4 Carbonate Components 2022 Ho

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PRODI TEKNIK GEOLOGI

FAKULTAS ILMU DAN TEKNOLOGI KEBUMIAN (FITB)
INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI BANDUNG (ITB)
GL-5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

PENYUSUN BATUAN KARBONAT
4 (CARBONATE COMPONENTS)
Dwiharso Nugroho
nuki.dnugroho@geodin.net ; nuki.dnugroho@gmail.com
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

CARBONATE COMPONENTS
CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY
SEDIMENTOLOGI BATUAN KARBONAT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. ESSENTIALS OF NEIGHBORING DISCIPLINES
3. PRINCIPLES OF CABONATE PRODUCTION
4. CARBONATE COMPONENTS
5. CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION
6. CARBONATE FACIES, MICROFACIES, FACIES ASSOCIATION AND EOD
7. CARBONATE PLATFORM CONCEPTS AND TYPES
8. CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
9. CARBONATE DIAGENESIS AND POROSITY DEVELOPMENT
10. CONCEPTS ON CARBONATE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
for ALL by GROUP
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Limestone
Grain
components
o Grains
o Mud
o Pores Cement
o cements
Pore
Lime Mud
Carbonate Grains
• Carbonate grains can be separated from one another on the basis of their shape, size and internal
structure.
• The grains commonly collect near their site of origin, they can be used in conjunction with other rock
characteristics to determine the environment of deposition.
• The interpretation of the depositional setting of carbonates is based on grain types, grain packing or
fabric, sedimentary structures and early diagenetic changes.
• The identification of grain types is commonly used in subsurface studies of depositional setting because,
unlike the particles in siliciclastic rocks, the grains making up carbonates generally formed within the
basin of deposition.
• However, carbonate grains do not always accumulate where they formed. For example, ooid sands,
which characteristically form on highly agitated shoals, may also accumulate on beaches, islands, sand
flats, deltas and even turbidite fans.
• The grains can be separated on the basis of their shapes and internal sedimentary structure and can be
subdivided into two major groups:
1. skeletal and
2. non-skeletal.
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT http://strata.geol.sc.edu/carbonate_petrology/carbonate_text/carbonate_summary.html

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1. Skeletal Grains Mollusks
Corals
Large
Benthic
3 in
Forams
Algae 3 in
GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS

SHALLOW MARINE CARBONATE
2. Non-Skeletal
Grains
Peloids 0.5mm
<1mm; avg.
0.1-0.5 mm
Oncoids/
Pisoids >2mm up to
cm’s
Ooids
0.5-2 mm
Intraclasts
mm’s to m’s +

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Micrite / Carbonate mud

• A large volume of any limestone is usually composed of carbonate mud or micrite. Because of
the small size of grains or crystals in the micrite, identification of their origin is difficult to
impossible.
• The grain boundary between sand and mud that is used by geologists for carbonates varies: for
instance, Dunham (1962) puts it at 0.02 mm and Folk (1962) 0.004 mm.
• Micrite may be precipitated chemically or biochemically from sea water derived from abrasion
of pre-existing the calcium grains or during disintegration of calcareous green algae.
• Micrite accumulates in a variety of settings in the still water of protected lagoons, below wave
base in deeper water, and even in agitated environments within and beneath the protection of
algal mats. Should the presence of micrite be used to interpret depositional sitting then its
vertical association with other lithologies and its faunal content should also be considered.
• Any interpretation is complicated by the existence of micrite-size cements, which may have a
different distribution to that of fine sediments. The micritization of broken skeletal and non-
skeletal grains also adds confusion, because these grains may be mistaken for micrite
fragments.


• A large volume of any limestone is usually composed of carbonate mud or micrite. Because of
the small size of grains or crystals in the micrite, identification of their origin is difficult to
impossible.
• The grain boundary between sand and mud that is used by geologists for carbonates varies: for
instance, Dunham (1962) puts it at 0.02 mm and Folk (1962) 0.04 mm.
• Micrite may be precipitated chemically or biochemically from sea water derived from abrasion
of pre-existing the calcium grains or during disintegration of calcareous green algae.
• Micrite accumulates in a variety of settings in the still water of protected lagoons, below wave
base in deeper water, and even in agitated environments within and beneath the protection of
algal mats. Should the presence of micrite be used to interpret depositional sitting then its
vertical association with other lithologies and its faunal content should also be considered.
• Any interpretation is complicated by the existence of micrite-size cements, which may have a
different distribution to that of fine sediments. The micritization of broken skeletal and non-
skeletal grains also adds confusion, because these grains may be mistaken for micrite
fragments.

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Dunham Classification of
Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks
after Embry & Klovan


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Micrite / Carbonate Mud – fine grained component
Acetabularia
Penicillus
Sand
Halimeda
sized
particles
after
disintegra
tion
Mud
sized
Rhipocephalus
particles
Batophora
after
Udotea
disintegr
ation

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Carbonate Mud – fine grained component
GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS K. Steffen, Belize

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Non-Skeletal Grains
• peloids
• ooids
• pisolites
• composite grains
• intraclasts
• oncoids
• lithoclasts
• micritized grains

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Non-Skeletal Grains: Peloid

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• Non-Skeletal Grains: Ooid

Modern marine ooids are generally aragonitic and range from 0.1 to 2.0 mm in diameter. They are roughly spherical grains composed of a nucleus (carbonate
or non-carbonate particle} that is overlain by one or more concentric layers of inorganically precipitated carbonate. Radial ooids possess laminations with
component crystals oriented perpendicular to the nucleus. Tangential ooids have component crystals oriented tangential to the nucleus.
It is speculated that the aragonite crystals comprising each laminae initially precipitate perpendicular to the nucleus, but that abrasion of the ooids in these
highly agitated environments flatten these crystals to produce the tangential ultrastructure.
Modern ooids characteristically form in normal marine environment. Normal marine ooids today form in warm, clear, shallow (0 to 11 meters}, highly agitated
waters that are supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate.

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Pisolites are coated grains with concentric laminae and diameters greater than 2 mm. This term is non-process-implicit;' however, it is
often used in a genetic sense to describe coated grams formed in non-marine environments such as caves, hot springs, lakes, ; and soil
profiles.
Pisolites are common in Permo-Triassic peritidal settings (Guadalupes, Dolomites) and are diagnostic of VADOSE diagenesis.

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Composite grains (Grapestones) are irregular aggregates of silt or sand-sized carbonate grains
cemented at points of contact. Initial cementation of grains into composites is done by the
growth of foraminifers and/or algae; additional orgainic growth and the precipitation of cement
forms a solid aggregate. the formation of composite grainsrequires an absence of fine- grained
material and a rate of water flow sufficiently high to promote cementation, but not high enough
to move individual grains.

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Oncoid is a general term for grains with concentric laminae that are
organo-sedimentary in origin. Size typically ranges from less than a
millimeter to several centimeters. Laminae of most oncoids are algal in
origin. Foraminifers also commonly coat grains and bind sediment.
Marine oncoids typically form in fairly tranquil environments that
experience only intermittent turbulence. A thin, sticky layer that coats the grain
traps and binds carbonate sediment as the grain is rolled around on the sea floor .

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Intraclasts are fragments of penecontemporaneously lithified carbonate

sediment that have been ripped from the sea bottom and redeposited. Intraclasts have an
intrabasinal origin. They typically range in size from a few hundred microns to several
centimeters.
Two types of intraclasts are common in shallow-water limestones: (1) Angular, grainy
intraclasts produced by mechanical erosion of lithified beach rocks within the intertidal and
supratidal zones. (2) Muddy intraclasts formed by the desiccation of muddy carbonate
sediment from the upper intertidal or supratidal portions of the tidal flat.

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Lithoclasts are eroded fragments of older carbonate rocks. The composition and texture of lithoclasts, therefore, depends on
that of the contributing older carbonate rock. Many lithoclasts show one or more of the following features: (1)
stratigraphically "older" fossil content, (2) truncation of grains and cements at the boundary of the lithoclast, (3) different
cements than the rest of the rock, (4) oxidation boundaries, and (5) occurrence in association with non-carbonate components
such as sandstone or chert fragments.
Decisive recognition of a grain as a lithoclast requires knowledge of the nature of older carbonates in the area. Lithoclasts
rarely constitute a significant fraction of any carbonate sediment. Their presence, however, indicates nearby exposure of older
carbonates during the deposition of the sediment containing the lithoclasts.

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Micritized grain is a general term used for grains that have been so altered that little internal structure remains, hence the original
grain type is not recognizable. Two types of altered grains are differentiated on the basis of shape: peloids and cryptocrystalline
grains.
Peloids were originally defined as ovoid to ellipsoidal grains of micritic carbonate irrespective of origin. Studies of modern
sediment indicate that most peloids are produced by micritization of ooids, fecal pellets, and rounded skeletal fragments.
Cryptocrystalline grains are irregularly-shaped grains of micritic carbonate. Studies of modern sediments indicate they many
cryptocrystalline grains are irregularly-shaped pieces of completely micritized skeletal grains. The use of the terms "peloid" and
"cryptocrystalline grains" allows one to make reference to altered grains without implying original grain type.

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Skeletal Grains
• Corals
• Sponges
• Foraminifera
• Echinoderms
• Molluscs Photo courtesy of d|nug
• Bryozoans
• Brachiopods
• Trilobites
• Ostracodes
• Stromatoporoids
Photo courtesy of d|nug

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CORALS
Corals are solitary or colonial, exclusively marine invertebrates that range from the Ordovician to the Recent. Common growth forms of solitary coral
skeletons are discoidal, conical, or tubular. Colonies are massive, hemispheroidal, chainlike, or branching. The skeleton of the individual coral animal
(corallite) is characterized by an outer wall and a series of internal vertical plates (septae) that are arranged radially perpendicular to the outer wall.
Horizontal plates (tabulae) and curved plates (dissepiments) are common in many corals. The presence/absence of these structures is a basis for
classifying corals into three major groups: (1) rugosans, (2) scleractinians, (3) tabulates.
Rugosan (Ordovician-Permian) and scleractinian (Triassic-Recent) corals include cylindrical or conical solitary forms as well as loosely joined or tightly
packed colonial forms. Colonial corals exhibit a variety of shapes ranging from large, encrusting masses to branching and hemispherical forms.
Colonies vary from a few millimeters to several meters in maximum dimension. Most solitary corals range from 1 to 10 centimeters in maximum
dimension.

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The tabulate corals (Ordovician-Permian) are invariably colonial and consist of numerous, small, round or polygonal corallite. Corallites commonly lack
true septa. Horizontal or curved partitions (tabulae) are almost always present. Colonies may consist of loosely joined or tightly packed corallites.
Most Paleozoic corals apparently secreted a calcitic skeleton, whereas most post-Paleozoic corals secreted an aragonitic skeleton. The same basic
microstructural features are present in skeletons of both mineralogical types. Many well-preserved coral skeletons are characterized by the presence
of fine, calcareous fibers that are oriented perpendicular to the surface of the secreting tissue. In thin sections, well-preserved, fossil rugose and
tabulate corals have a fuzzy, fibrous appearance. Scleractinian corals (originally composed of aragonite) usually exhibit recrystallized sparry calcite
walls in thin section.
All coelenterates that have calcareous skeletons are considered corals because ecologically they are similar. All corals are strictly marine and can only
tolerate a narrow range of salinities. They cannot tolerate influx of fresh water for even short periods of time. Because they are sessile and feed on
small organisms, corals need consistent water movement and good circulation. Few corals can withstand much turbidity. Modern corals include
hermatypic and ahermatypic forms. Hermatypic corals contain symbiotic algae which apparently provide an efficient mechanism for absorbing waste
products as well as aiding calcification. Because of this, hermatypic corals can form large colonies with closely-packed corallites. As a result of their
symbiotic relationship with algae, hermatypic corals are restricted to the photic zone. They are best developed in water depths less than 60 feet. They
require warm waters and are not found outside the tropics. Most ahermatypic forms are relatively small, solitary forms, and they can tolerate a wide
range of temperatures and attain their best development at depths ranging from 600-1800 feet.
Underwater photograph of reef groove

floored
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI by rippled
(BATUAN) coral-Halimeda sand
KARBONAT
(Ambergris Caye, Belize)
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Scleractinia Coral /
Hard Corals / Stony
Hard corals grow in colonies and are the

architects of coral reefs.
Hard corals—including such species as
brain coral and elkhorn coral—create
skeletons out of calcium carbonate (also
known as limestone), a hard substance
that eventually becomes rock. The variety of coral shapes and sizes
Hard corals are hermatypes, or reef- largely depends on the species. Some
building corals, and need tiny algae corals form hard and pointed shapes, while
called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo- others form soft and rounded shapes. The
zan-THEL-ee) to survive. shape of coral colonies also depends on
the location of the coral. For example, in
Generally, when we talk about areas with strong waves corals tend to
coral, we are referring to hard grow into robust mounds or flattened
corals. shapes. In more sheltered areas, the same
species may grow into more intricate
shapes with delicate branching patterns. Photo courtesy of d|nug
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Hard Corals / Stony
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT Photo courtesy of d|nug

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Coral algal floatstone

Rodholith Grainstone / Packstone Photo courtesy of d|nug
GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT Photo courtesy of d|nug

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Coral Polyps — Tiny

Builders
Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of

tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are related to
anemones and jellyfish.
Polyps can live individually (like many mushroom
corals do) or in large colonies that comprise an entire
reef structure.
A polyp has a sac-like body and an opening, or mouth,
encircled by stinging tentacles called nematocysts or
cnidae. The polyp uses calcium and carbonate ions Most coral polyps have clear bodies. Their skeletons are
from seawater to build itself a hard, cup-shaped
white, like human bones. Generally, their brilliant color
skeleton made of calcium carbonate (limestone). This
limestone skeleton protects the soft, delicate body of comes from the zooxanthellae (tiny algae) living inside
the polyp. Coral polyps are usually nocturnal, their tissues. Several million zooxanthellae live and
meaning that they stay inside their skeletons during produce pigments in just one square inch of coral. These
the day. At night, polyps extend their tentacles to pigments are visible through the clear body of the polyp
feed. and are what gives coral its beautiful color.

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Hard Corals / Stony Coral
Soft Corals
Soft corals, such as sea fingers and sea
whips, are soft and bendable and often
resemble plants or trees. These corals do
not have stony skeletons, but instead grow
wood-like cores for support and fleshy rinds
for protection. They are referred to as
ahermatypes, or non–reef building corals,
and they do not always have zooxanthellae.
Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic

algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in their
tissues. The corals and algae have a mutualistic
relationship. The coral provides the algae with a
The coral polyps do cellular respiration, thus
protected environment and compounds they
producing carbon dioxide and water as
need for photosynthesis
byproducts. The zooxanthellae then take up
these byproducts to carry out photosynthesis
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How Reefs Are Made

• Coral reefs are built by coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium carbonate beneath their bodies. The corals that
build reefs are known as “hard” or “reef-building” corals. Soft corals, such as sea fans and sea whips, do not produce
reefs; they are flexible organisms that sometimes resemble plants or trees. Soft corals do not have stony skeletons and do
not always have zooxanthellae. They can be found in both tropical seas and in cooler, darker parts of the ocean.
• The coral polyps that build the reef survive by forming a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae called
zooxanthellae. The polyps offer the algae shelter while the zooxanthellae create energy—through photosynthesis—that
the corals use as food. In a sense, the coral polyps are “farming” the algae. The waste products of the polyps also serve as
food for the zooxanthellae. Corals are also predators; they extend their tentacles at night and capture tiny organisms
(zooplankton, small fish, or other potential food item) that happen to be floating by with stinging cells called
nematocysts. The captured prey is then moved into the polyps’ mouths and digested in their stomachs.
• Other types of animals and plants also contribute to the structure of coral reefs. Many types of algae, seaweed, sponges,
sediment, and even mollusks like giant clams and oysters add to the architecture of coral reefs. When these organisms
die, they also serve as foundations for new corals.

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How Coral Reefs Grow

• Free-swimming coral larvae attach themselves to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces at the edges of
islands or continents to begin the process of forming coral reefs. The coral polyps then secrete skeletons
from the underside of their skin. These skeletons, made from calcium carbonate, protect the coral animals
from predators and also offer a substrate on which new coral polyps can attach themselves. The process of
growing the skeleton consumes a lot of energy, which is conveniently provided by the algae living in the
corals’ tissues.
• Different species of coral grow at different rates depending on water temperature, salinity, turbulence, and
the availability of food. The massive corals are the slowest growing species, adding between 5 and 25
millimeters (0.2–1 inch) per year to their length. Branching and staghorn corals can grow much faster,
adding as much as 20 centimeters (8 inches) to their branches each year.
• Coral reefs grow best in warm water (70–85° F or 21–29° C). Corals prefer clear and shallow water, where
lots of sunlight filters through to their symbiotic algae. It is possible to find corals at depths of up to 300 feet
(91 meters), but reef-building corals grow poorly below 60–90 feet (18–27 meters). Corals need salt water
to survive, so they grow poorly near river openings or coastal areas with excessive runoff.
• The geological record indicates that ancestors of modern coral reef ecosystems were formed at least 240
million years ago. Most established coral reefs are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old. Although size
sometimes indicates the age of a coral reef, this is not always true. Corals form many different types of reef
structures.

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SPONGES
Sponges vary in external form and size. Sack, globular, or vase-Iike shapes with an upward-directed opening are common. The sponge wall
typically consists of soft tissue supported by a complex network of siliceous or calcareous spicules; however, it may also be comprised
entirely of calcium carbonate. Owing to the tendency of the soft tissue to decay on death, spicule-bearing forms are seldom preserved
intact. The presence of sponges is therefore frequently inferred from the presence of numerous millimeter-sized spicules.
Sponges live attached to a solid substrate in areas with slight to moderate water agitation. They cannot tolerate much turbidity and
flourish in areas of slow deposition. Of the three classes of sponges, two are restricted to definite environmental regimens. Modern
calcisponges (which secrete calcareous spicules or skeletons) live only in normal marine water less than 350 feet deep, and and flourish at
depths of less than 30 feet. Modern hyalosponges secrete only siliceous spicules and/or organic spongin (not preserved in the geologic
record). Most live in marine waters of all depth, but a few live in intertidal, brackish, or even fresh water. Sponges range from the
Cambrian to the Recent.

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FORAMINIFERS
Most foraminifers inhabit marine environments, but some live in brackish or hypersaline water. Calcareous foraminifers are most
common in normal marine waters, but can tolerate salinities ranging from brackish to hypersaline. Foraminifers are one-celled organisms
that secrete architecturally-varied agglutinate or calcareous shells. Most foraminifers are multichambered with chambers arranged
serially or coiled. Although some may be up to 5 centimeters or more in maximum dimension, most are 1 millimeter or less. Benthic and
planktic forms both occur. Free-Iiving benthic tests typically have relatively thick imperforate walls, whereas planktic tests are thin-walled,
highly perforate, and globose. Some foraminifers encrust shells or vegetation and can be recognized by the presence of a flattened side.
Foraminifers range in age from Ordovician to Recent.
fusilinids
Cretaceous Planktonic
Cretaceous Mexico

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FORAMINIFERS

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ECHINODERMS
This phyllum includes crinoids. The shape and size of echinoderms is highly variable: globose,flat, cylindrical, starlike and stalked forms
are common. Some are are sessile. Most are benthic, a few are pelagic. All echinoderms are exclusively marine, but some of the more
mobile forms occasionally invade lagoons and estuaries where salinities are brackish. All living groups of echinoderms exist through a
wide range of temperatures and inhabit a wide range of water depths. Echinoids appear to have inhabited shallow marine
environments throughout geological time. Echinoderms range in age from Cambrian to Recent.
Crinoids were most abundant in shallow marine environments during the Paleozoic, but have since largely shifted to relatively deep
(>100 meters) waters. Crinoid debris is extremely abundant in Paleozoic sediments. Echinoderms are composed of hundreds of
individual plates of microporous calcite. Skeletons of echinoderms typically disarticulate rapidly after death; individual plates become
scattered throughout the sediment. Because each plate of an echinoderm skeleton acts as a single crystal of calcite, they commonly
are nucleation sites for calcite cement. Calcite cement overgrowths are common and are in optical continuity with the echinoderm
piece.

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MOLLUSCS
Mollusc shells are predominantly calcareous and are generally multilayered. They may consist wholly of calcite or aragonite, or both minerals may
occur together in the same shell in alternating layers. Most Recent molluscs have shells composed wholly of aragonite. Fossil shells with original
aragonite are fairly common in the Cenozoic and Mesozoic, but are rare in the Paleozoic. Inasmuch as aragonite is an unstable form of calcium
carbonate, it dissolves after burial of the organism, forming a void where the shell once was, or it is replaced by a mosaic of sparry calcite.
Mollusc shells exhibit a wide variety of shapes and include: two valves (bivalves), straight tubes with partitions (some cephalopods), open-ended
tubes without partitions (scaphopods), coiled tubes with partitions (cephalopods), coiled tubes without partitions (gastropods).
Three classes of the phylum are most common: Bivalvia, Gastropoda, and Cephalopoda. Bivalves range in age from Cambrian to Recent and are
important contributors to post-Paleozoic carbonates. Bivalves inhabit marine, brackish and fresh waters. Bivalves are mainly benthic and inhabit a
wide range or depths and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Gastropods range from Cambrian to Recent. Gastropods have adapted to
terrestrial life as well as the entire range of aquatic environments. Cephalopods are distributed throughout marine environments from the
Ordovician to the Recent. However, cephalopods are significant contributors to the rock record only in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks.

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Cephalopods (divided into the subclasses Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea)may have planispirally coiled, partially coiled, arcuate, or straight
shells. Cephalopod shells range in size from less than a centimeter, to more than one meter in longest dimension. Internally, the shells consist
of chambers separated by walls (septa), and are connected to the cephalopod body by a tube (siphuncle). These chambers are filled with gas,
providing the cephalopod with neutral buoyancy. The development of a byoyant shell points to a dominantly pelagic mode of life.
Consequently, the shells of cephalopods are found in all marine environments, regardless of water depth.Cephalopods range in age from the
Cambrian to the Recent.

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BRYOZOANS
Members of this phylum that secrete calcareous skeletons are restricted to marine environments.Modern bryozoans occur throughout a
wide range of temperatures and depths, but the great majority live in warmer waters less than 20-50 feet deep. Bryozoans require a firm
substrate for attachment and normally do not inhabit unstable sand or mud substrates. Because they are suspension feeders, bryozoans
prefer clear, slightly agitated water, and cannot withstand much turbidity.
Bryozoans are colonial animals. Encrusting, branching and fenestrate forms are common. Although colony size may range from a few
millimeters to half a meter, most range from 1 to 10 centimeters in maximum dimension. Each colony consists of a number of closely
packed, uniformly small (less than 1 millimeter) slender tubes. Bryozoans range from the Ordovician to the Recent, but are not common in
Triassic or Jurassic rocks.

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BRACHIOPODS
Brachiopods are divided into two major groups: (1)
articulates, and (2) inarticulates. Valves of articulate
brachiopods are united along a hinge line by means of teeth
and sockets. Valves of inarticulate brachiopods are held
together by muscles only. Brachiopods typically have
calcareous shells.
Calcareous shells are arranged into three broad groups on the

basis of shell microstructure: (1) impunctuate, (2) punctuate,
(3) pseudo-punctuate. Impunctate brachiopods have dense,
imperforate shells. Punctate brachiopods have shells
perforated by small holes. Pseudo-punctuate brachiopods
have imperforate shells with embedded granular rods
(pseudo-punctuate).
All three groups of articulate brachiopods have a shell

composed of low magnesium calcite that consists of fibers
that are oriented oblique to the shell surface. Brachiopods
closely resemble bivalves. They may be distinguished by their
two-layer microstructure, calcite composition (and hence
good preservation state), and symmetry (bilateral symmetry
across the valves for brachiopods, as opposed to bilateral
symmetry between the valves for bivalves).
Brachiopods range in age from the Cambrian to the Recent,
but are most abundant in the the Paleozoic. All living forms
are marine, sessile, benthic suspension feeders. They are
tolerant of a wide range of temperatures and depths, and live
on either soft or hard substrates.
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TRILOBITES
Trilobites are extinct, presumably exclusively marine arthropods. Shells are generally less than 1 millimeter thick and are composed of a
number of individual pieces that correspond to single segments or fused segments of the organism. Most segments appear arched in thin
section. Tips of segments may be recurved, in which case, cross sections of segments resemble a shepherd's crook. Whole specimens are
typically a few centimeters long, individual segments are typically a few millimeters in maximum dimension. Trilobite shells are composed
of chitin that is heavily impregnated with calcite and varying amounts of calcium phosphate. The shells consist of very fine calcite prisms
that are oriented perpendicular to the shell surface, yielding a sweeping extinction pattern under cross-polarized light. Trilobites range
from the Cambrian to the Permian.

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OSTRACODES (Arthropoda)
Ostracodes consist of two valves that are variously smooth or ornamented. Valves are usually similar in shape but are of slightly unequal size.
Valves are joined along a hinge and overlap along a grooved or recurved lower margin. Valves are thin {usually between 1-2 millimeters in
maximum length, ranging from .7-30.0 millimeters).
Ostracodes are composed of chitin or a mixture of calcite and chitin. The calcite is prismatic and forms only one shell layer which yields a
sweeping extinction under cross-polarized light. Ostracodes range from the Cambrian to the Recent and most are marine. They can tolerate
a wide range of temperatures and water depths. BEcause they are so adaptable, ostracods are particularly widespread. Most ostracods are
free-living scvenging bottom dwellers, although planktonic, attached, and burrowing modes of life are common.

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STROMATOPOROIDS
Stromatoporoids are extinct colonial
organisms that were important reef builders
in Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. They
exhibit a variety of growth forms ranging
from encrusting to ramose, domal and
massive. Stromatoporoids vary in size from
a few centimeters to over one meter.
Although found with most major groups,
they lived in close association with corals
and algae (Paleozoic) and with hexacorals
and rudistid bivalves (Mesozoic). They
probably required a firm substrate, low
turbidity and slow rates of deposition.
Stromatoporoids occur alone or as
encrustations intergrown with other
organisms.
Colonies consist of concentric calcareous

laminae separated by transverse, radial
pillars yielding an open box-work.
Environmental significance is attached to
stromatoporoid morphology. They
presumably were originally low-magnesium
calcite due to typicaly good preservation of
internal structure.

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CALCAREOUS ALGAE
Calcareous algae comprise a diverse group of carbonate-secreting and binding aquatic plants which contribute much material to modern sediments and
were responsible for a substantial amount of sediment in the geologic record. The single most important factor controlling the distribution of algae is
sunlight, which is necessary for photosynthesis Therefore algae only live in the upper, well-lit photic zone of water bodies. Most algae are restricted to
water depths of less than 200 feet Although calcareous algae generally are marine, some forms are adapted to salinities ranging from fresh waters to salt
lakes. Algae are most diverse in tropical waters.
BLUE-GREEN ALGAE (cyanobacteria)

Blue-green algae occur in a great variety of environments ranging from fresh water to marine to hypersaline. They are especially well-developed in fresh
water and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. Blue-green algae inhabiting marine environments are primarily unicellular filamentous forms
which form mucilaginous mats in low-lying intertidal and supratidal flats. These mats can withstand extreme salinity variation and periodic long-term
desiccation. Fine sediment, either carbonate or siliciclastic, carried by tides into these environments, adheres to the sticky mats and eventually forms the
distinctive laminated deposits known as algal stromatolites. Various forms of stromatolites may have environmental significance. Flat to crinkly laminae
with desiccation cracks or small connected domes are characteristic of the supratidal or high intertidal zones. Discrete laminated domes indicate an
intertidal environment with a substantial tidal range. ; Stromatolites developed around discrete nuclei form spheroidal, laminated algal balls (oncoids)
which occur in the low intertidal to subtidal zone where water agitation is more constant.
Geologists have interpreted algal stromatolites as very shallow water or intertidal deposits. This interpretation may not invariably be correct. Any sort of
environmental restricton resulting in exclusion of grazing and/or burrowing organisms (especially gastropods) would favor the preservation of algal mats.
For exampe, stromatolites form today in the hypersaline subtidal lagoon of Shark Bay in western Australia. Further, subtidal stromatolites can be
expected to be common in sediments that are older than Ordovician -sediments deposited prior to the evolution of herbiverous gastropods. Blue-green
algae range in age from Precambrian to Recent.

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GREEN ALGAE
Green algae include two carbonate-secreting families,
Codiaceae and Dasycladacea, which are mainly
segmented and unsegmented erect branching plants.
Most modern dasyclads and codiaceans are restricted to
shallow, tropical waters; a few codiaceans live in
subtropical waters, a few dasycladaceans tolerate
temperate waters. Codiaceans and dasycladaceans are
marine, but tolerate somewhat lower salinities and
greater salinity variations than red algae. Green algae
grow most rapidly in water 5-10 meters deep, but can
occur in water as deep as 100 meters.
Due to their abundance and rapid growth rate, green

algae probably have been major sediment contributors
throughout geological time. Codiaceans are rare in the
Cambrian, but are important skeletal grains from the
Ordovician to the Recent. Dasycladaceans range from
Cambrian to Recent.

CARBONATE COMPONENTS Red Algae
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GREEN ALGAE
Codiaceans have two differenct morphologies: (1) crustose or

nodular growth form, (2) erect plants, consisting of segmented
brances. Internal round or subpolygonal branching filaments
and tubes present within codiaceans have no partitions. Fine
aragonite crystals are precipitated within interfilament regions
of the thallus. Aragonite needles are releasesd following death
and decay of the plant. Extenal morphology ranges from dense
compact forms such as Halimeda to more loosely calcified,
delicately branched forms such as Penicillus. Recognizable
pieces of codiacean algae are rare in the geologic record –most
dissaggregate into fine-grained aragonite needles.
Dasycladacean algae prefer normal marine salinities, but at

leasst some modern taxa tolerate hypersaline and brackish
waters. Recent dasycladacean algae are tropical to subtropical
marine plants with variable degrees of calcification. Plants
grow upright and are atached to the substrate by a rhizoid.
Dasyclads have a characteristic radial symmetry. One or more
whorls of branches surrounds and radiates outwards from a
central axis. Aragonite encrusts tne central axis and branches.
Since whole plants typically disarticulate after death and decay,
they are commonly seen in the geologic record as individual
segments or fragments.

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RED ALGAE
Red algae are dominantly benthic, marine plants although a few species live in fresh water. Red algae include a variety of encrusting massive to digitate
types and bushy, articulated forms. Encrusting forms require a hard surface such as rock or shells. Some bladelike forms grow free on sand or mud
substrates. Although they are most diverse in shallow (intertidal zone to 10 meters) tropical seas, some genera grow most abundantly in temperate and
polar waters, and can occur at depths as great as 250 meters. Red algae show less tolerance to salinity changes than other calcareous algae. The majority
are exclusively marine. Red algae occur from the Paleozoic to the Recent.

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RED ALGAE
Four families are recognized, two are common in the geologic record: Solenoporacea and Corallinacea.
Solenoporacea (extinct) are encrusting forms with a nodular growth habit and range in size from a few millimeters to a few centimeters. Microstrucutre
is characterized by rows of calcified cells that have a circular or polygonal cross section and are up to 0.1 mm across. Sedimentological associatons
suggest that most solenoporids only tolerated open marine environments with normal salinites. They are mostly found in Paleozoic and Mesozoic
although a few range into the Cenozoic.
Corallinacea (living and extinct), the largest family, includes a great diversity of morphologies. Almost all coralline algae are thoroughly calcified. They are
common and widespread grains in Cretaceous and Tertiary marine carbonates. They are characterized by a well-calcified, finely cellular structure and
have two distinct growth habits: (1 ) crustose, nodular, rigid branched, (2) erect, articulated. Crustose coralline algae are genrally atttached to a
substrate. They can vary from thin crusts a few millimeters thick to massive nodules up to 10 centimeters or more in diameter. Articulated coralline algae
are more unifom in shape. They are attached to the substrate and have a jointed, branched skeletal (thallus). The earliest coralline red algae appared in
the Jurassic. They are important reef builders in the Cenozoic seving both as frame builders and sediment producers. Living coralline algae are exclusively
marine, living in tropical to polar waters and occuring at depths up to 250 meters.

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25/02/2023

PRODI TEKNIK GEOLOGI

GL-5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT http://strata.geol.sc.edu/carbonate_petrology/carbonate_text/carbonate_summary.html

1. Skeletal Grains Mollusks

GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS

GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS

Micrite / Carbonate mud

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT http://strata.geol.sc.edu/carbonate_petrology/carbonate_text/carbonate_summary.html

Micrite / Carbonate mud

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT http://strata.geol.sc.edu/carbonate_petrology/carbonate_text/carbonate_summary.html

after Embry & Klovan

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Micrite / Carbonate mud

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Micrite / Carbonate Mud – fine grained component

GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS

Carbonate Mud – fine grained component

GL- 4051 STRATIGRAFI ANALISIS K. Steffen, Belize

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Non-Skeletal Grains: Peloid

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

• Non-Skeletal Grains: Ooid

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Intraclasts are fragments of penecontemporaneously lithified carbonate

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Photo courtesy of d|nug

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Underwater photograph of reef groove

Photo courtesy of d|nug

Hard corals grow in colonies and are the

Photo courtesy of d|nug

Photo courtesy of d|nug

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT Photo courtesy of d|nug

Coral algal floatstone

Rodholith Grainstone / Packstone Photo courtesy of d|nug

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT Photo courtesy of d|nug

Coral Polyps — Tiny

Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic

How Reefs Are Made

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

How Coral Reefs Grow

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT

GL- 5051 SEDIMENTOLOGI (BATUAN) KARBONAT