3 Principles of Cabonate Production Ho 2023

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PRODI TEKNIK GEOLOGI

FAKULTAS ILMU DAN TEKNOLOGI KEBUMIAN (FITB)
INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG (ITB)
GL-5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

PRINSIP-PRINSIP DALAM SEDIMENTASI BATUAN KARBONAT
3 (PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION)
Dwiharso Nugroho
nuki.dnugroho@geodin.net ; nuki.dnugroho@gmail.com
dnugroho@itb.ac.id
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION
CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY
SEDIMENTOLOGI BATUAN KARBONAT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ESSENTIALS OF NEIGHBORING DISCIPLINES
3. PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION
4. CARBONATE COMPONENTS
5. CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION
6. CARBONATE FACIES, MICROFACIES, FACIES ASSOCIATION AND EOD
7. CARBONATE PLATFORM CONCEPTS AND TYPES
8. CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
9. CARBONATE DIAGENESIS AND POROSITY DEVELOPMENT
10. CONCEPTS ON CARBONATE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
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Carbonate Rocks ?
• Carbonate rocks are those in which the matrix and framework are
composed of greater than 50% carbonate minerals (this definition
excludes cement).
• Carbonate :
• Biogenic sediments (skeletals origin)
• Clastic sediments (skeletal and/or non skeletal clasts origin)
• Chemical sediments ( )
• "Carbonate sediments are born, not made.“ (James, 1984)
• The source for carbonate sediments is almost exclusively biological (Tucker why ?
& Wright, 1990)

MODES OF MARINE CARBONATE PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation of solid matter from the

dissolved load of the sea occurs either
abiotically (governed by inorganic
thermodynamics and reaction kinetics), or
biotically as a consequence of the
metabolism of plants and animals.
• Precipitation of marine evaporites is an
example of an abiotic process, precipitation
of marine opal by diatoms or radiolaria is an
example of a biotic one.
• Marine carbonate precipitation proceeds
along abiotic and biotic pathways and this
makes it particularly diverse and complex.

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An organism that is unable to synthesize its own organic carbon-

based compounds from inorganic sources, hence, feeds
on organic matter produced by, or available in, other organisms. An organism capable of synthesizing its own food from inorganic
substances, using light or chemical energy. Green plants, algae,
and certain bacteria are autotrophs.

ABIOTIC PRECIPITATION
• The most obvious abiotic precipitate is cement formed in the pore space
during the early stages of diagenesis when the deposit was still in the
depositional environment (marine cementation).
The case for abiotic origin is particularly strong for acicular aragonite cements. Acicular
magnesian calcites may be biotically influenced (Morse and Mackenzie, 1990).
• Associated with tropical

skeletal carbonate,
abiotic precipitation is
seen o forming the ooids.
Ooids form in high energy
environments by
stepwise accretion on a
nucleus.
• The origin of carbonate in whitings, clouds of carbonate suspended in sea water,

is concluded by some authors as an abiotic precipitation (probably on nuclei of
suspended sediment).
Yates and Robbins (1999) strongly suggest that blooms of unicellular algae trigger the first
precipitation (biotically induced precipitates) and followed by extended abiotic growth of the
original.

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ABIOTIC PRECIPITATION
• The occurrence of acicular cements, ooids and whitings
in modern oceans indicates strong control by inorganic
marine chemistry of the sea water.
• In first approximation, oolites, aragonitic sea-

floor cements and whitings occur in the zone
of highest carbonate supersaturation in the
ocean of the tropical seas..
In the temperate latitudes, sea-floor
cementation is rare and destructive sea-floor
diagenesis tends to dominate.
• The correlation of needle cements, ooids and
whitings with sea-water chemistry is very
helpful in predicting at least first-order trends
in the geologic record and warrants their
classification as principally abiotic precipitates
in spite of evidence of some biotic influence.

CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

• CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION IS CONTROLLED BY A SINGLE CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
EQUATION:
H+ + HCO3- + Ca2+ CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
• Increase of CO2 concentration in the solution will shift the equation to

the left, resulting dissolution of the calcium carbonates.
• Increase of CO2 concentration may due to increasing depth
• Input of meteoric water or input of CO2 due decay of organic material
• Decrease of CO2 concentration will shift the equation to the right,

resulting into carbonate deposition
• Decrease of CO2 concentration may be due to:
• Evaporation, increase of temperature due heating of the sea water by the sun,
escpecially in shallow waters
• CO2 capture by organism, especially algae for photo-synthesis

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CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION

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Carbon pump vs Calcium carbonate pump
• Particulate rain rates of

CaCO3 and CO2 to the ocean
bottom.
• Degree of saturation of
calcite and aragonite in
bottom waters.
• Dissolution rates of these
minerals in undersaturated
waters.
• The reaction with CO2

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GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF CARBONATES

Carbon pump vs Calcium carbonate pump (Carbon cycle)

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• DEPOSITION AND DISSOLUTION ARE CONTROLLED BY

• Concentrations of Ca ++ ions
• Concentrations of CO3 – ions
• SATURATION OF Ca ++ IONS IS CONTROLLED BY
• Evaporation and
• Temperature
• SATURATION OF CO3 – IONS IS CONTROLLED BY PARTIAL PRESSURE,
• Temperature,
• Atmospheric and
• Biogenic activities/ particularly photosynthesis.

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BIOTIC PRECIPITATION
• The majority of carbonate material in modern oceans is precipitated
as highly structured skeletons of organisms.
• Precipitation is primarily controlled by the biochemistry of the
respective organisms (such as algae, foraminifera or corals);
the organisms, in turn, are influenced by the conditions of the sea
they live in, particularly:
• light,
• Temperature, and
• water chemistry (for instance the degree of carbonate
saturation of the sea water).
• Autotrophic organisms nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic
materials to synthesize their own living matter; heterotrophic
organisms have to rely on organic material to do so.
• Autotrophic organisms among the carbonate producers are almost
exclusively photo-autotrophic: they perform photosynthesis and thus
depend on light for their livelihood.
• Some carbonate-secreting organisms are themselves heterotrophs
but live in symbiosis with autotrophic algae.
• As a result, the system of host plus symbiont becomes autotrophic.

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Change of light intensity and tropical carbonate production with water depth.
The profile of carbonate production (red) in a tropical setting • Light displays a simple exponential decrease with water depth (black curve).
• The production of organic matter can be related via a hyperbolic tangent function to
from terrestrial elevation to subphotic depth.
light intensity (red curve).
In most terrestrial environments, production is negative as • Production shows a shallow zone of light saturation, where light is not a growth-
carbonate rocks are being dissolved by rainwater and acidic limiting factor, followed by rapid decrease of organic growth with water depth.
soils. Maximum production is in the upper part of the photic • In the tropical carbonate factory, organic production can be taken as a good estimate
zone (zone of light saturation), from where it decreases of carbonate production. In tropical environments, the zone of light saturation
approximatly exponentially with depth. reaches to about 20 m for corals, the euphotic one to about 100 m.
• Iz = light intensity at depth z, Is = light intensity at base of saturated zone, P = organic production
(and also a proxy of carbonate production), z = water depth, k = extinction coefficient of light.
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT (Schlager2005) after Bosscher and Schlager (1992),
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The Carbonate Factory
The carbonate factory is defined as the shallow

illuminated seafloor, where sediment particles are
‘born’ through crystalization of skeletons or
precipitation out of sea water.
The carbonate factory is the core of carbonate
deposition throughout the world.
The carbonate factory is governed by the Goldilocks
theory, where the environmental conditions have to
be just right. The water can’t be to warm nor to cold
to deep nor to shallow, salinitiy is also a key along
with the amount of terriginous clastic sediment.

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(James, 1984)

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General Carbonate Platforms

Review of Physiography and Depositional Environments
Shelfal Transitional Basinal

Peritidal Offshore
INTERTIDAL
SUPRATIDAL INTERTIDAL SUBTIDAL
Storm Tide
Exposed High Tide
Shoreline - Low Tide
Tidal Flats
Beach Margin
Lagoon Mean Wave Base
High Energy
Low to Moderate Energy Slope
• Actual platform dimensions vary considerably

• Facies are controlled by energy, water depth Basin
salinity, temperature, topography, Low Energy
light intensity, nutrient levels, etc.
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CARBONATE PLATFORMS
Platform Interior
• “carbonate-sand” shoals
• lagoon Carbonate Platform : shallow-marine carbonate bodies with flat tops and steep
• patch reefs
Platform Margin flanks, formed by the accumulation of sediment on the shelf or in the ocean.
•reefs
•“carbonate-sand” shoals
Platform Foreslope (up to 90º) Carbonate shelves characterized by the deposition of shallow-water sediments
• carbonate-sand/breccia, slumps, debrites on flat platform tops, and by significant rims marked by reefs or shoals near the
Platform
GL- Basinal area / Basin
5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI Margin KARBONAT
(BATUAN) shelf break.
• carbonate
PRINCIPLES turbidite
OF CABONATE & debrite
PRODUCTION (Flugel, 2004)
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Carbonate Grain Types and Rock Classification
Carbonate Sediment Supply and Dispersal

Low Intermediate High
Sedimentation Sedimentation Sedimentation
50m Planktonics
Terrestrial 1’s to 100’s km
Intermediate to
Platform Margin Low Sedimentation
Slope
Low Basin
Subsidence
Moderate High
Subsidence Subsidence
Boundstone Allochthonous
Mud & Mudstone to
& Debris &
Evaporites Grainstone
Grainstone Pelagic Mud

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CARBONATE FACIES
AND FACIES
ASSOCIATION
CARBONATE FACIES
ASSOCIATION
(Nugroho, 2016)
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Carbonate Production
• The biological evolution of biota is directly

connected to the carbonate production. As
organisms evolved varying skeletons and clasts • 1. Evolution
alters the types of carbonates formed at different
periods of time. • 2. Biological Factor
• By looking at detailed community analysis can • 3. Climatic Zone
reveal information about paleogeography and
paleoceanography on the basis of what climatic • 4. Temperature-Salinity
and tectonic areas different organisms live in.
• The actual factory dimensions of a carbonate
• 5. Clastic Sediment Input
factory are controlled by the size of the platform • 6. Water Depth-Turbidity
and the extent of siliciclastic sedimentation while
the vertical extent is controlled by the depth of the
photic zone.

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1. Evolution
• Studies into marine fossils have
created benthic assemblages for
the Paleozoic succession that are
based on a specific
environmental factor a key
organisms always maintains. For
example distance from the
shoreline for brachiopods.
• Different groups of organisms
played key roles in varying times
throughout the geologic past as
the earth evolved so too did the
organisms building the carbonate
factories.

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2. Biological Factor
• The majority of carbonate sediments are produced
in some sort of biologically or biochemically • The majority of carbonate sediments are
mediated way. produced by the skeletons of and precipitates
surrounding phototrophic organisms.
• There are four main types of carbonate sediment
particles: • Which include most photosynthetic marine
organisms from microbes and algae to corals
• Precipitates: formed by direct or biologically and giant clams.
medieated precipitation of calcium carbonate.
Ex. ooids and lime muds • However, most of these organisms are limited
to near surface environments within the
• Bioclasts: the calcareous shells, tests, spicules photic zone.
and other body support structures
• Peloids: agglutinated or cemented carbonate
feces or other diagenetically altered carbonate
grains
• Lithoclasts: fragments of consolidated,
hardened or litified sediments

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• The carbonate skeletal deposits can be • Once these carbonate particles are produced
compared through time to ancient carbonate and deposited other biological organisms,
deposits because although the marine species such as grasses and microbes, act as sediment
changes with evolution the arrangement of traps and stabilizers.
carbonate particles does not. There are only
two ways in which skeletal carbonates can be • In this way the entire carbonate factory is
arranged. controlled by and evolves with the biology of
its own system.
• Whole rigid structures such as corals and
snail shells.
• Segmented pieces held together such as
trilobites and clams. Multiple parts held
together by some other soft tissue

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Scleractinia Corals /
Hard Corals / Stony Corals
Photo courtesy of d|nug
Hard corals grow in colonies and are the Photo courtesy of d|nug
architects of coral reefs.
Hard corals—including such species as
brain coral and elkhorn coral—create
skeletons out of calcium carbonate (also
known as limestone), a hard substance
that eventually becomes rock. The variety of coral shapes and sizes largely
Hard corals are hermatypic (reef- depends on the species. Some corals form
building corals), and need tiny algae hard and pointed shapes, while others form
called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo- soft and rounded shapes. The shape of
zan-THEL-ee) to survive. Photo courtesy of d|nug
coral colonies also depends on the location
of the coral. For example, in areas with
Generally, when we talk about
strong waves corals tend to grow into
coral, we are referring to hard
robust mounds or flattened shapes. In more
corals.
sheltered areas, the same species may grow
into more intricate shapes with delicate
PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION branching patterns.
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Scleractinia Coral /
Hard Corals / Stony Coral
Soft Corals
Soft corals, such as sea fingers and sea
whips, are soft and bendable and often
resemble plants or trees. These corals do
not have stony skeletons, but instead grow
wood-like cores for support and fleshy rinds
for protection. They are referred to as
ahermatypes, or non–reef building corals,
and they do not always have zooxanthellae.
Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic

algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in their
tissues. The corals and algae have a mutualistic
relationship. The coral provides the algae with a
The coral polyps do cellular respiration,
protected environment and compounds they
thus producing carbon dioxide and water
need for photosynthesis
as byproducts. The zooxanthellae then
take up these byproducts to carry out
PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION photosynthesis
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Coral Polyps — Tiny

Builders
Coral reefs are built by and made up of
thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—
that are related to anemones and jellyfish.
Polyps can live individually (like many
mushroom corals do) or in large colonies that
comprise an entire reef structure.
A polyp has a sac-like body and an opening,
or mouth, encircled by stinging tentacles
called nematocysts or cnidae. The polyp uses
calcium and carbonate ions from seawater to
build itself a hard, cup-shaped skeleton made
of calcium carbonate (limestone). This
limestone skeleton protects the soft, delicate
body of the polyp. Coral polyps are usually Most coral polyps have clear bodies. Their skeletons are white, like
nocturnal, meaning that they stay inside their human bones. Generally, their brilliant color comes from the
skeletons during the day. At night, polyps zooxanthellae (tiny algae) living inside their tissues. Several million
extend their tentacles to feed. zooxanthellae live and produce pigments in just one square inch of
coral. These pigments are visible through the clear body of the
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT polyp and are what gives coral its beautiful color.
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https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/coralseat.html

PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html
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https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/08/170828140713.htm

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GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT https://www.princeton.edu/news/2016/11/02/when-corals-met-algae-symbiotic-relationship-crucial-

PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION reef-survival-dates-triassic
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Carbonate SB (MFS): paleosoil, drowning phase

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How Reefs Are Made

• Coral reefs are built by coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate beneath
their bodies. The corals that build reefs are known as “hard” or “reef-building” corals.
Soft corals, such as sea fans and sea whips, do not produce reefs; they are flexible
organisms that sometimes resemble plants or trees. Soft corals do not have stony
skeletons and do not always have zooxanthellae. They can be found in both tropical seas
and in cooler, darker parts of the ocean.
• The coral polyps that build the reef survive by forming a symbiotic relationship with
microscopic algae called zooxanthellae. The polyps offer the algae shelter while the
zooxanthellae create energy—through photosynthesis—that the corals use as food. In a
sense, the coral polyps are “farming” the algae. The waste products of the polyps also
serve as food for the zooxanthellae. Corals are also predators; they extend their tentacles
at night and capture tiny organisms (zooplankton, small fish, or other potential food item)
that happen to be floating by with stinging cells called nematocysts. The captured prey is
then moved into the polyps’ mouths and digested in their stomachs.
• Other types of animals and plants also contribute to the structure of coral reefs. Many
types of algae, seaweed, sponges, sediment, and even mollusks like giant clams and
oysters add to the architecture of coral reefs. When these organisms die, they also serve
as foundations for new corals.
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT https://coral.org/en/coral-reefs-101/how-reefs-are-made/
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How Coral Reefs Grow

• Free-swimming coral larvae attach themselves to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces at the edges of
islands or continents to begin the process of forming coral reefs. The coral polyps then secrete skeletons
from the underside of their skin. These skeletons, made from calcium carbonate, protect the coral
animals from predators and also offer a substrate on which new coral polyps can attach themselves. The
process of growing the skeleton consumes a lot of energy, which is conveniently provided by the algae
living in the corals’ tissues.
• Different species of coral grow at different rates depending on water temperature, salinity, turbulence,
and the availability of food. The massive corals are the slowest growing species, adding between 5 - 25
mm (0.2–1 inch) per year to their length. Branching and staghorn corals can grow much faster, adding as
much as 20 cm. (8 inches) to their branches each year.
• Coral reefs grow best in warm water (70–85° F or 21–29° C). Corals prefer clear and shallow water, where
lots of sunlight filters through to their symbiotic algae. It is possible to find corals at depths of up to 300
feet (91 meters), but reef-building corals grow poorly below 60–90 feet (18–27 meters). Corals need salt
water to survive, so they grow poorly near river openings or coastal areas with excessive runoff.
• The geological record indicates that ancestors of modern coral reef ecosystems were formed at least 240
million years ago. Most established coral reefs are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. Although size
sometimes indicates the age of a coral reef, this is not always true. Corals form many different types of
reef structures.
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Cartoons illustrating how water transparency, as indicated by diffuse attenuation coefficient

Growth forms of corals reflect the environmental changes related to water depth. (K), influence zonation of zooxanthellae corals. Branching corals such as Acropora
Example is from the Caribbean. Branching forms dominate the uppermost,nhigh-
palmate require at least 60% of surface light, head corals at least 20% and plate corals at
energy layer of thesea. Domal and massive forms occupy intermediate depths.
Below the zone of light saturation, corals become platy and foliose in order to least 4%. The upper figure reflects pre-1980s conditions in the Florida Keys (Jaap, 1984).
capture a maximum amount of light. At the biologically defined lower limit of the The lower figure reflects median values measured near Key West, Florida, in 1999 by
euphotic zone, coral growth in this region is already negligible. Vijn and Bosscher, Yentsch et al (2002), who concluded that insufficient light now penetrates to support
written communication. significant coral cover. “Drowning depth” shown on each figure is the approximate
submergence depth required to physically drown that reef, based only upon light. Modified
and updated from Hallock and Schlager (1986).
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3. Climatic Zones
• There are three main faunal
assemblages associated with the
carbonate factory.
1. Foramol: includes benthic
foraminifera, molluscs,
barnacles, bryozoa and
calcareous red algae. This
assemblage lives in the cooler
waters below 18 degrees Celcius.
2. Chlorozoan: composed of
hermatypic corals, calcareous
green algae and foramol
constituents. This is the warm
water assemblage.
3. Chloralgal: mainly calcareous Comparison of terminologies proposed for carbonate sediments of different climatic
green algae. These algae zones. Most terms are created by combining parts of the names of the most common
dominate the high salinity groups of organisms.
assemblages. Boundary between T and C factories approximately coincides with the
subtropical/temperate boundary of most authors.
Based on Mutti and Hallock (2001) and Schlager (2003).
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From precipitation modes to factories
Generally the factories differ in:

1. Precipitation mode
2. Mineral composition
3. Depth range of production
Carbonate factories.
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From precipitation modes to factories (and mineral composition)
Precipitation mode Mineral composition
Proportions of abiotic, biotically induced and bioticaly controlled Mineralogic composition of sediments of the three factories.
material in factory output estimated from the composition of some Assumptions: Automicrite = magnesian calcite; fibrous cements =
well-known Phanerozoic carbonate formations. 1:1 mixture of aragonite and magnesian calcite.

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Depth range of factories
Fig. 2.16.— Production rates and depth window of production of carbonate factories.
Width of shaded bars represents estimated production rate at a given depth as a fraction
of the tropical standard. Dominance of photo-autotrophic (i.e. light-dependent)
organisms in the tropical factory leads to very high production rates but only in a narrow
depth window. Production of the other factories is largely independent of light, the depth
windows extend over hundreds of meters and their lower limits are poorly known. In
modern oceans, production by the M factory is low at shallow depths, probably because
of competition by the T factory . After Schlager (2003), modified.

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T Factory
• T stands for “tropical” and “top-of-the-water-column”.
• Bioticaly controlled precipitates dominate. Most abundant among them are photo-autotrophic organisms: algae
and animals with photosynthetic symbiotic algae, such as hermatypic corals, certain foraminifers and certain
molluscans.
• The other characteristic products are abiotic precipitates in the form of marine cements and ooids.
• Clay-size precipitates, the “whitings”, are probably mixtures of abiotic or biotically induced precipitates (Morse and
Mackenzie, 1990; Yates and Robbins, 1999; Thompson, 2001).
• Heterotrophs devoid of photo-symbionts are common, but non-diagnostic contributors.
• Construction of wave-resistant structures by organic framebuilding or rapid marine cementation is common,
particularly at the shelfslope break.
• The T factory is restricted to the warm, sunlit waters of the ocean that are high in oxygen because of constant
equilibration with the atmosphere and low in nutrients because of intensive competition.
• In modern oceans, the characteristic settings are the surface waters between 30◦ N and S of the equator. The
northern and southern limit of the T factory closely follows the line where the mean temperature of the coldest
month is about 20 ◦C
• The T factory may also pass into the cool-water factory downward in the water column, for instance at the
boundary between the warm surface layer of the ocean and the thermocline.
• Furthermore, transitions from T to C factory occur in shallow tropical upwelling areas where cool, nutrient-rich
water comes to the surface (Lees and Buller, 1972; Pope and Read, 1997, p. 423; Brandley and Krause, 1997, p. 365;
James, 1997).
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C Factory
• The letter C is derived from “cool-water” and “controlled precipitation”.
• The products are almost exclusively biotically controlled precipitates.
• Heterotrophic organisms dominate.
• The contribution of photo-autotrophic organisms in the form of red algae and
symbiotic larger foraminifers is sometimes significant (Lees and Buller, 1972;
Nelson, 1988; Henrich et al., 1997; James, 1997).
• The sediment typically consists of skeletal hash of sand-to-granule size. Cool-water
carbonates lack shoal-water reefs and oolites; carbonate mud and abiotic marine
cements are scarce

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M Factory
• The characteristic component of this

factory is fine-grained carbonate
• Abiotic marine cement is the second most Typical environment
important product of this factory
• Biotically controlled (skeletal) carbonate
may occur but is not a characteristic
• Precipitation was caused by a complex
interplay of biotic and abiotic reactions
with microbes and decaying organic tissue
playing a pivotal role
• Typical environment: disphotic - aphotic,
low O2, high nutrient.
• Light independent
• Microbial is typical
Fig 5. typical environment of the mud-mound factory

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Climate influences three environmental conditions for the carbonate factory.

1. Rate of terrigenous clastic sediment input.
2. The amount and rate of evaporation/rainfall.
The evaporation and rainfall play a crucial role in keeping the water salinity in the exact range
needed for optimal growth. Since most of the carbonate factories form in shallow water
environments the evaporation to rainfall ratio is extremely important.
3. The storminess of the sea and it’s cyclicity.
Typically high energy storms can cause damage to delicate factory organisms and errode sediment
away. With a long period cyclicity the factory can restore itself but if major storm events happen
rapidly it can quickly do more damage than the factories can overcome.

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Priabonian -
Rupelian Burdigalian -
Serravallian
Chattian - Aquitanian

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4. Temperature and Salinity Conditions
The oceans are divided into warm warm vs cool water realms at the 18 degree C marker
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4. Temperature-Salinity

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Temperature
• Water temperature has

a major influence on
carbonate precipitation
and distribution of
calcite-secreting
organisms
• Most modern carbonate
sediments are deposited
in tropics, +/- 30o of the
equator
• Modern skeletal and
reef assemblages vary
with latitude

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Salinity
• Salinity vs Temperature relationships control sediment
assemblages
• Organisms often can not tolerate fluctuations in salinity (i.e. high
salinity areas my have low diversity but high abundance)
• Both organism (fauna and flora) assemblages succeed in
salinities ranging from 32 to 40 ppt.
When the salinity increased above 40 ppt in the tropics the
organism assemblage becomes Chloralgal.
• Increasing the salinity above normal ocean levels reduces the
biotic diversity that can handle an extreme amount of salt.
Frances & Guerrero, 2006

Published by the American Dominant Constituent Assemblages
Museum of Natural History
•Chlorozoan: Hermatypic Corals, Calcareous Green Algae After Tucker &
•Chloragal: Green Algae Wright 1990, and
PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION •Foramol: Benthic Forams, Molluscs (cool-water carbs.) Lees 1975
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5. Clastic Sediment Input

• Clastic sediments have a terrigenous source and arrive at carbonate platforms through both
fluvial and eolian processes such as river deposits and wind blown dust.
• Also coastal longshore and deep currents
• Ultimately clastic sediments can shut off carbonate sediment production and kill the
carbonate factory. It does this in three main ways.
1. Reduction of water transparency
2. Cloggs the feeding and/or respiration of sessile benthic organisms
3. Increasing nutrient and particulate organic concentration of the water. This causes
filamentous algae to replace the coelenterates in the carbonate factory. Many
organisms in the carbonate platforms thrive in nutrient poor waters while their
competition cannot. When nutrient levels increase corals and other organisms lose
their advantage and can die off quickly.

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6. Water Depth and Turbidity
• Water Depth and Turbidity are the main controls on the depth of light penetration, which defines the photic
zone.
• The turbidity is enhanced typically due to clastic runoff. Therefore the light penetration is low in the western sides
of tropical and subtropical oceans, in areas of upwelling and in areas with high surface productivity above
platform areas on eastern sides of the oceans.
• The water depths in which the carbonate factory forms and grows varies greatly depending upon the morphology
and type of platform developed.
• Warm water platforms have shallower water depths while their cool water counterparts form in much deeeper
waters. Each setting also has a range in which it grows.

68
RATE OF PRODUCTION OF CaCO3 PER UNIT AREA ⚫Water Depth/Clarity/Turbidity

−Carbonate productivity decreases with
10 m increasing depth (less light) due to the
•Skeletal carbonate endosymbiotic relationship with their
production greatest <5m zooxanthellae
Water •Maximum Light and
Depth Circulation −Highest carbonates carbonate production
rates in < 15 m water depth
•Lower Limit of Halimeda −Turbidity or clastic input can increase the
suspended load of fines reducing water clarity
•Red Algae Crusts Below
80 m 100m and as Deep as 250m
and/or interfering with filter feeders
(Wilson, 1975)
142 59
444
131 31
17 133
66
67 1738
110
c
256
210 c c
c 930
1438
286 3228
c 3000
113
c
154
290 c c
c c
c = carbonate system 154 17
Image Compiled by J.
62
Markello for the Advanced
Modern Carbonate School
Sediment yield of major drainage basins (tons/km2/yr) http://clasticdetritus.com/2009/04/20/beautiful-
(Data from W. H. Schlesinger, 1997, Biogeochemistry, Academic Press, Fig. 4.14) sediment-plumes-in-the-gulf-of-mexico/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drainage_basin

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25/02/2023

70
7. Energy/Water Circulation/Wind/Wave/Current
• Different organism requires different degrees of water movement and generally only live-in areas that have the appro-
priate energy levels
• Energy levels on the platform are controlled by winds, waves, current, and topography/ bathymetry of the platform
• The amount of wave/current energy on the platform controls sediment distribution
1. Waves: on protected factories the waves have little 3. Storms: are a high energy event that typically act to
effect upon sediment erosion however when the harm the carbonate factory production. Storms can
factory is exposed to the full onslaught of wave increase the amount of terrigenous sediment brought
energy the delicate parts of the factory are easily onto the carbonates as well as do a huge amount of
ripped off and sediment can be drawn away from damage to the carbonate factory itself. One example
the shelf. are the hurricanes that hit the carribean coral reefs
each year. Luckily the larger the energy of the storm
typically it’s cyclicity is over longer time scales.
2. Tides: act on a daily cycle to both bring sediment
and nutrients into the factory and draw the factory
towards the shore and to remove sediments and 4. Oceanic Currents: often times brings more nutrients
water away from the factory and into deeper water. and oxygenated waters to the carbonate factories and
Tides also change the depth of the water column encourage growth but they also can bring more
above the carbonate factory and thus allowing light terrigenous sediments to the area or even suck
to go further down into the system. carbonate sediments away from the platform.

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• Another Factor that influences the carbonate factory sediment production is cycles of high sea level
vs low sea level. This is very similar to tidal changes but on a much larger scale.
• Times of low sea level expose the carbonate factory to the zone of wave energy circulation and can
even place the factory above the water level. This results in erosion and lithification of the carbonate
sediments and can be seen in the sediment record.

72
33

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PRODI TEKNIK GEOLOGI

GL-5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

3 (PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION)

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

MODES OF MARINE CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

• Precipitation of solid matter from the

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

An organism that is unable to synthesize its own organic carbon-

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

• Associated with tropical

• The origin of carbonate in whitings, clouds of carbonate suspended in sea water,

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

• In first approximation, oolites, aragonitic sea-

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

H+ + HCO3- + Ca2+ CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

• Increase of CO2 concentration in the solution will shift the equation to

• Decrease of CO2 concentration will shift the equation to the right,

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

• Particulate rain rates of

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF CARBONATES

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

CHEMICAL CONTROLS OF CARBONATE PRECIPITATION

• DEPOSITION AND DISSOLUTION ARE CONTROLLED BY

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

The Carbonate Factory

The carbonate factory is defined as the shallow

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

General Carbonate Platforms

Shelfal Transitional Basinal

• Actual platform dimensions vary considerably

Carbonate Grain Types and Rock Classification

Carbonate Sediment Supply and Dispersal

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

• The biological evolution of biota is directly

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Photo courtesy of d|nug

Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic

Coral Polyps — Tiny

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT https://www.princeton.edu/news/2016/11/02/when-corals-met-algae-symbiotic-relationship-crucial-

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Carbonate SB (MFS): paleosoil, drowning phase

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

How Reefs Are Made

How Coral Reefs Grow

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Cartoons illustrating how water transparency, as indicated by diffuse attenuation coefficient