans.: i. Homogeneous mixture : Solution ii. Heterogeneous mixture : Suspension
iii. Element : Gold iv.Compound : Distilled water
*2. Explain
1. The need of the term average atomic mass.

Ans.:
i. Several naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of two or more isotopes.
ii. Isotopes have different atomic masses
iii. The atomic mass of such an element is the average of atomic masses of its isotopes.
iv. For this purpose, the atomic masses of isotopes and their relative percentage abundances are considered.
Hence, the term average atomic mass is needed to express atomic mass of elements containing mixture
of two or more isotops.
2. Mo l a r mass
Ans.:
i. The mass of one mole of a substance (element/compound) in grams is called its molar mass.
ii. The molar mass of any element in grams is numerically equal to atomic mass of that element in u.
e.g.
2
Element Atomic mass (u) Molar mass (g mol-1)

H 1.0 1.0
C 12.0 12.0
O 16.0 16.0
iii. Similarly, molar mass of polyatomic molecule, in grams is numerically equal to its molecular mass or
formula mass in u.
e.g.
Polyatomic substance Molecular/formula mass (u) Molar mass (g mol-1)
O2 32.0 32.0
H2O 18.0 18.0
NaCl 58.5 58.5
*3. Mole concept

Ans.:
i. Even a small amount of any substance contains very large number of atoms or molecules. Therefore, a
quantitative adjective 'mole' is used to express the large number of sub-microscopic entities like atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, etc. present in a substance.
ii. Thus, one mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities or particles as there are atoms
in exactly 12 g (or 0.012 kg) of the carbon - 12 isotope.
iii. One mole is the amount of substance which contains 6.0221367 ´ 1023 particles/entities.
*4. Formula mass with an example

Ans.:
i. In substances such as sodium chloride, positive (sodium) and negative (chloride) entities are arranged in
a three-dimensional structure in a way that one sodium (Na+) ion is surrounded by six chloride (Cl-) ions,
all at the same distance from it and vice versa. Thus, sodium chloride do not contain discrete molecules
as the constituent units.
ii. Therefore, NaCl is just the formula which is used to represent sodium chloride through it is not a molecule.
iii. In such compounds, the formula (i.e., NaCl) is used to calculate the formula mass instead of molecular
mass. e.g. Formula mass of sodium chloride = atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u
= 58.5 u
*5. Molar volume of gas
Ans.:
i. It is more convenient to measure the volume rather than mass of the gas.
ii. It is found from Avogadro law that "One mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm 3 at standard
temperature (0o C) and pressure (1 atm) (STP)
iii. The volume of 22.4 dm3 at STP is known as molar volume of a gas.
iv. The relationship between number of moles and molar volume can be expressed as follows:
Volumeof the gasat STP
Number of moles of a gas (n) = Molar volumeof the gas

=
22.4dm3 mol-1
*6. Types of matter (on the basis of chemical composition)

An s. : Matter on the basis of chemical composition can be classified as follows:
i. Pure substances: They always have a definite chemical composition. They always have the same
properties regardless of their origin.
e.g. Pure metal, distilled water, etc.
They are of two types:
3
a. Elements : They are pure substances, which cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
ordinary chemical changes.
Elements are further classified into three types:
1. Metals:
i. They have a lustre (a shiny appearance).
ii. They conduct heat and electricity.
iii. They can be drawn into wire (ductile).
iv. They can be hammered into thin sheets (malleable).
e.g.Gold, silver, copper, iron. Mercury is a liquid metal at room temperature.
2. Nonmetals:
i. They have no lustre. (except diamond, iodine)
ii. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. (except graphite)
iii. They cannot be hammered into sheets or drawn into wire, because they are brittle.
e.g. Iodine
3. Metalloids: Some elements have properties that are intermediate between metals and nonmetals are
called metalloids or semimetals.
e.g. Arsenic, silicon and germanium.
b. Compounds: They are the pure substance which are made up of two or more elements in fixed
proportion. e.g. Water, ammonia, methane, etc.
ii. Mixtures: They have no definite chemical composition and hence no definite properties. They can be
separated by physical methods.
e.g. Paint (mixture of oils, pigment, additive), concrete (a mixture of sand, cement, water), etc.
Mixtures are of two types:
a. Homogeneous mixture: In homogeneous mixture, constituents reamain uniformly mixed throughout
its bulk.
b. Heterogeneous mixture: In heterogeneous mixture, constituents are not uniformly mixed theoughout
its bulk.
e.g. Suspension, which contains insoluble solid in a liquid.
4
MH BOARD SOLVED NUMERICALS
*1. What is the ratio of molecules in 1 mole of NH3 and 1 mole of 4NO3?
Solution:
One mole of any substnace contains particles equal to 6.022 ´ 1023 .
1 mole of NH 3 = 6.022 ´ 1023 molecules of NH3 .
1 mole of HNO3 = 6.022 ´ 1023 molecules of 4NO3 .
6.022 ´ 1023
\ Ratio = = 1:1
6.022 ´ 1023
Ans.: The ratio of molecules is = 1:1
*2. Calculate number of moles of hydrogen in 0.448 litre of hydrogen gas at STP.
Solution:
Given: Volume of hydrogen at STP = 0.448 L
To find: Number of moles of hydrogen
Volumeof a gasat STP
Formula: Number of moles of a gas (n) = Molar volumeof a gas
Calculation:Molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3 mol-1 = 22.4 L at STP

Number of moles of a gas (n) = Molar volumeof a gas
0.448L
=
22.4L mol-1
= 0.02 mol
Ans.: Number of moles of hydrogen = 0.02 mol
*3. The mass of an atom of hydrogen is 1.008 u. What is the mass of 18 atoms of hydrogen?
Solution:
Mass of 1 atom of hydrogen = 1.008 u
\ Mass of 18 atoms of hydrogen = 18 ´ 1.008u = 18.144 u
Ans.: The mass of 18 atoms of hydrogen = 18.144 u
*4. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following (Given: Atomic mass of I = 127 u).
i. 254 u of iodine (I) ii. 254 g of iodine (I)
Solution:
i. 254 u of iodine (I) = x atoms
Atomic mass of iodine (I) = 127 u
\ Mass of one iodine atom = 127 u
254u
\ x= = 2 atoms
127u
ii. 254 g of iodine (I)
Atomic mass of iodine = 127 u
\ Molar mass of iodine = 127 g mol-1
Now,
Massof a subs tan ce 254g
Number of moles = Molar massof a subs tan ce = = 2mol
127gmol-1
Now,
5
Number of atoms = Number of moles ´ Avogodro's constant

= 2mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms / mol
= 1.2044 × 1024 atoms
Ans.: i. Number of iodine atoms in 254 u = 2 atoms
ii. Number of iodine atoms in 254 g = 1.2044 × 1024 atoms
*5. A student used a carbon pencil to write his homework. The mass of this was found to be 5 mg. With
the help of this calculate.
i. The number of moles of carbon in his homework writing.
ii. The number of carbon atoms in 12 mg of his homework writing.
Solution:
i. 5 mg carbon = 5 ´ 10-3 g carbon
Atomic mass of carbon = 12 u
\ Molar mass of carbon = 12 g mol-1
Mass of a subs tan ce 5 ´ 10 -3 g

Number of moles = = -4
Molar mass of a subs tan ce 12g mol-1 = 4.167 × 10 mol
ii. 12 mg carbon = 12 ´ 10-3 g carbon
Mass of a subs tan ce 12 ´ 10 -3 g

Number of moles = = -3
Molar mass of a subs tan ce 12g mol-1 = 1´ 10 mol
Number of atoms = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
Number of aotms of carbon = 1 ´ 10-3 mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol
=6.022×1020 atoms
Ans.: Number of moles of carbon in his homework writing = 4.167×10-4 mol
Number of atoms of carbon in 12 mg homework writing = 6.022×1020 atoms
*6. Arjun purchased 250g of glucose (C6H12O6) for Rs 40. Find the cost of glucose per mole.
Solution:
Given: Mass of urea = 250g, cost for 250 g glucose = Rs 40, molecular formula of glucose = C6H12O6
To find: Cost per mole of glucose
Calculation:Molecular formula of glucose is (C6H12 O6).
= (6 ´ Average atomic mass of C) + (12 ´ Average atomic mass of H) +
= (6 ´ 12 u) + (12 ´ 1u) + (6 ´ 16u)
= 180 u
\ Molar mass of glucose = 180 g mol-1
Mass of a subs tan ce 250g
Number of moles = Molar massof a subs tan ce = = 1.389 mol
180g mol-1
Now,
1.389 mol of glucose cost = Rs 40
1 mol glucose cost = x
Rs 40
x=
\ 1.389mol = Rs 28.8/mol of glucose
Ans.: The cost of glucose per mole is Rs 28.8.
6
*7. The natural isotopic abundance of 10B is 19.60% and 11B is 80.40%. The exact isotopic masses are
10.13 and 11.009 respectivley. Calculate the average atomic mass of boron.
Solution:
Average atomic mass of Boron (B)
(At.massof 10 B ´ %Abundance) + (At.mass of 11B ´ %Abundanc)
=
100
(10.13u ´ 19.60) + (11.009 u ´ 80.40)
= =10.84u
100
Ans.: Average atomic mass of boron = 10.84 u
*8. Convert the following degree Celsius temperature to degree Fathrnhelt.

i. 40o C ii. 30o C
Solution:
i. Given: Temperature in degree Celsius = 40o C
To find: Temperature in degree Fahrenheit
o 9 o
Formula: F= ( C) + 32
5
Calculation:Substituting 40o C in the formula,
o 9 o
F= ( C) + 32
5
9
= (40) + 32
5
= 72 + 32
=104o F
ii. Given: Temperature in degree Celsius = 30o C
To find: Temperature in degree Fahrenheit
o 9 o
Formula: F= ( C) + 32
5
Calculation:Substituting 30o C in the formula,
o 9 o
F= ( C) + 32
5
9
= (30) + 32
5
= 54 + 32
= 86o F
Ans.: i. The temperature 40o C corresponds to 104o F .
ii. The temperature 30o C corresponds to 86o F .
*9. Calculate the number of moles and molecules of acetic acid present in 22 g of it.
Solution:
Given: Mass of acetic acid = 22 g
To find: The number of moles and molecules of acetic acid
Massof a substance
Formulae: i. Number of moles =
Molar mass of a subs tan ce
7
ii. Number of molecules = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
Calculation:Mass of acetic acid = 22 g
Molecular mass of acetic acid, CH3COOH
= (2 ´ Avergage atomic mass of C) + (4 ´ Average atomic mass of H) +
= (2 ´ 12u) + (4 ´1u) + (2 ´16u) = 60u
\ Molar mass of acetic acid = 60 g mol-1
Massof a subs tan ce 22g
Number of moles = Molar mass of a subs tan ce = = 0.367 mol
60g mol-1
Now,
Number of molecules of acetic acid = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
= 0.367mol ´ 6.022 ´ 10 23 molecules/mol
=2.210×1023 molecules
Ans.: Number of moles = 0.367 mol
Number of molecules of acetic acid =2.210×1023 molecules
*10. 24g of carbon reacts with some oxygen to make 88 grams of carbon dioxide. Find out how much
oxygen must have been used.
Solution:
Given: Mass of carbon (reactant) = 24 g, mass of carbon dioxide (product) = 88 g
To find: Mass of oxygen (reactant)
Calculation:12 g of carbon combine with 32 g oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide as follows:
Carbon + Oxygen ¾¾
® Carbon dioxide
12g 32g 44g
Hence, (2 ´ 12 = 24 g) of carbon will combine with (2 ´ 32 = 64 g) of oxygen to give
(2 ´ 44 = 88 g) carbon dioxide.
Ans.: Mass of oxygen used = 64 g.
*11. Calculate number of atoms is each of the following. (Average atomic mass: N = 14 u, S = 32 u)
i. 0.4 mole of nitrogen ii. 1.6 g of sulphur
Solution:
i. 0.4 mole of nitrogen (N)
Number of atoms of N = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
= 0.4mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms / mol
= 2.4088 × 1023 atomsof N
ii. 1.6 g of Sulphur (S)
Molar mass of sulphur = 32 g mol-1
Mass of a subs tan ce 1.6g
Number of moles = =
Molar mass of a subs tan ce 32g mol-1 = 0.05 mol
Number of atoms of S = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
= 0.05mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms / mol
= 0.3011 ´ 1023 atoms

= 0.3011 × 1022 atomsof S
Ans.: i. Number of nitrogen atoms in 0.4 mole = 2.4088 × 1023 atomsof N
ii. Number of sulphur atoms in 1.6 g = 0.3011 × 1022 atomsof S
8
*12. 2.0 g of a metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.2 g its oxide. 1.42 g of the same metal heated in steam gave
2.27 g of its oxide. Which law is verified by these data?
Solution:
Here, metal oxide is obtained by two different methods; reactions of metal with oxygen and reaction of
metal with water vapour (steam).
In first reaction (reaction with oxygen),
The mass of oxygen in metal oxide = 3.2 - 2.0 = 1.2 g
1.2
% of oxygen = ´ 100 = 37.5%
3.2
2.0
% of metal = ´ 100 = 62.5%
3.2
In second reaction (reaction with steam),
The mass of oxygen in metal oxide = 2.27 - 1.42 = 0.85 g
0.85
% of oxygen = ´ 100 = 37.44 » 37.5%
2.27
1.42
% of metal = ´ 100 = 62.56 » 62.5%
2.27
Therefore, irrespective of the source, the given compound contains same elements in the same proportion.
The law of definite proportions states that "A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion
of elements by weight". Hence, the law of definite proportions is verified by these data.
Ans.: The law of definite proportions is verified by given data.
*13. In two moles of acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) calculate the following:

i. Number of moles of carbon
ii. Number of moles of hydrogen
iii. Number of moles of oxygen
iv. Number of molecules of acetaldehyde
Solution:
Molecular formula of acetaldehyde : C2H4 O
Moles of acetaldehyde = 2 mol
i. Number of moles of carbon atoms = Moles of acetaldehyde ´ Number of carbon atoms
= 2´2
= 4 moles of hydrogen atoms
ii. Number of moles of hydrogen atoms = Moles of acetaldehyde ´ Number of hydrogen atoms
= 2´4
iii. Number of moles of oxygen atoms = Moles of acetaldehyde ´ Number of oxygen atoms
= 2 ´1
iv. Number of molecules of acetaldehyde = Mole of acetaldehyde ´ Avogadro number
= 2mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 molecules/mol
= 12.044 × 1023 molecules of acetaldehyde
*14. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide, MgO in

i. 80 g and ii. 10 g of the compound
(Average atomic masses of Mg = 24 and O = 16)
Solution:
Given: i. Mass of MgO = 80 g
ii. Mass of MgO = 10g
To find: Number of moles of MgO
9
Mass of a subs tan ce
Formulae: Number of moles (n) = Molar mass of a subs tan ce
Calculation:i. Molecular mass of MgO = (1 ´ Average atomic mass of Mg) + (1´ Average atomic mass of O)
= (1´ 24u) + (1´ 16u)
= 40 u
\ Molar mass of MgO = 40 g mol-1
Mass of MgO = 80 g
Number of moles (n) = Molar mass of a subs tan ce
80g
=
40g mol-1
= 2 mol
ii. Mass of MgO = 10 g, Molar mass of MgO = 40 g mol-1
Number of moles (n) = Molar mass of a subs tan ce
10g
=
40g mol-1
= 0.25 mol
Ans.: i. The number of moles in 80 g of magnesium oxide, MgO = 2 mol
ii. The number of moles in 10 g of magnesium oxide, MgO = 0.25 mol
*15. What is volume of carbon dioxide, CO2 accupying by

i. 5 moles and ii. 0.5 mole of CO2 gas measured at STP.
Solution:
Given: i. Number of moles of CO2 = 5 mol
ii. Number of moles of CO2 = 0.5 mol
To find: Volume at STP
Formula: Number of moles of a gas (n) = Molar volumeof a gas
Calculation:Molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3mol-1 at STP.

Volumeof a gas at STP
Number of moles of a gas (n) =
Molar volumeof a gas
\ i. Volume of the gas at STP = Number of moles of a gas (n) ´ Molar volume of a gas
= 5mol ´ 22.4dm3 mol-1 = 112 dm3
ii. Volume of the gas at STP = Number of moles of a gas (n) ´ Molar volume of a gas
= 0.5mol ´ 22.4dm3 mol -1 = 11.2 dm3
Ans.: i. Volume of 5 mol of CO2 = 112 dm3
ii. Volume of 0.5 mol of CO2 = 11.2 dm3
*16. Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen at STP. Molar
mass of KClO3 is 122.5 g mol-1.
Solution:
The molecular formula of potassium chlorate is KClO3 .
Required chemical equation:
2KClO3 ¾¾
® 2KCl + 3O 2
[2 moles] [3 moles]
10
2 moles of KClO3 = 2 ´ 122.5 = 245g

3 moles of O2 at STP occupy = (3 ´ 22.4dm 3 ) = 67.2dm3
Thus, 245 g of potassium chlorate will liberate 67.2 dm3 of oxygen gas.
Let 'x' gram of KClO3 liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen gas at S.T.P.
245 ´ 6.72
\ x= = 24.5 g
67.2
Ans.: Mass of potassium chlorate required = 24.5g
*17. Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen present in 5.6 g of urea, (NH2)2CO. Also calculate the
number of atoms of N, C and O.
Solution:
Given: Mass of urea = 5.6 g
To find: The number of atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and oxygen
Calculation:Molecular formula of urea: CO(NH 2 ) 2
Molar mass of urea = 60 g mol-1.
Massof a subs tan ce 5.6g
Number of moles = Molar massof a subs tan ce = = 0.0933 mol
60g mol-1
\ Moles of urea = 0.0933 mol
Number of atoms = Number of moles ´ Avogadro's constant
Now, 1 molecule of urea has total 8 atoms, out of which 4 atoms are of H, 2 atoms are of N, 1 of C
and 1 of O.
\ Number of H atoms in 5.6 g of urea = (4 ´ 0.0933) mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol
= 2.247 × 1023 atoms of hydrogen

\ Number of N atoms in 5.6 g of urea = (2 ´ 0.0933) mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol
= 1.124 × 1023 atoms of nitrogen

\ Number of C atoms in 5.6 g of urea = (1 ´ 0.0933) mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol
= 0.562 × 1023 atoms of carbon

\ Number of O atoms in 5.6 g of urea = (1 ´ 0.0933) mol ´ 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms/mol
= 0.562 × 1023 atoms of oxygen

Ans.: 5.6 g of urea contain 2.247 × 1023 atoms of H, 1.124 × 1023 atoms of N, 0.562 × 1023 atoms of C and
0.562 × 1023 atoms of O.
*18. Calculate the mass of sulphur dioxide produced by burning 16 g of sulphur in excess of oxygen in
contact process. (Average atomic mass: S = 32 u, O = 16 u).
Solution:
Given: Mass of sulphur (reactant) = 16 g
To find: Mass of sulphur dioxide (product)
Calculation:32 g of sulphur combine with 32 g oxygen to form 64 g of sulphur dioxide as follows:
Sulphur + Oxygen ¾¾
® Sulphur dioxide
32g 32g 64g
Hence, (0.5 ´ 32 = 16g) of sulphur will combine with (0.5 ´ 32 = 16g) of oxygen to give
(0.5 ´ 64 = 32g) sulphur dioxide.
Ans.: Mass of sulphur dioxide produced = 32 g
11
*19. Mass of an atom of oxygen in gram is 26.56896 × 10-24g. What is the atomic mass of oxygen in u?
Solution: Mass of an atom of oxygen in gram is 26.56896 × 10-24g. and
1.66056 × 10-24g = 1 u
\ 26.56896 × 10-24g = ?
26.56896 ´ 10-24 g
= = 16.0u
1.66056 ´ 10-24 g / u
Similarly mass of an atom of hydrogen = 1.0080 u
*20. Calculate the average atomic mass of neon using the following data:
Isotope Atomic mass Natural Abundance

20
Ne 19.9924 u 90.92%
21
Ne 20.9940 u 0.26%
22
Ne 21.9914 u 8.82%
Solution: Average atomic mass of Neon (Ne)
20 21 22
Atomic mass of Ne ´ % + Atomic mass of Ne ´ % + Atomic mass of Ne ´ %
=
100
(19.9924u)(90.92) + (20.9940u)(0.26) + (21.9914u)(8.82)
= = 20.1707u
100
*21. Find the mass of 1 molecule of oxygen (O2) in amu (u) and in grams.
Solution: Molecular mass of O2 = 2 × 16 u
\ mass of 1 molecule = 32 u
\ mass of 1 molecule of O2
= 32.0 × 1.66056 × 10-24g
= 53.1379 × 10-24g
*22. Find the formula mass of

i. NaCl ii. Cu (NO3)2
i. Formula mass of NaCl
= Average atomic mass of Na + average atomic mass of Cl
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u
ii. Formula mass of Cu(NO3)2
= average atomic mass of Cu + 2 × (average atomic mass of nitrogen
+ average atomic mass of three oxygen)
= (63.5) + 2(14 + 3 × 16) = 187.5 u
*23. Calculate the number of moles and molecules of urea present in 5.6 g of urea.
Solution: Mass of urea = 5.6 g
Molecular mass of urea, NH2CONH2
= 2 (average atomic mass of N) + 4 (average atomic mass of H) + 1(average atomic mass of C)
+ 1(average atomic mass of O)
= 2 × 14 u +1 × 12 u + 4 × 1 u + 1 × 16 u = 60 u
\ molar mass of urea = 60 g mol-1
mass of urea in g
Number of moles
molar mass of urea in g mol-1
Number of molecules = Number of moles × Avogadro's constant
Number of molecules of urea
= 0.0933 × 6.022 × 1023 molecules/mol
= 0.5618 × 1023 molecules
12
= 5.618 × 10 molecules
22
Ans : Number of moles = 0.0933 mol

Number of molecules of urea = 5.618 × 1022 molecules
*24. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following

i. 52 moles of Argon (Ar) ii. 52 u of Helium (He) iii. 52 g of Helium (He)
Solution :
i. 52 moles of Argon
1 mole Argon atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Ar
\ 52 moles of Ar
6.022 ´ 1023
= 52moles ´ atoms
1mol
= 313.144 × 1023 atoms of Argon
ii. 52 u of Helium
Atomic mass of He = mass of 1 atom of He = 4.0u
\ 4.0 u = 1 He \ 52 u = ?
1atom
= 52u ´ = 13
4.0 u
atoms of He
iii. 52 g of He
Mass of 1 mole of He = 4.0 g
massof He
Number of moles of He = mass of 1moleof He
52g
= = 13mol
4.0g mol-1
Number of atoms of He
= Number of moles × 6.022 × 1023
= 13 mol × 6.022 × 1023 atoms/mol
= 78.286 × 1023 atoms of He.
*25. Calculate the number of moles and molecules of ammonia (NH 3) gas in a volume 67.2 dm3 of it
measured at STP.
Solution :
Volume of NH3 at STP = 67.2 dm3
molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3 mol-1
Number of moles (n) = Molar volumeof gas
67.2dm3
Number of moles of NH3 =
22.4dm 3 mol-1
= 3.0 mol
Number of molecules = Number of moles × 6.022 × 1023 molecules mol-1
Number of molecules of NH3 = 3.0 mol × 6.022 × 1023 molecules mol-1
= 18.066 × 1023 molecules
26. Convert 2 litre atmosphere into erg.

Solution: 2 litre atmosphere = 2× 101.3 joule = 2× 101.3× 107 erg. = 202.6×107 erg.
{1litre atmosphere = 101.3J }
13
27. Convert 2 atm into cm of Hg.
Solution : 2 atm = 2 × 76 cm of Hg = 152 cm of Hg
{1 atmosphere = 76 cm of Hg }
28. Convert 20 dm3 into mL.

Solution: 20 dm3 = 20 litre = 20 × 1000 mL = 2 × 104 mL
1 dm3 = 1 litre = 1000 mL
29. Convert 59 F into °C.

5 5 5
Solution °C = (F – 32) = (59 – 32) = × 27 = 15°C
9 9 9
30. Find out the volume and mole in 56 g nitrogen at STP

Solution Molecular weight of N2 is 28 g
(a) Calculation of volume : Q 28 g of N2 occupies = 22.4 litre at STP
22.4
\ 56 g of N2 occupies = × 56 litre = 44.8 litre at STP
28
(b)Calculation of mole : Q 28 g of N2 = 1 mol of N2
1
\ 56 g of N2 = ´ 56 = 2 mol of N
28 2
31. Calculate the volume and mass of 0.2 mol of O3 at STP.

Solution (a) Calculation of volume : Q volume of 1 mole of O3 at STP = 22.4 litre
\ volume of 0.2 mole of O3 at STP = 22.4 × 0.2
= 4.48 litre
(b)Calculation of mass : Q mass of 1 mol of O3 = 48 g
\ mass of 0.2 mol of O3 = 48 × 0.2 gm = 9.6 g
32. Find out the moles & mass in 1.12 litre O3 at STP.
Solution (a) Calculation of mole: Q at STP 22.4 litre of O3 contain = 1 mol of O3
1
\ at STP 1.12 litre of O3 contain = ´ 1.12
22.4
= 0.05 mol of O3
(b)Calculation of mass : Molecular weight of O3 = 48 g
Q weight of 22.4 litre of O3 at STP is = 48 g
48
\ weight of 1.12 litre of O3 at STP is = × 1.12 = 2.4 g
22.4
33. Find out the mass of 1021 molecules of Cu.

Solution For Cu (i.e. mono atomic substance) number of atoms = number of molecules
N 1021 weight weight
Number of moles of Cu = N = = =
A 6.023 ´ 1023 Atomic weight 63.5
14
1021
weight of Cu = × 63.5 = 0.106 g
6.023 ´ 1023
34. Calculate the number of molecules and number of atoms present in 1 g of nitrogen ?
weight 1 NA
Solution Number of moles (n) = Mw
= Þ Number of molecules (N) =
28 28
Q 1 molecule of N2 gas contain = 2 atoms
NA NA N
\ molecules of N2 gas contain = 2 × = A atoms
28 28 14
35. Calculate the number of moles in 11.2 litre at STP of oxygen.

V 11.2
Solution Number of moles of O2 (n) = = = 0.5 mol
22.4 22.4
1
36. g molecule of oxygen. Find (i) mass, (ii) number of molecules, (iii) volume at STP. (iv) No. of oxygen
2
atoms.
weight weight
Solution (i) n = 1 mol = =
Mw Þ weight of oxygen = 16 g
2 32
N NA
(ii)n = 1 mol = N
2 Þ Number of molecules of oxygen (N) =
A 2
1
V
(iii) n= mol = Þ V = 11.2 litre
2 22.4
(iv) 1 molecule of O2 contain = 2 oxygen atoms.
NA N
molecules of O2 contain = A × 2 = NA oxygen atoms.
2 2
37. Calculate the number of atoms of chlorine in 2.08 gm of BaCl 2 .(Atomic weight of Ba = 137,
Cl = 35.5)
weight 2.08 N
Solution Number of moles of BaCl2 (n) = Mw
= = 0.01 mol = NA
208
Number of molecules of BaCl2 (N) = 0.01 NA
1 molecule of BaCl2 contain = 2 chlorine atoms.
0.01 NA molecules BaCl2 contain = 2 × 0.01 NA Chlorine atoms. = 2 × 10–2 NA Chlorine atoms.
38. Calculate the number of molecules and number of atoms present in 1.2 g of ozone.
weight 1.2 1
Solution Number of moles of O3 (n) = Mw
= = mol
48 40
NA
Þ number of molecules of O3 (N) =
40
NA 3N A
Q 1 molecule of O3 contain = 3 atoms, \ molecules O3 contain = atoms.
40 40
15
39. Calculate the number of atoms present in one drop of water having mass 1.8 g.
weight 1.8
Solution Number of moles of H2O (n) = Mw
= = 0.1 mol
18
Number of molecules of H2O (N) = 0.1 NA
Q 1 molecule of H2O contain = 3 atoms
\ 0.1 NA molecules H2O contain = 3 × (0.1 NA) = 0.3 NA atoms.
40. Calculate the number of atoms present in one litre of water (density of water is 1 g/mL).
Solution 1 litre = 1000 mL = 1000 g
weight 1000 N
Moles of H2O (n) = Mw
= = 55.5 mol = N Þ number of molecules of H2O (N) = 55.5 NA
18 A
Q 1 molecule of H2O contain = 3 atoms

\ 55.5 NA molecules H2O contain = 3 × (55.5 NA) atoms = 166.5 NA atoms
41. At NTP the density of a gas is 0.00445 g/mL then find out its V.D. and molecular mass.
Density of gas 0.004450
Solution V.D. = = = 50
Density of H2 0.000089
Molecular mass = 2 × V.D.= 2 × 50 = 100
42. Weight of 1 litre gas is 2 g then find out its V.D. and molecular mass
Mass 2
Solution Density of gas = = = 0.002g / mL
Volume 1000
Density of gas 0.002000

V.D. = = = 22.4
Density of H2 0.000089
Molecular mass = 2 × V.D. = 44.8
16
2. Introduction to Analytical Chemistry

BOARD + MHT-CET THEORY
1. Answer the following questions

1. Define : Least count
Ans: The smallest quantity that can be measured by the measuring equipment is called the least count.
2. What do you mean by significant figures? State the rules for deciding significant figures.
Ans:
i. The significant figures in measurement or result are the number of digits known with certainty plus one
uncertain digit.
ii. Rules for deciding significant figures:
a. All non-zero digits are significant.
e.g. 127.34 g contains five significant figures which are 1, 2, 7, 3, and 4.
b. All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.
e.g. 120.007 m contains six significant figures.
c. Zeros on the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. Such a zero indicates the position of
the decimal point.
e.g. 0.025 has two significant figures, 0.005 has one significant figure.
d. Zeros at the end of a number are significant if they are on the right side of the decimal point.
e.g. 0.400 g has three significant figures and 400 g has one significant figure.
e. In numbers written in scientific notation, all digits are significant.
e.g. 2.035 × 102 has four significant figures and 3.25 × 10-5 has three significant figures.
3. Distinguish between accuracy and precision.

Ans:
No. Accuracy Precision

Accuracy refers to nearness of the Precision refers to closeness of multiple
i.
measured value to the true value. readings of the same quantity.
Accuracy represents error with respect to Precision represents error in the repeated
ii.
true value. measurements
Accuracy is expressed in terms of absolute Precision is expressed in terms of absolute
iii.
error and relative error. deviation and relative deviation.
4. Explain the terms percentage composition, empirical formula and molecular formula.
Ans:
i. Percentage composition:
a. The percentage composition of a compound is the percentage by weight of each element present in
the compound.
b. Quantitative determination of the constituent elements by suitable methods provides the percent
elemental composition of a compound.
c. If the percent total is not 100, the difference is considered as percent oxygen.
d. From the percentage composition, the ratio of the atoms of the constituent elements in the molecule
is calculated.
ii. Empirical formula: The simplest ratio of atoms of the constituent elements in a molecule is called the
empirical formula of that compound.
e.g. The empirical formula of benzene is CH.
iii. Molecular formula:
a. Molecular formula of a compound is the formula which indicates the actual number of atoms of the
constituent elements in a molecule.
17
e.g. The molecular formula of benzene is C6H6 .
b. It can be obtained from the experimentally determined values of percent elemental composition
and molar mass of that compound.
c. Molecular formula can be obtained from the empirical formula if the molar mass is known.
Molecular formula = r × Empirical formula
Molecular mass
r=
Empiricalformula mass
5. What is a limiting reagent ? Explain.

Ans:
i. The reactant which gets consumed and limits the amount of product formed is called the limiting reagent.
ii. When a chemist carries out a reaction, the reactants are not usually present in exact stoichiometric amounts,
that is, in the proportions indicated by the balanced equation.
iii. This is because the goal of a reaction is to produce the maximum quantity of a useful compound from the
starting materials. Frequently, a large excess of one reactant is supplied to ensure that the more expensive
reactant is completely converted into the desired product.
iv. The reactant which is present in a lesser amount gets consumed after some time and subsequently, no
further reaction takes place, whatever be the amount left of the other reactant present. Hence, limiting
reagent is the reactant that gets consumed entirely and limits the reaction.
6. What do you mean by SI units ? What is the SI unit of mass ?

Ans:
i. In 1960, the general conference of weights and measures proposed a revised metric system, called the
International System of Units i.e. SI units, abbreviated from its French name.
ii. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
7. Explain the following terms

i. Mole fraction ii. Molarity iii. Molality
Ans:
i. Mole fraction : Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of a particular component of a solution
to the total number of moles of the solution.
If a substance ‘A’ dissolves in substance ‘B’ and their number of moles are A and respectively, then the
mole fraction of A and B are given as:
Number of molesof A nA
Mole fraction of A = Number of molesof solution =
nA + nB
Number of molesof B nB
Mole fraction of B = Number of molesof solution =
nA + nB
ii. Molarity: Molarity is defined as the number of moles of the solute present in 1 litre of the solution. It is
the most widely used unit and is denoted by M.
Molarity is expressed as follows:
Number of moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
Volumeof solution in litres
iii. Molality: Molality the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by m.
Molality is expressed as follows:
Number of molesof solute
Molality (m) = Massof solvent in ki log rams
8. Define : Stoichiometry
Ans: Calculations based on a balanced chemical equation are known as stoichiometric calculations.
18
9. Why there is a need of rounding off figures during calculation ?
Ans:
i. When performing calculations with measured quantities, the rule is that the accuracy of the final result is
limited to the accuracy of the least accurate measurement. In other words, the final result cannot be more
accurate than the least accurate number involved in the calculation. Sometimes, the final result of a
calculation often contains figures that are not significant. When this occurs, the final result is rounded
off.
ii. The following rules are used to round off a number to the required number of significant figures:
a. If the digit following the last digit to be kept is less than five, the last digit is left unchanged.
e.g. 46.32 rounded off to significant figures is 46.
b. If the digit following the last digit to be kept is five or more, the last digit to be kept is increased by
one. e.g. 52.87 rounded to three significant figures is 52.9.
10. Why does molarity of a solution depend upon temperature ?

Ans:
i. Molarity is the number of moles of the solute present in 1 litre of the solution. Therefore, molarity
depends on the volume of the solution.
ii. Volume of the solution varies with the change in temperature.
Hence, the molarity of a solution depends upon temperature.
11. Define Analytical chemistry. Why is accurate measurement crucial in science?

Ans: Analytical chemistry :
The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of the separation, identification, qualitative and
quantitative determination of the compositions of different substances, is called analytical chemistry.
i. The accuracy of measurement is of great concern in analytical chemistry. This is because faulty equipment,
poor data processing, or human error can lead to inaccurate measurements. Also, there can be intrinsic
errors in analytical measurement.
ii. When measurements are not accurate, this provides incorrect data that can lead to wrong conclusions.
For example, if a laboratory experiment requires a specific amount of a chemical, then measuring the
wrong amount may result in an unsafe or unexpected outcome.
iii. Hence, the numerical data obtained experimentally are treated mathematically to reach some quantitative
conclusion.
iv. Also, an analytical chemist has to know how to report the quantitative analytical data, indicating the
extent of the accuracy of measurement, perform the mathematical operation, and properly express the
quantitative error in the result.
12. Express the following quantities in exponential terms.

i. 0.0003498 ii. 235.4678
iii. 70000.0 iv. 1569.00
Ans:
i. 0.0003498 = 3.498 × 10-4 ii. 235.4678 = 2.354678 × 102
iii. 70000.0 = 7.00000 × 104 iv. 1569.00 = 1.56900 × 103
13. Give the number of significant figures in each of the following

i. 1.230 × 104 ii. 0.002030 iii. 1.23 × 104 iv. 1.89 × 10-4
Ans:
i. 4 ii. 4 iii. 3 iv. 3
14. Express the given quantities with or without exponents as the case may be.
i. 1.230 × 104 ii. 0.002030 iii. 1.23 × 104 iv. 1.89 × 10-4
Ans:
i. 12300 ii. 2.030 × 10-3 iii. 12300 iv. 0.000189
19
MH BOARD SOLVED NUMERICALS
*1. Find out the molar masses of the following compounds :

i. Copper sulphate crystal (CuSO4.5H2O)
ii. Sodium carbonate, decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
iii. Mohr’s salt [FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O]
(At. mass : Cu = 63.5; S = 32; O = 16; H = 1; Na = 23; C = 12; Fe = 56; N = 14)
Solution:
i. Molar mass of CuSO4.5H2 O
= (1´ At.mass Cu) + (1´ At.massS) + (9 ´ At.massO) + (10 ´ At.mass H)
= (1´ 63.5) + (1´ 32) + (9 ´ 16) + (10 ´ 1)
= 63.5 + 32 + 144 + 10
= 249.5 g mol-1
ii. Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2 O
= (2 × At. mass Na) + (1 × At. mass C) + (13 × At. mass O) + (20 × At. mass H)
= (2 × 23) + (1 × 12) + (13 × 16) + (20 × 1)
= 46 + 12 + 208 + 20
= 286 g mol-1
iii. Molar mass of [FeSO4 (NH4)2SO4.6H2O]
= (1 × At. mass Fe) + (2 × At. mass S) + (2 × At. mass N) + (l4 × At. mass O) + (20 × At. mass H)
= (1 × 56) + (2× 32) + (2 × 14) + (14 × 16) + (20 × 1)
= 56 + 64 + 28 + 224 + 20
= 392 g mol-1
Ans: i. Molar mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 249.5 g mol-1
ii. Molar mass of Na2CO3.10H2O = 286 g mol-1
iii. Molar mass of [FeSO4(NH4 )2SO4.6H2O] = 392 g mol-1
*2. Work out the percentage composition of constituents elements in the following compounds :
a. Lead phosphate [Pb3(PO4)2],
b. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7),
c. Macrocosmic salt - Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate, tetrahydrate (NaNH4HPO4.4H2O)
(At. mass : Pb = 207; P = 31; O = 16; K = 39; Cr = 52; Na = 23; N = 14)
Solution :
Given: Atomic mass: Pb = 207; P = 31; O = 16; K = 39; Cr = 52; Na = 23; N = 14
To find: The percentage composition of constituent elements
Formula: Percentage (by weight) Massof the element in1mole of compound
= ´ 100
Molar mass of the compound
Calculation:
i. Lead phosphate [Pb3 (PO4)2 ]
Molar mass of Pb3 (PO 4 )2 = 3 ´ (207) + 2 ´ (31) + 8 ´ (16) = 621 + 62 + 128 = 811g mol -1
621
Percentage of Pb = ´ 100 = 76.57%
811
62
Percentage of P = ´ 100 = 7.64%
811
128
Percentage of O = ´ 100 = 15.78%
811
ii. Potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2O7 )

Molar mass of K2Cr2O7 = 2 × (39) + 2 × (52) + 7 × (16) = 78 + 104 + 112 = 294 g mol-1
20
78
Percentage of K = ´ 100 = 26.53%
294
104
Percentage of Cr = ´ 100 = 35.37%
294
112
294
iii. Microcosmic salt - Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate, tetrahydrate (NaNH 4 HPO4 .4H2O)
Molar mass of NaNH4HPO4.4H2O = 1 × (23) + 1 × (14) + 1 × (31) + 13 × (1) + 8 × (16)
= 23 + 14 + 31 + 13 + 128 = 209 g mol-1
23
Percentage of Na = ´ 100 = 11.00%
209
14
Percentage of N = ´ 100 = 6.70%
209
31
Percentage of P = ´ 100 = 14.83%
209
13
Percentage of H = ´ 100 = 6.22%
209
128
209
Ans: i. Mass percentage of Pb, P and O in lead phosphate [Pb3(PO4)2] are 76.57%, 7.64% and 15.78%
respectively.
ii. Mass percentage of K, Cr and O in potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are 26.53%, 35.37% and
38.10% respectively.
iii. Mass percentage of Na, N, P, H and O in NaNH4HPO4.4H2O are 11.00%, 6.70%, 14.83%, 6.22%
and 61.24% respectively.
*3. Find the percentage composition of constituent green vitriol crystals (FeSO 4.7H2O). Also find out the
mass of iron and the water of crystallisation in 4.54 kg of the crystals.
(At. mass : Fe = 56; S = 32; O = 16)
Solution:
Given: i. Atomic mass: Fe = 56; S = 32; O = 16
ii. Mass of crystal = 4.54 kg
To find: i. Mass percentage of Fe, S, H and O
ii. Mass of iron and water of crystallisation in 4.54 kg of crystal
Massof the element in1mole of compound
Formula: Percentage (by weight) = Molar mass of the compound
´ 100
i. Molar mass of FeSO4.7H2O = 1 × (56) + 1 × (32) + 14 × (1) + 11 × (16)

= 56 + 32 + 14 + 176
= 278 g mol-1
56
Percentage of Fe = ´ 100 = 20.14%
278
32
Percentage of S = ´ 100 = 11.51%
278
14
Percentage of H = ´ 100 = 5.04%
278
21
176
278
ii. 278kg green vitriol = 56 kg iron

\ 4.54 kg green vitriol = x
56 ´ 4.54
\ x= = 0.915kg
278
Mass of 7H2O in 278 kg green vitriol = 7 × 18 = 126 kg
\ 4.54 kg green vitriol = y
126 ´ 4.54
\ y= = 2.058 kg
278
Ans: i. Mass percentage of Fe, S, H and O in FeSO4 .7H2O are 20.14%, 11.51%, 5.04% and 63.31%
respectively.
ii. Mass of iron in 4.54 kg green vitriol = 0.915 kg
Mass of water of crystallisation in 4.54 kg green vitriol = 2.058 kg
*4. The red colour of blood is due to a compound called “haemoglobin”. It contains 0.335 % of iron.
Four atoms of iron are present in one molecule of haemoglobin. What is its molecular
weight ? (At. mass : Fe 55.84)
Solution:
Given: Iron percentage in haemoglobin = 0.335%
To find: Molecular weight of haemoglobin
Calculation:There are four atoms of iron in molecule of haemoglobin. Four atoms of iron contribute 0.335%
mass to a molecule of haemoglobin.
Mass of 4 Fe = 55.84 × 4 = 223.36 u = 0.335%
Let molecular weight of haemoglobin be x.
Hence,
223.36
´ 100 = 0.335%
x
223.36
\ x= ´ 100 = 66674.6 g mol-1
0.335
Ans: Molecular weight of haemoglobin = 66674.6 g mol-1
*5. A substance, on analysis, gave the following percent composition: Na = 43.4 %, C = 11.3 % and O =
45.3 %. Calculate the empirical formula. (At. mass Na = 23 u, C = 12 u, O = 16 u).
Solution:
Given: Atomic mass of Na = 23 u, C = 12 u, and O = 16 u
Percentage of Na, C and O = 43.4%, 11.3% and 45.3% respectively.
To find: The empirical formula of the compound
%of Na 43.4
Calculation:Molar of Na = Atomic mass of Na = 23 = 1.89mol
%of C 11.3
Molar of C = Atomic mass of C = 12 = 0.94mol
%of O 45.3
Molar of O = Atomic massof O = 16 = 2.83mol
Hence, the ratio of number of moles of Na:C:O is \

1.89 0.94 2.83
= 2, = 1and =3
0.94 0.94 0.94
22
Hence, empirical formula is Na2CO3 .

Ans: Empirical formula of the compound = Na2CO3 .
*6. Assuming the atomic weight of a metal M to be 56, find the empirical formula of its oxide containing
70.0% of M.
Solution:
Given: Atomic mass of M = 56
Percentage of M = 70.0%
Calculation:% M = 70.0%
Hence, % O = 30.0%, Atomic mass of O = 16 u
%of M 70.0
Moles of M = Atomic mass of M = 56 = 1.25mol
%of O 30.0
Moles of O = Atomic mass of O = 16 = 1.875mol
Hence the ratio of number of moles of M:O is

1.25 1.875
= 1and = 1.5
1.25 1.25
Convert the ratio into whole number by multiplying by the suitable coefficient, i.e., 2.
Therefore, the ratio of number of moles of M:O is 2:3.
Hence, the empirical formula is M2O3 .
Ans: Empirical formula of the compound = M2O3 .
*7. 1.00 g of a hydrated salt contains 0.2014 g of iron, 0.1153 g of sulfur, 0.2301 g of oxygen and 0.4532
g of water of crystallisation. Find the empirical formula. (At. wt. : Fe = 56; S = 32; O = 16)
Solution:
Given: Atomic mass of Fe = 56, S = 32, and O = 16
Mass of iron, sulphur, oxygen and water = 0.2014g, 0.1153g, 0.2301 g and 0.4532 respectively.
Calculation:Since the mass of crystal is 1 g, the % iron, sulphur, oxygen and water = 20.14%, 11.53%, 23.01%
45.32% respectively.
%of Fe 20.14
Moles of Fe = Atomicmass of Fe = 56 = 0.360mol
%of S 11.53
Moles of S = Atomicmass of S = 32 = 0.360mol
%of O 23.01
Moles of O = Atomicmass of O = 16 = 1.438mol
%of water 45.32

Moles of water = Molar mass of water = 18 = 2.518 mol
Hence, the ratio of number of moles of Fe:S:O: water is

0.360 0.360 1.438 2.518
= 1, = 1, = 4and =7
0.360 0.360 0.360 0.360
Hence, empirical formula is FeSO4.7H2 O
Ans: Empirical formula of the compound = FeSO4.7H2 O
*8. An organic compound containing oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen contains 20 % carbon,
6.7 % hydrogen and 46.67 % nitrogen. Its molecular mass was found to be 60. Find the
molecular formula of the compound.
23
Solution:
Given: Percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen = 20%, 6.7%, 46.67% respectively.
Molar mass of the compound = 60 g mol-1
To find: The molecular formula of the compound
Calculation:% carbon + % hydrogen + % nitrogen = 20 + 6.7 + 46.67 = 73.37%
This is less than 100%. Hence, the compound contains adequate oxygen so that the total percentage
of elements is 100%.
Hence, % of oxygen = 100 - 73.37 = 26.63%
%of C 20
Moles of C = Atomic mass of C = 12 = 1.667 mol
%of H 6.7
Moles of H = Atomicmass of H = 1.0 = 6.700mol
%of N 46.67
Moles of N = Atomicmass of N = 14 = 3.334mol
%of O 26.63
Moles of O = Atomicmass of O = 16 = 1.664mol
Hence, the ratio of number of moles of C:H:N:O is

1.667 6.700 3.334 1.664
» 1, = 4, = 2,and =1
1.664 1.664 1.664 1.664
Hence, empirical formula is CH4 N2O.
Empirical formula mass = 12 + 4 + 28 + 16 = 60 g mol-1
Hence,
Molar mass = Empirical formula mass
\ Molecular formula = Empirical formula = CH4N2 O
Ans: Molecular formula of the compound = CH4N2 O
*9. A compound on analysis gave the following percentage composition by mass : H = 9.09; O = 36.36;
C = 54.55. Mol mass of compound is 88. Find its molecular formula.
Solution:
Given: Percentage of H, O, C = 9.09%, 36.36%, 54.55% respectively.
Molar mass of the compound = 88 g mol-1
To find: The molecular formula of the compound
%of C 54.55
Calculation:Moles of C = Atomic mass of C = 12 = 4.546mol
%of H 9.09
Moles of H = Atomic massof H = 1.0 = 9.090 mol
%of O 36.36
Moles of O = Atomic mass of O = 16 = 2.273mol
Hence, the ratio of number of moles of C:H:O is

4.546 9.090 2.273
= 2, = 4and =1
2.273 2.273 2.273
Hence, empirical formula is C2 H4O.
Empirical formula mass = 24 + 4 + 16 = 44 g mol-1
Hence,
Molar mass 88g mol -1
r= = =2
Empiricalformula mass 44g mol -1
24
\ Molecular formula = r × empirical formula
Molecular formula = 2 × C2H4O = C4H8O2
Ans: Molecular formula of the compound = C4 H8O2
*10. Carbohydrates are compounds containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When heated in the
absence of air, these compounds decompose to form carbon and water. If 310 g of a carbohydrate
leave a residue of 124 g of carbon on heating in absence of air, what is the empirical formula of the
carbohydrate?
Solution:
Given: Mass of carbon residue = 124 g, mass of carbohydrate = 310 g
To find: Empirical formula of the carbohydrate
Calculation:Since the 310 g of compound decomposes to carbon and water and the mass of carbon produced
is 124 g, the remaining mass would be of water.
\ Mass of water = 310 - 124 = 186 g
Massof C 124
Moles of C = Atomic massof C = 12 = 10.33mol
Massof water 186

Moles of water = Molar mass of water = 18 = 10.33mol
The ratio of number of moles of C: water = C:H2O = 1 : 1

Hence, empirical formula = CH2 O
Ans: Empirical formula of the carbohydrate = CH2O.
*11. What weight of calcium oxide will be formed on heating 19.3 g of calcium carbonate?
(At. wt. : Ca = 40 ; C = 12; O = 16)
Solution:
Given: Mass of CaCO3 consumed in reaction = 19.3 g
To find: Mass of CaO formed
Calculation:Calcium carbonate decomposes according to the balanced equation,
D
CaCO3 ¾¾ ® CaO + CO 2
40+12+3×16 40+16 12+2×16
= 100 parts =56 parts = 44parts
So, 100 g of CaCO3 produce 56 g of CaO.

56 g
\ 19.3 g of CaCO3 will produce = 100 g ´ 19.3g = 10.808 g of CaO
Ans: Mass of CaO formed = 10.808 g
*12. The hourly energy requirements of an astronaut can be satisfied by the energy released when 34
grams of sucrose are “burnt” in his body. How many grams of oxygen would be needed to be carried
in space capsule to meet his requirement for one day?
Solution:
34 g of sucrose provides energy for an hour.
Hence, for a day, the mass of sucrose needed = 34 × 24 = 816 g
The balanced equation is,
C12 H 22 O11(g) + 12O 2(g) ¾¾
® 12CO 2(g) + 11H 2 O ( l )
342 g 12×32 = 384 g
Thus, 342 g of sucrose require 384 g of oxygen.
816
\ 816 g of sucrose will require = ´ 384 = 916 g of O2
342
25
Ans: Astronaut needs to carry 916 g of O2.
*13. For adding 5.55 × 104 and 6.95 × 103, first the exponent is made equal. Thus
5.55 × 104 + 0.695 × 104. Then these numbers can be added as follows :
(5.55 + 0.695) × 104 = 6.245 × 104
*14. The subtraction of two numbers can be done as shown below:
3.5 × 10-2 - 5.8 × 10-3
= (3.5 × 10-2) - (0.58 × 10-2)
= (3.5 - 0.58) × 10-2
= 2.92 × 10-2
*15. ( 5.6 × 105) × (6.9 × 108)
= (5.6 × 6.9) (105+8)
= (5.6 × 6.9) × 1013
= 38.64 × 1013
= 3.864 × 1014
*16. (9.8 × 10-2) × (2.5 × 10-6)
= (9.8 × 2.5) (10-2 + (-6))
= (9.8 × 2.5) × (10-2-6)
= 24.50 × 10-8
= 2.45 × 10-7
*17. In laboratory experiment, 10 g potassium chlorate sample on decomposition gives following data ;
The sample contains 3.8 g of oxygen and the actual mass of oxygen in the quantity of potassium
chlorate is 3.92 g. Calculate absolute error and relative error.
Solution : The observed is 3.8 g and accepted value is 3.92 g
Absolute error = Observed value - True value
= 3.8 - 3.92 = - 0.12 g
The negative sign indicates that your experimental result is lower than the true value.
Absoluteerror
The relative error = True value
´ 100%
-0.12
= ´ 100%
3.92
= -3.06%
*18. The three identical samples of potassium chlorate are decomposed. The mass of oxygen is determined
to be 3.87 g, 3.95 g and 3.89 g for the set. Calculate absolute deviation and relative deviation.
Solution :
3.87 + 3.95 + 3.89
mean = = 3.90
3
Average deviation of a set of

measurements
Sample Mass of oxygen Deviation
1 3.87 g 0.03 g
2 3.95g 0.05 g
3 3.89 g 0.01 g
Mean 0.03
absolute
deviation
Absolute deviation = |Observed value - Mean|

\ Mean absolute deviation = ±0.03g
26
The relative deviation,
Mean absolutedeviation
= ´ 100%
Mean
0.03
= ´ 100% = 0.8%
3.9
*19. How many significant figures are present in the following measurements ?
a. 4.065 m b. 0.32 g c. 57.98 cm3
d. 0.02 s e. 4.0 × 10-4 km f. 604.0820 kg g. 307.100 × 10-5 cm
Ans. : a. 4 b. 2 c. 4 d. 1 e. 2 f. 7 g. 6
*20. Round off each of the following to the number of significant digits indicated :
a. 1.223 to two digits b. 12.56 to three digits
c. 122.17 to four digits d. 231.5 to three digits.
Ans. : i. 1. 2; the third digit is less than 5, so we drop it all the others to its right.
ii. 12.6 ; the fourth digit is greater than 5, so we drop it and add 1 to the third digit.
iii. 122.2 ; the fifth digit is greater than 5, so we do it and add 1 to the fourth digit.
iv. 232; the fourth digit is 5, so we drop it and add 1 to the third digit.
*21. A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen, 24.27% carbon and 71.65 % chlorine by mass. Its molar
mass is 98.96 g. What is its empirical formula ? Atomic masses of hydrogen, carbon and chlorine are
1.008, 12.000 and 35.453 u, respectively
Solution :
Step I : Check whether the sum of all the percentages is 100.
4.07 + 24.27 + 71.65 = 99.99 .100
Therefore no need to consider presence of oxygen atom in the molecule.
Step II : Conversion of mass percent to grams. Since we are having mass percent, it is convenient to use 100 g
of the compound as the starting material. Thus in the 100g sample of the above compound, 4.07g
hydrogen 24.27 g carbon and 71.65 g chlorine is present.......... Contd on next page
Step III : Convert into number/of moles of each element. Divide the masses obtained above by respective
atomic masses of various elements.
4.07g
Moles of hydrogen = = 4.04
1.008g
24.27g
Moles of carbons = 12.01g = 2.0225
71.65g
Moles of chlorine = 35.453g = 2.021
Steps IV : Divide the mole values obtained above by the smallest value among them.
Since 2.021 is smallest value, division by it gives a ratio of 2:1:1 for H:C:Cl.
In case the ratio are not whole numbers, then they may be converted into whole number by multiplying
by the suitable coefficient.
Step V : Write empirical formula by mentioning the numbers after writing the symbols of respective elements.
CH2Cl is thus, the empirical formula of the above compound.
Step VI : Writing molecular formula
a. Determine empirical formula mass : Add the atomic masses of various atoms present in the empirical
formula.
For CH2Cl, empirical formula mass is 12.01 + 2 x 1.008 + 35.453 = 49.48 g
b. Divide molar mass by empirical formula mass
Molar mass 98.96g
\ =
Empiricalformula mass 49.48g
27
\ r=2
c. multiply empirical formula by r obtained above to get the molecular formula.
Molecular formula = r x empirical formula
molecular formula is 2 x CH2Cl i.e. C2H4Cl2.
*22. A compound with molar mass 159 was found to contain 39.62 % copper and 20.13 % sulfur. Suggest
molecular formula for the compound (Atomic masses: Cu = 63, S = 32 and O = 16).
Solution :
% copper + % sulfur = 39.62 + 20.13 = 59.75
This is less than 100 % Hence compound contains adequate oxygen so that the total percentage of
elements is 100%.
Hence % of oxygen = 100 - 59.75 = 40.25%
%of Cu
Molar of Cu = Atomicmass of Cu
39.62
= = 0.629
63
%of S
Molar of S = Atomic mass of S
20.13
= = 0.629
32
%of O 40.25
Molar of O = Atomic mass of O = 16
= 2.516
Hence the ratio of number of moles of Cu:S:O is
0.629 0.629 2.516
=1 = 1and =4
0.629 0.629 0.629
Hence empirical formula is CuSO4 Empirical formula mass
= 63 + 32 +16 × 4 = 159
Molar mass = Empirical mass (Since Molar mass = Molecular mass)
\ Molecular formula = Empirical formula
= CuSO4
*23. How much CaO will be produced by decomposition of 5g CaCO3 ?

Solution : Calcium carbonate decomposes according to the balanced equation,
D
CaCO 3 ¾¾ ® CaO + CO 2
40 + 12 + 3 × 16 40 + 16 12 + 2 × 16
= 100 parts = 56 parts = 44 parts
So, 100 g of CaCO3 produces 56 g of CaO
\ 5g of CaCO3 will produce
56 g
= ´ 5g = 2.8g of CaCO3
100 g
*24. How many litres of oxygen at STP are required to burn completely 2.2 g of propane, C3H8 ?
Solution : The balanced chemical equation for the combustion of propane is,
C3 H 8 + 5O 2 ® 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
3 × 12 + 8 × 1 5 × 22.4 L
(44 g) (112 L)
(Where 1 mol of ideal gas occupies 22.4 L of volume)
Thus 44 g of propane requires 112 litres of oxygen for complete combustion
28
\ 2.2 g of propane will require
112
´ 2.2 = 5.6 litres of O2 at STP for complete combustion.
44
*25. A piece of zinc weighing 0.635 g when treated with excess of dilute H 2SO4 liberated 200 cm3 of
hydrogen at STP. Calculate the percentage purity of the zinc sample.
Solution : The relevant balanced chemical equation is,
Zn + H2SO4 ® ZnSO4 + H2
It indicates that 22.4 L of hydrogen at STP = 65 g of Zn.
(where Atomic mass of Zn = 65 u)
\ 0.200 L of hydrogen at STP
65g
= ´ 0.200L = 0.58g
22.4L
0.58
\ percentage purity of Zn = ´ 100 = 91.33 %
0.635
*26. Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia with carbon dioxide.

2NH3(g) + CO2(g) ® (NH2 )2CO (aq) + H2O(l)
In one process, 637.2 g of NH3 are treated with 1142 g of CO2.
(a) Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent ?
(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed.
(c) How much excess reagent (in grams) is left at the end of the reaction ?
Solution : (a) We carry out two separate calculations. First : If 637.2 g of NH3 reacts completely, calculate the
number of moles of (NH2)2CO, that could be produced, by the following relation.
mass of NH3 ® moles of NH3 ® moles of (NH4)2CO
moles of (NH2)2CO = 637.2 g NH3
1 molNH3 1mol(NH 4 ) 2 CO
´ ´
17.03g NH3 2mol NH3 = 18.71 moles (NH2)2CO
Second : The relation from 1142 g of CO2:
mass of CO2 ® moles of CO2 ® moles of (NH2)2CO
The number of moles of (NH2)2CO that could be produced if all the CO2 reacted :
moles of (NH2)2CO = 1142 g CO2
1 molCO2 1mol(NH 2 )2 CO
´ ´ = 25.95 mol (NH2)2CO
44.01g CO2 1molCO 2
It follows, therefore, that NH3 must be the limiting reagent because it produces
(a) smaller amount of (NH2 )2CO)
(b) The molar mass of (NH2)2CO is 60.06 g. We use this as a conversion factor to convert from
moles of (NH2)2CO to grams of (NH2)2CO.
mass of (NH2)2CO = 18.71 mol (NH2)2CO
60.06g(NH 2 ) 2 CO
´ == 1124 g (NH2)2CO
1mol
(c) Starting with 18.71 moles of (NH2)2CO, we can determine the mass of CO2 that reacted using the mole
ratio from the balanced equation and the molar mass of CO2
The conversion steps are
moles of (NH2)2CO ® moles of CO2 ® grams of CO2
So that,
mass of CO2 reacted
1molCO2 44.01gCO2
= 18.71 mol (NH2)2 CO ´ ´
1mol(NH 2 ) 2 CO 1molCO 2
29
= 823.4 g
The amount of CO2 remaining (in excess) is the difference between the initial amount (1142 g) and the
amount reacted (823.4 g):
mass of CO2 remaining = 1142 g - 823.4 g = 318.6 g » 319 g
*27. A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water.

Calculate the mass percent of the solute.
Solution : Mass percent of
Mass of A
A= ´ 100
Mass of solution
2g
= ´ 100
2g of A + 18g of water
2g
= ´ 100 = 10%
20g
*28. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g in enough water to
form 250 mL of the solution.
Solution :
No.of molesof solute
Since molarity (M) = Volume of solution in litres
4g / 40g
\ M=
0.250L
0.1 mol
\ M=
0.250L
\ M = 0.4mol L-1 = 0.4M
Note that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature because volume of a solution is temperature
dependent.
*29. The density of 3M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL-1 Calculate molality of the solution.
Solution : Molarity = 3 mol L-1
Mass of NaCl in 1 L solution = 3 × 58.5
\ = 175.5 g
Mass of 1L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g
(Q density = 1.25 g mL-1)
Mass of water in solution = 1250 - 175.5
\ = 1074.5 g
No.of molesof solute
Molality = Mass of solvent in kg
3mol
= = 2.79m
1.0745kg
TYPE-I (INVOLVING MASS-MASS RELATIONSHIP)

30. How much ir on can be theor etically obtained in the r eduction of 1 kg of Fe2O3
1 3 2 3
Solution
Fe2 O 3 + 3H2 ¾¾® 2Fe + 3H2O
30
weight 1000
n= = mol
Mw 160
The equation shows that 2 mol of iron are obtained from 1 mol of ferric oxide.
2 ´ 1000 weight weight
Hence, the obtained no. of moles of Fe = =12.5 mol = Atomic weight = 56
160
Weight of iron obtained = 12.5 × 56 g = 700 g
31. What amount of silver chloride is formed by the action of 5.850 g of sodium chloride on an excess
of silver nitrate?
1 1 1 1
Solution
NaCl + AgNO3 ¾¾® AgCl + NaNO3
weight 5.85
n= = = 0.1 mol
Mw 58.5
1 mol of AgCl is obtained with 1 mol of NaCl
Hence, the number of moles of AgCl obtained with 0.1 mol of NaCl = 0.1 mol
weight weight weight
Q n= M Þ 0.1 mol = M =
143.5
Þ weight = 0.1 × 143.5 g = 14.35 g.
W w
TYPE-II (MASS - VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

32. At 100°C for complete combustion of 3g ethane the required volume of O2 & produced volume of
CO2 at STP will be.
2 7 4 6
Solution 4CO2(g) 6H2O(g)
2C2H6(g)
weight 3 1
n= = = = 0.1 mole
Mw 30 10
7
(a) Required moles of O2 = ´ 0.1 = 0.35 mol
2
volume of O2 at STP = 0.35 × 22.4 = 7.84 litre
4
(b)Produced moles of CO2 = × 0.1 = 0.2 mol
2
volume of CO2 at STP = 0.2 × 22.4 = 4.48 litre
33. N2 + 3H2 ¾® 2NH3
Solution 1 3 2
N2 + 3H 2 ¾® 2NH 3
10 g
weight 10
n= = = 5 mol.
Mw 2
2 10 10
Produced moles of NH3 = ´5 = , Volume of NH3 at STP = ´ 22.4 = 74.67 litre
3 3 3
31
TYPE-III (VOLUME-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)
34. At 100°C for complete combustion of 1.12 litre of butane (C4H10), the produced volume of H2O(g) &
CO2 at STP will be.
Solution 1 13 4 5
2
C4 H 10(g) + 13 O 2(g) ¾¾® 4CO 2(g) + 5H 2 O (g)

2
1.12 litre
Volume of H2O(g) at STP = 5 × 1.12 = 5.6 litre
Volume of CO2(g) at STP = 4 × 1.12 = 4.48 litre
35. At 25°C for complete combustion of 5 mol propane (C3H8). The required volume of O2 at STP will be.
Solution For C3H8 , the combustion reaction is
1 5 3 4
C3 H 8(g) + 5O 2(g ¾¾® 3CO 2(g) + 4H 2 O (g)
5 mol
Required moles of O2 = 5 × 5 = 25 mol = V

22.4
volume of O2 gas at STP (V) = 25 × 22.4 = 560 litre

36. A + 5B ¾¾® C + 3D In this reaction which is a L.R.
Solution A + 5B ¾¾®C + 3D
Given 10 mol 10 mol
For A For B
10 10
= 10 =2
1 5
2 < 10 So B is L.R.
37. H 2(g) + 1
2
O2(g) ¾ ® H2O(g) ; In the above reaction what is the volume of water vapour at
STP. Given 4 g of H2 and 32 g of O2
Solution 1 1 1
2
H2(g) + 1
2
O2(g) ¾® H2 O (g)
4g 32 g For H2 For O2
4 32 2 1
n= = 2mol n= =1mol =2 1 =2 mol
2 32 1 2
V
Moles of H2O(g) = 2 mol = 2 = 2 So Both H2 & O2 are L.R.
22.4
volume of H2O(g) at STP = 22.4 × 2 = 44.8 litre

38. At NTP, In a container 100 mL N2 and 100 mL of H2 are mixed together. Then find out the produced
volume of NH3 .
32
Solution Balanced equation will be N2 + 3H2 ¾¾® 2NH3.
Given 100mL 100mL
For determination of Limiting reagent. Now divide the given quantities by stoichiometry coefficients
100 100
= 100 = 33.3 (Limiting reagent)
1 3
In this reaction H2 is limiting reagent so reaction will proceed according to H2 .
As per stoichiometry from 3 mL of H2 produces ; volume of NH3 = 2 mL
2
That is from 100 mL of H2 produced volume of NH3 = × 100 = 66.6 mL
3
39. Find out percentage composition of each element present in glucose ?
12 × 6
Solution % of C = ×100 = 40%
180
12×1
% of H = ×100 = 6.66%
180
16× 6
% of O = ×100 = 53.33%
180
40. In a compound x is 75.8% and y is 24.2% by weight present. If atomic weight of x and y are 24 and
16 respectively. Then calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
%
Solution Elements % Atomic weight Simplest ratio Ratio
Atomic weight
75.8 .
31
x 75.8% 24 = 3.1 = 2 2
24 .
15
24.2 .
15
y 24.2% 16 = 1.5 =1 1
16 .
15
Empirical formula = x2 y
41. In a compound Carbon = 52.2%, Hydrogen = 13%, Oxygen = 34.8% are present and molecular
mass of the compound is 92. Calculate molecular formula of the compound ?
%
Solution Elements % Atomic weight Simplest ratio Ratio
Atomic weight
52.2 4.4
C 52.2 12 = 4.35 = 4.4 =2 2
12 2.2
13 13
H 13 1 = 13 =5.9 6
1 22
34.8 .
22
O 24.8 16 = 22
. =1 1
16 .
22
Empirical formula = C2H6O

Empirical formula mass = 12 × 2 + 16 + 6 = 46
Molecular formula mass 92
n= = =2
Empirical formula mass 46
molecular formula = 2 × (C2H6O) = C4H12O2
33
COMPETITION WINDOW
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
INTRODUCTION
Chemistry deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter. These aspects can be best
described and understood in terms of basic constituents of matter: atoms and molecules. That is why
chemistry is called the science of atoms and molecules. Can we see, weight and perceive these entities?
Is it possible to count the number of atoms and molecules in a given mass of matter and have a quantitative
relationship between the mass and number of these particles (atoms and molecules)? We will like to
answer some of these questions in this Unit. We would further describe how physical properties of matter
can be quantitatively described using numerical values with suitable units.
MATTER
PHYSICAL
Solid Liquid Gas CHEMICAL
definite shape definite volume but no definite

& volume no definite shape shape & volume
Pure Substance Mixture
fixed ratio of masses

of constituents
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds same composition throughout composition is

& component are indistinguishable. not uniform.
eg. gases, liquid solution, alloys, eg. sand & water,
Consists of only one Made of two or more atmospheric air nearly homogeneous
type of atoms atoms of different elements
Classification of universe
Universe is classified into two types, matter and energy.
(A) MATTER : The thing which occupy space and having mass which can be felt by our five senses is
called matter.
Matter is further classified into two categories :
(I) Physical classification (II) Chemical classification
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
It is based on physical state under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure, so on the basis of two
nature of forces matter can be classified into the following three ways :
(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas
(a) Solid : A substance is said to be solid if it possesses a definite volume and a definite shape.
e.g. sugar, iron, gold, wood etc.
(b) Liquid : A substance is said to be liquid if it possesses a definite volume but not definite shape. They
take up the shape of the vessel in which they are put.
e.g. water, milk, oil, mercury, alcohol etc.
(c) Gas : A substance is said to be gas if it neither possesses a definite volume nor a definite shape. This
is because they fill up the whole vessel in which they are put.
34
e.g. hydrogen(H2 ), oxygen(O2 ), carbon dioxide(CO2 ) etc.
Chemical Classification
It may be classified into two types :
(a) Pure Substance (b) Mixture
(a) Pure Substance : A material containing only one type of substance. Pure Substance can not be
separated into simpler substance by physical method.
e.g. : Element = Na, Mg, Ca .................. etc.
Compound = HCl, H2O, CO2, HNO3 .......... etc.
Pure substance is classified into two types :
(a) Element (b) Compound
(i) Element : The pure substance containing only one kind of atoms.
It is classified into 3 types (depend on physical and chemical property)
(i) Metal ® Zn, Cu, Hg, Ac, Sn, Pb etc.
(ii) Non-metal ® N2, O2, Cl2, Br2, F2, P4, S8 etc.
(iii) Metalloids ® B, Si, As, Te etc.
(ii) Compound : It is defined as pure substance containing more than one kind of elements or
atoms which are combined together in a fixed proportion by weight and which can be
decomposed into simpler substance by the suitable chemical method. The properties of a
compound are completely different from those of its constituent element.
e.g. HCl, H2 O , H2 SO4 , HClO4 , HNO3 etc.
(b) Mixture : A material which contain more than one type of substances and which are mixed in any
ratio by weight is called as mixture. The property of the mixture is the property of its components.
The mixture can be separated by simple physical method.
Mixture is classified into two types :
(i) Homogeneous mixture : The mixture, in which all the components are present uniformly is
called as homogeneous mixture. Components of mixture are present in single phase.
e.g. Water + Salt, Water + Sugar, Water + alcohol,
(ii) Heterogenous mixture : The mixture in which all the components are present non-uniformly
e.g. Water + Sand, Water + Oil, blood, petrol etc.
S.I. UNITS (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS)

Different types of units of measurements have been in use in different parts of the world e.g. kilograms,
pounds etc. for mass ; miles, furlongs, yards etc. for distance.
To have a common system of units throughout the world. French Academy of Science, in 1791, introduced
a new system of measurements called metric system in which the different units of a physical quantity are
related to each other as multiples of powers of 10, e.g. 1 km = 103 m, 1cm = 10 –2 m etc. This system of
units was found to be so convenient that scientists all over the world adopted this system for scientific
data.
(A) Seven Basic Units
The seven basic physical quantities in the International System of Units, their symbols, the names
of their units (called the base units) and the symbols of these units are given in Table.
35
TABLE : SEVEN BASIC PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR S.I. UNITS
Physical Quantity Symbol S.I. Unit Symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature T kelvin K
Luminous intensity Iu candela cd
Amount of the substance n mole mol
(B) Prefixes Used With Units

The S.I. system recommends the multiples such as 103, 106, 109 etc. and fraction such as 10 – 3, 10– 6,10
–9
etc., i.e. the powers are the multiples of 3. These are indicated by special prefixes. These along with
some other fractions or multiples in common use, along with their prefixes are given below in Table and
illustrated for length (m)
TABLE : SOME COMMONLY USED PREFIXES WITH THE BASE UNITS.
Prefix Symbol Multiplication Factor Example
deci d 10 –1 1 decimetre (dm) = 10–1 m
centi c 10 –2 1 centimetre (cm) = 10–2 m
milli m 10 –3 1 millimetre (mm) = 10–3 m
micro µ 10 –6 1 micrometre (µm) = 10–6 m
nano n 10 –9 1 nanometre (nm) = 10–9 m
pico p 10 –12 1 picometre (pm) = 10–12 m
femto f 10 –15 1 femtometre (fm) = 10–15 m
atto a 10 –18 1 attometre (am) = 10–18 m
deka da 10 1 1 dekametre(dam) = 101 m
hecto h 10 2 1 hectometre (hm) = 102 m
kilo k 10 3 1 kilometre (km) = 103 m
mega M 10 6 1 megamerte(Mm) = 106 m
giga G 10 9 1 gigametre (Gm) = 109 m
tera T 10 12 1 teramerte ( Tm) = 1012 m
peta P 10 15 1 petametre (Pm) = 1015 m
exa E 10 18 1 exametre (Em) = 1018 m
As volume is very often expressed in litres, it is important to note that the equivalence in S.I. units for
volume is as under: 1 litre (1L) = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
and 1 millilitre (1mL) = 1 cm3 = 1cc
(C) SOME IMPORTANT UNIT CONVERSIONS
1. Length : 1 mile = 1760 yards
1 yard = 3 feet
1 foot = 12 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1Å = 10 –10 m or 10–8 cm
36
2. Mass : 1 Ton = 1000 kg
1 Quintal = 100 kg
1 kg = 2.205 Pounds (lb)
1 kg = 1000 g
1 gram = 1000 milli gram
1 a.m.u. = 1.67 × 10–24 g
3. Volume : 1L = 1 dm3 = 10–3 m3 = 103 cm3 = 103 mL = 103 cc
1 mL = 1 cm3 = 10–6 m3
= 1 cc
4. Energy : 1 calorie= 4.184 joules ~ 4.2 joules
1 joule = 10 ergs
7
1 litre atmosphere (L-atm) = 101.3 joule

1 electron volt (eV) = 1.602 × 10–19 joule
5. Pressure : 1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr
= 760 mm of Hg
= 76 cm of Hg
= 1.01325 × 105 pascal (Pa)
= 1.01325 × 105 N/m 2
Some More Prefixes :
1
Semi = Mono = 1
2
3
Sesqui = = 1.5 Di or Bi = 2
2
Tri = 3 Tetra = 4
Penta = 5 Hexa = 6
Hepta = 7 Octa = 8
Nona = 9 Deca = 10
Undeca = 11 Do deca = 12
Trideca = 13 Tetra deca = 14
Pentadeca = 15 Hexa deca = 16
Hepta deca = 17 Octa deca = 18
Nonadeca = 19 Eicoso/Icoso = 20
l The unit named after a scientist is started with a small letter and not with a capital letter e.g. unit of force
is written as newton and not as Newton.
Likewise unit of heat and work is written as joule and not as Joule.
l Symbols of the units do not have a plural ending like 's'. For example we have 10 cm and not 10 cms.
l Words and symbols should not be mixed e.g. we should write either joules per mole or
J mol–1 and not joules mol–1
l Prefixes are used with the basic units e.g. kilometer means 1000 m (because meter is the basic unit).
Exception. Though kilogram is the basic unit of mass, yet prefixes are used with gram because in kilogram,
kilo is already a prefix.
37
l A unit written with a prefix and a power is a power for the complete unit e.g. cm3 means (centimeter)3 and
not centi (meter)3 .
MOLE CONCEPT
In SI Units we represent mole by the symbol 'mol'. It is defined as follows :
(i) A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities (atoms, molecules or other
particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon - 12 isotope.
It may be emphasised that the mole of a substance always contains the same number of entities, no
matter what the substance may be. In order to determine this number precisely, the mass of a
carbon-12 atom was determined by a mass spectrometer and found to be equal to 1.992648 × 10–
23
g Knowing that 1 mole of carbon weighs 12g, the number of atoms in it is equal to :
12g / mol C12

= 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms/mol
1.992648 ´ 10 -23 g / C12 atom
(ii) In a simple way, we can say that mole has 6.0221367 × 1023 entities (atom, molecules or ions
etc.)
The number of entities in 1 mol is so important that it is given a separate name and symbol, known
as 'Avogadro constant' denoted by NA .
Here entities may represent atoms, ions, molecules or other subatomic entities. Chemists count the
number of atoms and molecules by weighing. In a reaction we require these particles (atoms,
molecules and ions) in a definite ratio. We make use of this relationship between numbers and
masses of the particles for determining the stoichiometry of reactions .
Formula to get moles are following :
weight (g)
(i) Number of moles (n)=
molar mass
Where molar mass = gram atomic mass or gram molecular mass or gram ionic mass
V(L )
(ii) Number of moles (n)= (Where V = Volume of gas in L at NTP or STP )
22.4
N
(iv) Number of moles (n)= N (Where N = Number of particles)
A
number of atoms number of molecules

mole atoms= and mole molecules=
NA NA
SOME RELATED DEFINITIONS :
Atomic Mass (Relative Atomic Mass)
It is defined as the number which indicates how many times the mass of one atom of an element is
heavier in comparison to 1 th part of the mass of one atom of C-12.
12
Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) : The quantity 1 th mass of an atom of C12 is known as atomic mass unit.
12
Since mass of 1 atom of C - 12 = 1.9924 × 10–23 g

1.9924 ´ 10-23 g 1
\ 112 th part of the mass of 1 atom = = 1.67 × 10–24 g = 1 a.m.u. =
12 6.023 ´ 1023
It may be noted that the atomic masses as obtained above are the relative atomic masses and not the
actual masses of the atoms. These masses on the atomic mass scale are expressed in terms of atomic mass
38
units (abbreviated as amu). Today, 'amu' has been replaced by 'u' which is known as unified mass.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to 1 th of the mass of an atom of carbon - 12 isotope.
12
Thus the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008 amu while that of oxygen is 15.9994 amu (or taken as 16
amu).
Gram Atomic Mass (or Mass of 1 Gram Atom)
When numerical value of atomic mass of an element is expressed in grams then the value becomes gram
atomic mass.
gram atomic mass= mass of 1 gram atom = mass of 1 mole atom
= mass of NA atoms = mass of 6.023 × 1023 atoms.
Ex. gram atomic mass of oxygen = mass of 1 g atom of oxygen = mass of 1 mol atom of oxygen.
æ 16 ö
= mass of NA atoms of oxygen. = ç N g ÷ ´ NA = 16 g
è A ø
Molecular Mass (Relative Molecular Mass)
The number which indicates how many times the mass of one molecule of a substance is heavier in
comparison to 1 th part of the mass of an atom of C–12.
12
Gram Molecular Mass (Mass of 1 Gram Molecule)
When numerical value of molecular mass of the substance is expressed in grams then the value becomes
gram molecular mass.
gram molecular mass = mass of 1 gram molecule = mass of 1 mole molecule
= mass of NA molecules = mass of 6.023 × 1023 molecules
Ex. gram molecular mass of H2SO4 = mass of 1 gram molecule of H2SO4
= mass of 1 mole molecule of H2SO4
= mass of NA molecules of H2SO4
æ 98 ö
= ç N g ÷ ´ NA = 98 g
è A ø
Actual Mass
The mass of one atom or one molecule of a substance is called as actual mass.
Ex. (i) Actual mass of O2 = 32 amu = 32 × 1.67 × 10–24 g ® Actual mass
(ii) Actual mass of H2O = (2 + 16) amu = 18 × 1.67 × 10–24g = 2.99 × 10–23 g
Atomicity – Total number of atoms in a molecule of elementary substance is called as atomicity.
39
Molecule Atomicity
H2 2
O2 2
Ex. O3 3
NH3 4
RELATION BETWEEN MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND VAPOUR DENSITY :

Vapour density (V.D) : Vapour density of a gas is the ratio of densities of gas & hydrogen at the
same temperature & pressure.
Density of gas dgas ìï m ( mass ) (g)

Vapour Density (V.D) = Density of hydrogen = d íd =
H 2 ïî V ( Volume ) (mL)
(m gas )for certain V litre volume

V.D = (m )for certain V litre volume
H 2
If N molecules are present in the given volume of a gas and hydrogen under similar condition of
temperature and pressure.
(m gas ) of N molecules (m gas ) of 1 molecule Molecular mass of gas

V.D. = (m )of N molecules = (m )of 1 molecule =
H 2 H 2 2
\ Molecular mass of gas (M W ) = 2 × V.D
RELATION BETWEEN MOLAR MASS (MW) & VOLUME :
dgas (m gas )for certain V litre volume

At STP. MW. = 2 × V.D = 2 ´ = 2×
dH2 (m H 2 )for certain V litre volume
mass of 1 litre gas g m m

or MW = 2´ d H 2 = 0.000089 = =
mass of 1 litre H 2 mL V 1000mL
Mass of 1 litre gas

or MW = 2´ V = 1 litre = 1000 mL
0.089g
MW (g) = 22.4 × mass of 1 litre gas then mH = 0.089g

2
M W (g) = Mass of 22.4 litre gas or M w (g) º 22.4 litre (at STP)
GRAM MOLECULAR VOLUME (GMV)

At NTP, the volume of 1 mole of gaseous substance is 22.4 litre is called as gram molecular
volume.
At NTP, dH2 = 0.000089 g/mL = mass/volume = mass/1000 mL
If volume = 1 litre = 1000 mL then mass = 0.089 g
Q 0.089g H2 occupies = 1 litre at STP
40
1litre
\ 1 g H2 occupies = at STP
0.089
1litre
\ 2 g or 1 mol H2 occupies = × 2 = 22.4 litre at STP
0.089
1 mole of any gaseous substance occupy 22.4 litre of volume at NTP or STP
1 mol º 22.4 litre (at STP)
l Term molar mass means mass of 1 mol particles.

l Vapour density is calculated with respect to H2 gas under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
Density of gas A
l Relative density =
Density of gas B
l Specific gravity : It is density of material with respect to water.
l Vapour density, relative density and specific gravity are ratios so they are unitless.
l The term STP means 273.15 K (0°C) and 1 bar pressure NTP means 273.15 K (0°C) and 1 atm.
41
COMPETITION WINDOW
Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION, EMPIRICAL FORMULA & MOLECULAR FORMULA

Percentage formula (% by mass)
(In a molecule or compound) Mass % of an element = Number of atom (Atomicity) ´ atomic mass ´ 100
molecular mass
If number of atom =1 : Molecular mass = minimum molecular mass

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula of a compound express the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of various
elements present in 1 molecule of the compound.
Ex. Molecular Formula H2O2 CH4 C2H6 C2H4O2
2: 2 1: 4 2: 6 2: 4: 2
1: 1 1: 4 1: 3 1: 2: 1
Empirical Formula HO CH4 CH3 CH2O
Molecular Formula
The molecular formula of a compound represents the actual number of atoms present in 1 molecule of
the compound i.e. it shows the real formula of its 1 molecule.
Relationship between Empirical & Molecular Formula
Molecular Formula = n × Empirical Formula
[Where n = natural no. (1, 2, 3,.........)]
Molecular Formula Molecular formula mass

or n= or n=
Empirical Formula Empirical formula mass
Determination of Empirical Formula

Following steps are involved to determine the empirical formula of the compounds –
(1) First of all find the % by weight of each element present in 1 molecule of the compound
(2) The % by weight of each element is divided by its atomic weight. It gives atomic ratio of elements present in
the compounds.
(3) Atomic ratio of each element is divided by the minimum value of atomic ratio as to get simplest
ratio of atoms.
(4) If the value of simplest atomic ratio is fractional then raise the value to the nearest whole number.
or Multiply with suitable coefficient to convert it into nearest whole number.
(5) Write the Empirical formula as we get the simplest ratio of atoms.
STOICHIOMETRY BASED CONCEPT (PROBLEMS BASED ON CHEMICAL REACTION)

One of the most important aspects of a chemical equation is that when it is written in the balanced form,
it gives quantitative relationships between the various reactants and products in terms of moles, masses,
molecules and volumes. This is called stoichiometry (Greek word, meaning 'to measure an element'). For
example, a balanced chemical equation along with the quantitative information conveyed by it is given
below:
42
CaCO3 + 2HCl ¾¾® CaCl2 + H2 O + CO 2
1 Mole 2 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole 1 Mole
40 + 12 + 3 × 16 2(1 + 35.5) 40 + 2 × 35.5 2 × 1 + 16 12 + 2 × 16
= 100 g = 73 g = 111 g = 18 g = 44 g or 22.4 L at STP
Thus,
(i) 1 mole of calcium carbonate reacts with 2 moles of hydrochloric acid to give 1 mole of calcium
chloride, 1 mole of water and 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
(ii) 100 g of calcium carbonate react with 73 g hydrochloric acid to give 111 g of calcium chloride, 18
g of water and 44 g (or 22.4 litres at STP) of carbon dioxide.
1 3 2 Stoichiometric coefficient
N2 + 3H 2 ® 2NH 3
1 mole + 3 mole ® 2 mole

22.4 litre + 3 × 22.4 litre ® 2 × 22.4 litre (at STP)
1 litre + 3 litre ® 2 litre
1000 mL + 3000 mL ® 2000 mL
1 mL + 3 mL ® 2 mL
28 gm + 6 gm ® 34 g (According to the law of conservation of mass)
• Gram can not be represented according to stoichiometry.
The quantitative information conveyed by a chemical equation helps in a number of calculations. The
problems involving these calculations may be classified into the following two different types :
(a) Single reactant based (b) More than one reactant based
(A) SINGLE REACTANT BASED :

(1) Mass - Mass Relationships i.e. mass of one of the reactants or products is given and the mass
of some other reactant or product is to be calculated.
(2) Mass - Volume Relationships i.e. mass/volume of one of the reactants or products is given
and the volume/mass of the other is to be calculated.
(3) Volume - Volume Relationships i.e.volume of one of the reactants or the products is given
and the volume of the other is to be calculated.
General method : Calculations for all the problems of the above types consists of the following steps :-
(i) Write down the balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Write the relative number of moles or the relative masses (gram atomic or molecular masses)
of the reactants and the products below their formula.
(iii) In case of a gaseous substance, write down 22.4 litres at STP below the formula in place of 1
mole
(iv) Apply unitary method to make the required calculations.
Quite often one of the reactants is present in larger amount than the other as required according
to the balanced equation. The amount of the product formed then depends upon the reactant
which has reacted completely. This reactant is called the limiting reactant. The excess of the
other is left unreacted.
43
Combustion reaction : (Problem based on combustion reactions) :
For balancing the combustion reaction: First of all balance C atoms, Then balance H atom, Finally
balance Oxygen atom.
For Example : Combustion reaction of C2H6 : C2H6 + O2 ¾¾® CO2 + H2O (skeleton equation)
balance C atoms C2H6 + O2 ¾¾® 2CO2 + H2O
Now balance H atoms C2H6 + O2 ¾¾® 2CO2 + 3H2O
Now balance Oxygen atoms C2H6 + 7 2 O2 ¾¾® 2CO2 + 3H2O
(B) MORE THAN ONE REACTANT BASED :

Limiting reagent (L.R.) concept
Limiting Reagent (L.R.) : The reactant which is completely consumed in a reaction is called as limiting
reagent.
Ex. 1 2 1 2 ¬¾ Stoichiometry
A + 2B ¾¾¾® C + 2D
given 3 mol 9mol
3 – 3 = 0 mol 9 – 6 = 3 mol 3 mol 6 mol
L.R. = A
given value ( may moles, volume, or molecules)

X=
Stoichiometry Co-efficient
Least value of reactant indicates the limiting reagents.

Ex. A + B ® P
3 =3 9 = 4.5
1 2
3 < 4.5 So A is L.R.
44
Molarity (M)
V(L) V(L)
Number of Moles
(n)
s
as
s
as
m
¸
m
22
ar
×
ar
ol
22
.4
L)
ol
m
.
4
m
¸
in
×
m (
as g as T P
s
W in of P/S
(g (g e T
) ) NA NA m
olu t N
V a
Number of Particles
45

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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry / Introduction to Analytical Chemistry

1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

BOARD + MHT-CET THEORY

*1. Answer the Following Questions:

1. State and explain Avogadro's law

2. Point out the difference between 12 g of carbon and 12 u of carbon.

3. How many grams does an atom of hydrogen weigh?

4. Calculate the molecular mass of the following in u:

Ans.: i. The molecular mass of NH3 = 17u

5. How many particles are present in 1 mole of a substance?

6. What is the SI unit of amount of a substance?

7. What is meant by molar volume of a gas?

8. State and explain the law of conservation of mass.

9. State the law of multiple proportions.

10. Give one example of each

1. The need of the term average atomic mass.

Element Atomic mass (u) Molar mass (g mol-1)

*3. Mole concept

*4. Formula mass with an example

Volumeof the gasat STP

*6. Types of matter (on the basis of chemical composition)

MH BOARD SOLVED NUMERICALS

Calculation:Molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3 mol-1 = 22.4 L at STP

Number of atoms = Number of moles ´ Avogodro's constant

Mass of a subs tan ce 5 ´ 10 -3 g

Mass of a subs tan ce 12 ´ 10 -3 g

*8. Convert the following degree Celsius temperature to degree Fathrnhelt.

= 0.3011 ´ 1023 atoms

*13. In two moles of acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) calculate the following:

*14. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide, MgO in

*15. What is volume of carbon dioxide, CO2 accupying by

Calculation:Molar volume of a gas = 22.4 dm3mol-1 at STP.

2 moles of KClO3 = 2 ´ 122.5 = 245g

= 2.247 × 1023 atoms of hydrogen

= 1.124 × 1023 atoms of nitrogen

= 0.562 × 1023 atoms of carbon

= 0.562 × 1023 atoms of oxygen

Isotope Atomic mass Natural Abundance

*22. Find the formula mass of

Ans : Number of moles = 0.0933 mol

*24. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following

26. Convert 2 litre atmosphere into erg.

28. Convert 20 dm3 into mL.

29. Convert 59 F into °C.

30. Find out the volume and mole in 56 g nitrogen at STP

31. Calculate the volume and mass of 0.2 mol of O3 at STP.

33. Find out the mass of 1021 molecules of Cu.

35. Calculate the number of moles in 11.2 litre at STP of oxygen.

Q 1 molecule of H2O contain = 3 atoms

Density of gas 0.002000

2. Introduction to Analytical Chemistry

1. Answer the following questions

3. Distinguish between accuracy and precision.

No. Accuracy Precision

5. What is a limiting reagent ? Explain.

6. What do you mean by SI units ? What is the SI unit of mass ?

7. Explain the following terms

10. Why does molarity of a solution depend upon temperature ?

11. Define Analytical chemistry. Why is accurate measurement crucial in science?

12. Express the following quantities in exponential terms.

13. Give the number of significant figures in each of the following

MH BOARD SOLVED NUMERICALS

*1. Find out the molar masses of the following compounds :