CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Earthquake-resistant construction, the fabrication of a building or structure that is able to
withstand the sudden ground shaking that is characteristic of earthquakes, thereby minimizing
structural damage and human deaths and injuries. Suitable construction methods are required
to ensure that proper design objectives for earthquake-resistance are
met. Construction methods can vary dramatically throughout the world, so one must be aware
of local construction methods and resource availability before concluding whether a particular
earthquake-resistant design will be practical and realistic for the region.

There is a fundamental distinction between the design of a building and the construction
methods used to fabricate that building. Advanced designs intended to withstand earthquakes
are effective only if proper construction methods are used in the site selection, foundation,
structural members, and connection joints. Earthquake-resistant designs typically
incorporate Ductility (the ability of a building to bend, sway, and deform without collapsing)
within the structure and its structural members. A ductile building is able to bend and flex when
exposed to the horizontal or vertical Shear forces of an earthquake. Concrete buildings, which
are normally brittle (relatively easy to break), can be made ductile by adding steel
reinforcement. In buildings constructed with steel-reinforced concrete, both the steel and the
concrete must be precisely manufactured to achieve the desired ductile behaviour.

Building failures during earthquakes often are due to poor construction methods or inadequate
materials. In less-developed countries, concrete often is not properly mixed, consolidated, or
cured to achieve its intended compressive strength, so buildings are thus extremely susceptible
to failure under seismic loading. This problem is often made worse by a lack of local building
codes or an absence of inspection and quality control.

Building failures are also frequently attributed to a shortage of suitable and locally available
materials. For instance, when a building is designed with steel-reinforced concrete, it is critical
that the amount of steel used is not reduced to lower the building cost. Such practices
substantially weaken a building’s ability to withstand the dynamic forces of an earthquake.

Under normal conditions, a building’s walls, columns, and beams primarily experience only
vertical loads of compression. However, during an earthquake, lateral and shear
loading occurs, which results in tensile and torsional forces on structural elements. Those
forces result in high stresses at the building’s corners and throughout various joints.

Strong construction joints are critical in building a structure that will withstand the shear
loading of an earthquake. Since stress is concentrated at the joints between the walls, it is
important that all the joints be properly prepared and reinforced. Concrete joints must also be
properly compacted and anchored in order to achieve optimum strength. In the case of
unreinforced masonry joints (mortar joints, such as those found in brick buildings), the
anchoring between adjacent walls is especially important. When all the joints are tied together
well, the building will act as a single integrated unit, enabling the forces of an earthquake to be
transferred from one section to the next without catastrophic failure.
Earthquake-resistant construction requires that the building be properly grounded and
connected through its foundation to the earth. Building on loose sands or clays is to be avoided,
since those surfaces can cause excessive movement and nonuniform stresses to develop during
an earthquake. Furthermore, if the foundation is too shallow, it will deteriorate, and the
structure will be less able to withstand shaking. The foundation should therefore be constructed
on firm soil to maintain a structure that settles uniformly under vertical loading.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING EARTHQUAKES

1.2.1 EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves
through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s
crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly
fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where
rock masses move in relation to one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at
the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s crust.

Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence of seismology at the beginning of
the 20th century. Seismology, which involves the scientific study of all aspects of earthquakes,
has yielded answers to such long-standing questions as why and how earthquakes occur.
About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to be noticed without the aid of instruments occur
annually over the entire Earth. Of these, approximately 100 are of sufficient size to produce
substantial damage if their centres are near areas of habitation. Very great earthquakes occur
on average about once per year. Over the centuries they have been responsible for millions of
deaths and an incalculable amount of damage to property.

1.2.2 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

The Main Causes of Earthquakes are the Movement of Tectonic Plates, Volcanic Eruptions,
Underground Explosions, Induced Quaking (Human Activities), etc. Apart from these,
earthquakes can be caused by a number of geological factors, natural phenomena, and human
activity. An earthquake occurs when two sections of the earth suddenly slide behind each other.
The surface on which they slide is called the fault or fault plane.

details about the different types of earthquakes and what causes them here:
TYPE CAUSES
Tectonic Earthquake The movement of tectonic plates is a geological fault that causes
the earth’s crust to break, resulting in an earthquake.

Volcanic Earthquake Volcanic activities can cause disruptions on the earth’s surface,
causing shifts in the tectonic plates, and resulting in earthquakes.
 Collapse Earthquake Human activities such as mining, tunnel, construction, etc. can
produce seismic waves, which can cause earthquakes.

Explosion Earthquake The force that releases when a nuclear or chemical device is
launched can cause earthquakes.

 The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an

earthquake, alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling
in different directions reach the surface.
 This causes earthquake in the form of release of energy, and the energy waves travel
in all directions.

Figure:1 showing causes of Earthquake

1.2.3 IMPACT ON BUILDING

Some of the common impacts of earthquakes include structural damage to buildings, fires,
damage to bridges and highways, initiation of slope failures, liquefaction, and tsunami. The
types of impacts depend to a large degree on where the earthquake is located: whether it is
predominantly urban or rural, densely or sparsely populated, highly developed or
underdeveloped, and of course on the ability of the infrastructure to withstand shaking.

When the ground shakes, buildings respond to the accelerations transmitted from the ground
through the structure's foundation. The inertia of the building (it wants to stay at rest) can cause
shearing of the structure which can concentrate stresses on the weak walls or joints in the
structure resulting in failure or perhaps total collapse. The type of shaking and the frequency
of shaking depends on the structure. Tall buildings tend to amplify the motions of longer period
motions when compared with small buildings. Each structure has a resonance frequency that
is characteristic of the building. Predicting the precise behaviour of buildings is complicated, a
rule of thumb is that the period of resonance is about equal to 0.1 times the number of stories
in the structure. Thus Macelwane Hall resonates at about 0.3 seconds period, and Griesedeck
at about 1.4 seconds. Taller buildings also tend to shake longer than short buildings, which can
make them relatively more susceptible to damage. Fortunately many tall buildings are
constructed to withstand strong winds and some precautions have been taken to reduce their
tendency to shake. And they can be made resistant to earthquake vibrations.
 Figure:2 Showing impact of earthquake on Tall building

1.2.4 SEISMIC WAVES

When an earthquake occurs, it releases energy waves, known as Seismic waves. It is like the ripples
created in water if you throw a stone in it. Seismic waves are like ripples that can travel through the
inside of the earth and on the surface.

Types of Earthquake Waves:-

Based on the medium they travel in, earthquake waves can be classified under two categories:

 Body waves
 Surface waves
Body waves are those waves that travel through the earth. They originate at the epicentre of
the earthquake and travel through the earth at amazing speeds. There are two types of body
waves, namely,

 P waves
 S waves
Surface waves are those waves that travel on the surface of the earth. The destruction caused
by earthquakes is primarily done by these waves.

FIGURE:3 S and P-wave

 CHAPTER-2

HAZARDS DUE TO EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake hazard is any type of physical phenomenon associated with an earthquake that
may cause damage or adverse effects on the normal day-to-day activities of people. Examples
of earthquake hazards include surface faulting, ground shaking, landslide, liquefaction, and
surface rupture.

Earthquake hazard categorised into two types:-

 Primary Earthquake Hazard

 Secondary Earthquake Hazard

2.1 Primary Earthquake Hazard

An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly
moving, but they get stuck on their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through
the earth’s crust and cause the shaking that we feel.

The Primary Earthquakes Hazards are:-

1. Ground Shaking Hazard:-

An earthquake generates seismic waves that cause ground motion as they pass
through the area. As those waves pass near or underneath your house, your house can move
from side to side and up and down. The type of shaking your house experiences depends on
how far it is from the fault and the soil under and around it.

Figure:4 Ground shaking Hazard

2. Surface Rupture Hazard:-
An earthquake can push and pull the ground, tearing the surface and pushing the
ground apart and upward. These are known as “surface ruptures.” A surface rupture may occur
suddenly during an earthquake, or it can happen more slowly—in either case, surface ruptures
often happen along pre-existing faults. If it happens close to your home, it can cause
considerable damage to structures and to the nearby land.

Figure:5 Surface rupture hazard

3. Landslide Hazards:-

Landslides include a wide range of phenomena involving downslope ground movement, such
as rockfalls, deep slope failure, shallow debris flows, and avalanches. Gravity acting on a slope
is the primary cause of landslides, but there are other important and dynamic factors that serve
as triggers.

Figure:6 Landslide Hazard

4. Liquefaction Hazard:-
Earthquake motion can turn loosely packed, water saturated soil to liquid—this is
called liquefaction. Liquefied soil loses its density and, ultimately, the ability to support roads,
buried pipes and houses. If liquefaction occurs on or near your property, your house may sink
possibly by several feet and be surrounded by or filled with liquified soil.
 Figure:7 Liquefaction Hazard

2.2 SECONDARY EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

Secondary earthquake hazards are caused by a consequence of the ground shaking, which is
caused by earthquakes.

Secondary Earthquakes Hazards are:-

1. Tsunami:-

A tsunami is a series of waves most commonly caused by an earthquake beneath the seafloor.
As tsunamis enter shallow water near land, they increase in height and can cause great loss of
life and property damage.

2. Seiche
Seismic seiches are standing waves set up on rivers, reservoirs, ponds and lakes when seismic
waves from an earthquake pass through the area. They are in direct contrast from tsunamis,
which are giant sea waves created by the sudden uplift of the sea floor often following an
undersea earthquake.

3. Flooding
Earthquakes also can cause flooding in several ways. They can result in broken dams and levees
on rivers. When an earthquake occurs, the integrity of these structures may be damaged,
potentially causing flooding in nearby lowland areas. For residential structures, the shaking
from an earthquake can cause water pipes to crack, break or burst, causing water damage to
homes, basements, or the exterior grounds. If a water heater is not properly braced, it can also
fall, causing further damage.

4. Fires
Earthquake shaking causes movement, sometimes resulting in damage to homes, personal
equipment and contents. This movement can result in released flammable gases or liquids and
other combustible material, which can come into contact with an ignition source such as open
flames or electrical arcing.
 CHAPTER-3

DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT

BUILDING

3.1 Design Philosophy

Earthquake-resistant buildings, particularly their main elements, need to be built with ductility
in them. Such buildings have the ability to sway back-and-forth during an earthquake, and to
withstand earthquake effects with some damage, but without collapse.

The earthquake design philosophy is:-

(a) Under minor yet regular shaking, the fundamental members from the building that convey
vertical and parallel forces ought not be harmed; however, fabricating parts that don’t convey
load may manage repairable harm.

(b) Under direct yet periodic shaking, the primary members may maintain repairable harm,
while alternate parts of the building might be harmed with the end goal that they may even
must be supplanted after the earthquake; and

(c) Under robust yet uncommon shaking, the fundamental members may manage extreme (even
unsalvageable) harm, yet the building ought not fall.

Figure:8 Phases of Earthquake

Such structures can influence forward and backward amid an earthquake, and to withstand
earthquake impacts with some harm, yet without fall. Malleability is a standout amongst the
most critical variables influencing the building execution. In this way, earthquake-safe plan
endeavours to foreordain the areas where harm happens and afterward to give great itemizing
at these areas to guarantee bendable conduct of the building.
 Figure:9 Building Performance during Earthquake

3.2 SEISMIC DESIGN CODES

The list of Indian standard codes for earthquake design of structures include IS 1893–2002,
IS 4928–1993, IS 13827–1992, IS: 13920–1997, IS: 13935–1993. These codes take several
parameters into considerations for instance local seismology, accepted level of seismic risk,
building typologies, construction materials, and methods used in construction.

Earthquake resistant building design guidelines are provided by set of Indian Standard codes
(IS Codes). After observing Indian earthquakes for several years Bureau of Indian Standard
has divided the country into five zones depending upon the severity of earthquake. The role
that codes of earthquake design structures play is of utmost important. This is because
structures that designed and constructed in accordance with the specifications, procedures, and
recommendations of these codes are capable of resisting seismic forces and associated
deformations to certain extent. These codes are the guidance of designers to plan, design, detail,
and construct buildings to withstand earthquakes. Finally, it should be known that, similar to
other codes around the world, structures design based on these codes do not entirely immune
from damages during earthquake of all magnitude. However, such buildings are able to
withstand sizeable intensities without total collapse.

3.3 I.S. Codes on Earthquake Resistant Building Design

1. IS 1893

 IS 1893 (Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures).

  It is divided into five different parts.
 Part 1 Presents provisions that are general in nature and applicable to all structures. It
deals with assessment of seismic loads on various structures and earthquake resistant
design of buildings. Additionally, it provides specifications related to buildings only.
 The other parts of IS 1893 including Part 2, 3, 4, and 5 need to be read in combination
with this part.
 Part 2 cover liquid retaining structures including elevated and ground supported
structures. Guidance is also provided on seismic design of buried tanks.
 Part 3 deals with bridge and retaining walls.
 Part 4 contains industrial structures including stack like structures.
 Part 5 provide design and construction guidance on dams and embankments.
2. IS 4326

 IS 4326 (Code of Practice for Earthquake Design Resistant Design and Construction
of Buildings).
 This code covers general principles for earthquake resistant buildings.
 It deals with the selection of materials and special features of design and construction
for different types of buildings such as timber constructions, masonry constructions
using rectangular masonry units, and buildings with prefabricated reinforced concrete
roofing/flooring elements.
3. IS 13827

 IS 13827 (Improving Earthquake Resistance of Earthen Buildings)

 The guidelines provided in IS 13827 deals with the design and construction aspects
for improving earthquake resistant design of earthen houses without the utilization of
stabilizers for instance cement, admixtures, lime, and asphalt.
 The provisions of this standard are applicable for seismic zones III, IV and V.
 No special provisions are considered necessary in Zone II.

4. IS 13828

 IS 13828 (Improving Earthquake Design of Low Strength Masonry Buildings).

 It provides general principles of design and special construction features for
improving earthquake resistance of buildings of low-strength masonry. This masonry
includes burnt clay brick or stone masonry in weak mortars, like clay-mud.
 The provisions of this standard are applicable in all seismic zones. No special
provisions are considered necessary for buildings in seismic zone II.
 Low strength masonry dealt with based on this standard is termed non-engineered,
and are not totally free from collapse under seismic shaking intensities VIII (MMI)
and higher.
5. IS 13920

 IS 13920 (Code of Practice for Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Subjected to Seismic Forces).
 This standard provides requirements for designing and detailing of reinforced
concrete structures in order to equip them with adequate toughness and ductility to
withstand serious earthquake shocks without collapse.
 The provisions for reinforced concrete construction given in this standard apply
specifically to monolithic reinforced concrete construction.
Precast and/or prestressed concrete members may be used only if they can provide the
same level of ductility as that of a monolithic reinforced concrete construction during
or after an earthquake.
6. IS 13935

 IS 13935 (Seismic Evaluation, Repair and Strengthening of Masonry Buildings -

Guidelines)
 These guidelines cover general principles of seismic strengthening, selection of
materials, and techniques for repair/seismic strengthening of masonry and wooden
buildings.
 The code provides a brief coverage for individual reinforced concrete members in
such buildings, but does not cover reinforced concrete frame or shear wall buildings
as a whole. Some guidelines are also laid down for non-structural and architectural
components of buildings.

3.4 Calculation of Earthquake Forces on Buildings and Structures

First step to calculate earthquake loads on structure is to identify the earthquake zone for which
structure needs to be designed. This earthquake zones are displayed in a map on page – 6 of
the code. After earthquake zone has been identified, the following steps are followed:

1. Calculate design horizontal seismic coefficient, Ah, which is given by (cl. 6.4.2 of IS1893
– 2002)

Where, Z is the zone factor, given in table 2 of IS1893 – 2002.

Seismic zone II III IV V

Seismic Intensity Low Moderate Severe Very Severe

Z 0.10 0.16 0.24 0.36

Seismic zone consider based on the region

Figure10: Earthquake zone in India

I is the importance factor of the structure depending on the function or use. This factor can
be obtained from table 6 of the code.

Table:1 Importance Factor

R is Response Reduction Factor. This value is obtained from table 7 of the code.

Table:2 Response Reduction factor

The value of 1/R shall not be more than one. Sa/g is average response acceleration coefficient.
This value depends on time period of structure and on soil type. This can be obtained from
clause 6.4.5 of the code.

2. Calculate design seismic base shear for the structure (VB). This is the total design lateral
force along any principal direction.

VB = Ah x W

Where Ah = horizontal seismic coefficient as calculated above in step 1. W = Total weight of

the structure.

3. Now calculate the distribution of design forces on the structure. The seismic design base
shear calculate in step above is distributed on the structure as design seismic forces. This is
calculated as
below: Where Qi = Design lateral force at floor i Wi = seismic weight of the floor i hi = height
of the floor i from the base n = number of storeys of the building at which masses are located.
4. Distribution of horizontal seismic forces on structure: These forces are distributed on the
vertical elements of the building resisting lateral forces.

FIGURE:11 Base shear on floor

3.5 IMPORTANCE OF SITE SELECTION

 Old or leaning trees, electrical wires, and power lines close to the house are a potential
hazard.
 Reinforce large or irregular canopies or porches to prevent them from separating from
the main part of the house. Consider a stronger frame or a smaller, regular shape for
your canopy or porch when you build or renovate.
 A steel-reinforced floating slab with thickened edges can be effective in poor soil. If
possible, extend foundations into solid, undisturbed soil.
 Look for other potential earthquake hazards (faults, dykes, reservoirs, water towers, or
poorly constructed buildings) near your property. Consider relocating if the risk is great
enough.

3.6 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL FACTOR

Local ground conditions can change the characteristics of earthquake motions. Have the local
building authority or soil engineers check the soil conditions of your property. If your home is
situated on poor soil, its foundation should be reinforced. Poor - deep loose sand; silty clays;
sand and gravel; and soft, saturated granular soils. Earthquake forces are amplified on water-
saturated soils, changing the soil from a solid to a liquid. The quicksand effect makes the
ground incapable of supporting a foundation. The ground can crack or heave, causing uneven
settling or building collapse. Good - bedrock (deep and unbroken rock formations) and stiff
soils. These soil types are best since much less vibration is transferred through the foundation
to the structure above.
 CHAPTER-4
MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE FOR
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURE

4.1 SELECTION OF MATERIAL

Structural steel has been used for years in earthquake-proof buildings. This is because it is able
to undergo massive amounts of stress and movement, which is necessary for a building to
withstand an earthquake or cyclone.

The materials used in an earthquake-proof building can make or break the structure’s stability.
Some materials, while creating a strong and stable building, are not built to handle the
movement of earthquakes. Bricks, in particular, are extremely susceptible to the vibrations of
an earthquake. Materials often used in earthquake-proof buildings are:

 Structural steel
 Wood
 Bamboo
 Reinforced concrete

Reliability of construction in earthquakes is greatly affected by the materials used for the
constituent elements of Structure, Architecture and equipment. It is seldom possible to use the
ideal materials for all elements, as the choice may be dictated by local availability of local
construction skills, cost constraints, or political decisions.

Purely in terms of earthquake resistance, the best materials have the following properties:

(1) high ductility;

(2) high strength-weight ratio;

(3) homogeneity;

(4) orthotropy;

(5) ease in making full strength connections.

Structural steel has been used for years in earthquake-proof buildings. This is because it is able
to undergo massive amounts of stress and movement, which is necessary for a building to
withstand an earthquake or cyclone. Structural steel is known for its ductility, the ability to
undergo significant deformation before rupture, and so is extremely popular in skyscrapers and
earthquake-proof buildings, allowing them to move with the vibrations. Wood and bamboo are
also exceedingly ductile and commonly used in smaller, low-lying structures such as houses,
sheds and small civic buildings.

Reinforced concrete is concrete with reinforcing steel bars (rebar) included. This turns a low
ductile material, concrete, into a higher ductile material. While it is common-place now for
almost every concrete pour to include the use of rebar it wasn’t always the way. Reinforced
concrete is used in conjunction with structural steel to create earthquake and cyclone-proof
buildings. Without steel reinforcement concrete is prone to cracking and structural failure in
buildings that are put under stress from high winds or ground vibrations.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

There are many known and practiced measures to protect against seismic threats. Let’s take a
look at some of the earthquake resistant techniques used by the engineers world over to
minimize the damage to structures due to earthquakes:

1. Floating Foundation:
The levitating or floating foundation separates the substructure of a building from its super-
structure. One way of doing this is by floating a building above its foundation on lead-rubber
bearings that comprise a solid lead core covered in alternating layers of rubber and steel. The
bearings are attached to the building and its foundation with the help of steel plates. So, when
an earthquake occurs, the floating foundation can move without moving the structure above it.
In Japan this Base isolation system works at a whole new level. Their design allows buildings
to float mid-air. The system levitates, keeping the building on a cushion of air. The system has
in-built sensors for detection of seismic activity and these sensors communicate with the air
compressor that creates the layer of air between the building and its base.

Figure:12 Base Isolation System

2. Shock Absorption:
Similar to the shock absorbers used in vehicles, buildings also makes use of this technology.
This earthquake resistant technology helps buildings slow down and reduce the magnitude
of vibratory motions. Ideally shock absorbers should be placed at each level of the building –
one end attached to the beam and the other end to the column. Each comprises a piston head
that moves inside a cylinder full of silicone oil. During earthquakes, the horizontal motion of
building will make the piston push against the oil, transforming mechanical energy from the
quake to heat.
 Figure:13 Shock absorber

3. Pendulum Power:
The pendulum power technique works by suspending a huge mass near the top of the structure.
This mass is supported by steel cables and viscous fluid dampers are placed between the mass
and the building that it protects. In case of any seismic activity, the pendulum moves in the
opposite direction to balance the energy. Each of the pendulums are tuned to sync with the
natural frequency of the structure and these systems are called tuned mass dampers. Their goal
is to counter resonance and reduce the structure’s dynamic response.

Figure:14 Damper system

4. Rocking Core-Wall:
Modern high-rise buildings use this technique to improve seismic resistance at a low cost. To
make this work, a reinforced concrete core is set through the heart of the structure, surrounded
by elevator banks. Many modern high-rise buildings use this technique to increase seismic
resistance in an affordable way. It works most effectively when used together with base
isolation. For base isolation, elastomeric bearings are built with alternating layers of steel and
natural rubber/neoprene. The bearing thus created has low horizontal stiffness and vertical
rigidity. The combination is highly effective, cost-friendly and simple to implement.

Figure:15 Core-Wall

5. Symmetry, Diaphragms and Cross-Bracing:

Generally one common criterion for seismic designs is symmetry. Seismic risks of
asymmetrical designs are higher. L-Shaped, T-Shaped and split-level structures may be more
visually appealing but they are also prone to torsion. Thus engineers design symmetrical
structures to keep the forces equally distributed through the structure and limit ornamental
elements like cornices, cantilever projections etc.
An earthquake has a significant lateral force. Seismic designing counteracts these forces in both
horizontal and vertical structural systems. Diaphragms are integral to horizontal structures –
such as floors of a building or roof. Engineers design each diaphragm on its own deck and
strengthen it horizontally so it can distribute sideways forces with vertical structure parts. With
vertical structures, engineers have several approaches. Braced frames are often used in building
walls. Braced frames rely on trusses for resisting sideways motion. Cross-bracing is a technique
that uses two diagonal members in an X-shape to build wall trusses and it is a popular technique
to build earthquake resistant structures.

Figure:16 Diaphragm and Cross Bracing

 CHAPTER-5
STRUCTURAL ELEMENT FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
BUILDING
earthquake resistant design of structure such as structural configuration, lateral stiffness, lateral
strength and ductility, in addition to form, aesthetics, functionality and comfort of the building
and other structural member adopted as Shear walls, cross braces, diaphragms and moment-
resisting frames are central to reinforcing a building. Shear walls are a useful building
technology that can help transfer earthquake forces. Made of multiple panels, these walls help
a building keep its shape during movement.

5.1 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT FOUNDATION

Consider the basic recommendations Foundation for earthquake-resistant buildings:
 It is necessary to reduce the connections of foundations with the soil – the source of seismic
effects.
 Side faces of the foundations in contact with the soils accumulate (contribute to an increase
the value) horizontal seismic effects on the foundation, leading to its displacement. In this
connection, it is advisable leave an air gap to reduce these effects.
 reducing friction between the base of the foundation and the soils reduces the transmission
of horizontal seismic effects on the foundation and at exceeding of the friction resistance
contributes to the slippage of the seismic wave under the foundation.
 protection of the foundation by a trench is effective and depends on the depth, size and
location of the trench closer to the building, from wave length, type of foundation. It is known,
a foundation is the supporting part of a structure that transmits the loads from the structure to
the foundation soils. Due to seismic loading, foundations can experience a reduction in bearing
capacity and increase in settlement. Two sources of loading must be taken into consideration:
inertial loading caused by the lateral forces imposed on the structure, and kinematic loading
caused by the ground movements developed during the earthquake.
Generally, a properly designed and performing foundation system should
 support the mass of the structure without excessive settlement.
 transfer large lateral earthquake loads between the structure and the ground.
 resist earthquake - induced overturning forces.
 resist both transient and permanent ground deformations without inducing excessive
displacements in the structure or in-plane distortions in elements supported by the structure.

A design earthquake is a theoretical earthquake event that modern building designers use to
check the resilience of a new structure. It is impossible to create a completely earthquake-proof
structure. However, a building may be engineered to withstand a design earthquake or at least
behave in a predictable way if a design earthquake should occur. The above discussion suggests
that there are many aspects which require research and development efforts, especially in order
to achieve optimal designs. A degree of seismic resilience can be achieved by applying a sound
understanding of structural engineering and construction principles to the structural elements
and system that make up the building.
5.2 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT COLUMN
It is very important to consider the effect of earthquake in proportioning of columns and their
reinforcement. The design is based on IS: 13920:1993. This code is applicable to members that
have factored axial stress greater than 0.08 fck under the effect of earthquake loads. Design as
flexural member, if the factored axial stress is less than the specified limit.
5.2.1 Detailing of Longitudinal Reinforcement

The requirements for longitudinal reinforcement as per IS 13920 are as follows:

 In a frame resisting earthquake forces, at a joint the sum of moment of resistance of the
column should be at least 1.1 times the sum of moment of resistance of the beam along
each principal plane of the joint. The moment of resistance should be summed in such
a way that the column moments oppose the beam moments.
 IS 13920 requires that at least one intermediate bar be provided between the corner bars
along each column face. Require intermediate bars to ensure the integrity of the beam-
column joint and increase confinement to the column core.
 Seismic moments are the maximum in columns just above and just below the beam.
Hence do not change reinforcement in these locations. Since the seismic moments are
minimum away from the ends of columns, it is preferable to provide lap slices only in
the central half of the columns. The splicing should not extend into the plastic hinge
regions.

5.2.2 Detailing of Transverse reinforcement

The requirements for transverse reinforcement as per IS 13920 are as follows:

 A minimum bar diameter is specified for transverse reinforcement in columns to ensure
minimum ductility and to prevent local buckling of longitudinal bars. As per IS 13920,
the minimum diameter is 8 mm. As per IS 456 it is 6 mm or one-fourth the largest
longitudinal bar. For columns with longitudinal bar diameter larger than 25 mm, the
minimum diameter of transverse reinforcement is specified as 10 mm.
 The parallel legs of a rectangular hoop should be less than 300 mm c/c. If the length of
any side of the hoop exceeds 300 mm, it is necessary to provide a cross-tie. It is
important to ensure that the hooks engage the peripheral longitudinal bars.
 Closer spacing of hoops is desirable to ensure better seismic performance.
 Do not assume ties, lap splice in the cover concrete, to make any contribution to strength
and stability.

ARRANGEMENT OF COLUMN

Figure:17 Column orientation

5.3 IMPORTANCE OF SHEAR WALL
Shear wall is a vertical element used to resist lateral forces such as wind and seismic forces
acting on a building structure. It works as a vertical cantilever beam supported at the ground
carrying vertical load together with columns. They are mainly used in tall buildings. In the past
two decades, shear walls became an important part of high-rise buildings. As a part of an
earthquake building design, these walls are provided in building plans to reduce lateral
displacements under earthquake loads.

Figure:18 RCC shear wall in Building

Purpose

These walls are mainly used

1. To resist lateral loads of earthquake and wind.
2. To resist gravity or vertical loads due to its self-weight and other living or moving loads.
3. To resist shear as well as uplift forces on the building.
4. To enhance the strength and stability of a structure.
5. To provide adequate stiffness to the structure.

Location Of Shear Wall

There are mainly two arrangements; one is placed at the edges of the building which could be
either plane or flanged shape. The other is placed inside the building in the shape of core walls
or channel sections. In high-rise buildings, these walls are generally located at the centre of the
building, normally in the form of a core wall system to accommodate vertical translation
systems such as lifts.
5.3.1 TYPES OF SHEAR WALL
1. RC Shear Wall
This is the most common type which consists of reinforced concrete walls and RC slabs. The
thickness of the walls varies from 140 mm to 150 mm. These walls are generally continuous
throughout the building’s height. However, discontinuous walls might be constructed on the
street from or basement level for parking space.

2. Steel Plate Shear Wall

Generally, these walls consist of steel plates, boundary columns, and horizontal floor beams.
The steel plate wall and boundary columns act as vertical plate girders where the column act
as flanges and steel plates act as its web. These types of walls can be used effectively in highly
seismic areas. However, it may be more expensive than other types.

3. Plywood Shear Wall

These walls consist of plywood, chords, and base connections. Ply woods transfer shear forces,
chords resist tension and compression and base connections transfer shear to the foundation.

4. RC Hollow Concrete Block Masonry Wall

These walls are constructed by providing steel reinforcement both in the vertical and horizontal
directions of masonry blocks. RHCBM walls counter lateral seismic loads and safely withstand
earthquakes. This construction system is known as the shear wall diaphragm concept. It gives
three-dimensional stability to a building.

5. Mid ply Shear Wall

It is a new concept. One-ply of sheathing material is placed at the centre of the wall between a
series of pairs of studs and plates oriented in a 90° rotated position relative to these in standard
shear walls. To prevent brittle failure at the end stud due to high tension forces, steel rods are
used at each end of the mid ply wall. Mid ply walls have superior survival characteristics under
earthquake loading and have a dynamic load-carrying capacity of more than three times
compared to standard shear walls.

5.4 IMPORTANCE OF MOMENT RESISTING FRAME

Moment-resisting frame is a rectilinear assemblage of beams and columns, with the beams
rigidly connected to the columns. Resistance to lateral forces is provided primarily by Rigid
frame action – that is, by the development of Bending moment and Shear force in the frame
members and joints. By virtue of the rigid beam–column connections, a moment frame cannot
displace laterally without bending the beams or columns depending on the geometry of the
connection. The bending rigidity and strength of the frame members is therefore the primary
source of lateral stiffness and strength for the entire frame.
 Figure:19 Moment Resisting frame

5.5 IMPORTANCE OF PROPER BRACING

A braced frame is a very strong structural system that is commonly used in structures subject
to lateral loads such as wind and seismic pressure. The members in a braced frame are generally
made of structural steel, which can work effectively both in tension and compression.
The beams and columns that form the frame carry vertical loads and the bracing
system carries the lateral loads.
Bracing can be done in two ways:
1. Vertical bracing
2. Horizontal bracing

Figure:20 Bracing of Building

 CHAPTER-6
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO MINIMISE THE LOSSES DUE TO
EARTHQUAKE

6.1 Pre-quake preparations to minimize earthquake damage and injury

Precisely because scientists have never been able to accurately predict a major earthquake,
being prepared is crucial. After all, “Earthquakes don’t kill people. Buildings do.” There are a
number of earthquake alert apps specific to various cities or states that are available free.
Navigate to your app store and search under “earthquake alert.”

1. Structural elements
 Encourage clients to retain a qualified structural engineer to evaluate their building,
especially if it is older than the seismic design provisions in local building codes.
 Consider retrofits for older buildings so that they meet or exceed current building codes.
 Unreinforced masonry is especially vulnerable in an earthquake and should be
retrofitted.

2. Non-structural elements
 Brace heavy machinery, appliances, containers, tanks and inventory that an earthquake
could cause to shift, fall or rupture.
 Lock the rollers of heavy furniture and storage shelving.
 Secure large appliances and install flexible gas and water connections
 Attach computers and towers to desks.
 Anchor file cabinets, mirrors or pictures to wall studs.
 Anchor top-heavy furniture to the wall and place heavy objects on lower shelves
 Secure ceiling lights and false ceilings to joists.
 Install a main gas shut-off device and flexible connections on gas appliances. Train staff
on how and when to shut off gas, electricity and water. Keep wrenches or other
necessary tools close by.
 Consider applying safety film to windows and glass doors, especially where breakage
could cause the most injuries or damage.

3. Training and preparation

 Designate an emergency response team responsible for fire safety equipment checks,
evacuation procedures, first-aid training, drills and both internal / external
communication in the event of an earthquake.
 Regularly check the integrity of fire extinguishers, pumps and water tanks. Fire is the
most common hazard after an earthquake.
 Assemble disaster preparedness kits and stow in various parts of the building. These
should include whistles, dust masks, a portable charger for cell phones, a battery-
powered or hand crank radio and a NOAA Weather Radio with tone alert.
 Educate staff on how to protect themselves in a quake. Explain that smoke alarms and
sprinkler systems may go off in buildings during an earthquake, even if there is no fire.
Depending on where they are when the quake strikes, teach them to:
  Inside a building: “Duck, cover and hold.” Move away from windows and doors. Drop
to the floor, take cover under a sturdy table or desk against an inside wall. Grasp one of
its legs while covering your head with your other arm.
 Outside a building: Move into a clearing and away from power lines, trees, street lights
and buildings. Drop to the ground and wait for the shaking to stop. If you are near
unstable slopes or cliffs, be alert for falling rocks or landslides.
 Driving: Pull to the shoulder or off the road, away from traffic, road signs and power
lines. Don’t stop on or under bridges or overpasses. Stay in the car with seat belt
fastened until the shaking stops. If you resume driving, go slowly and look for possible
road damage.

6.2 Post-earthquake recovery steps to minimize earthquake damage and

injury

Aid your clients in business continuity planning, outlining procedures to organize post-quake
recovery. Their plan should address business interruption risks and the possibility that fire
protection systems may be damaged by the temblor, rendering them useless or only partially
functioning. Their plan should also encompass:

 Guidelines for taking an inventory of damage.

 Priorities for repairs.
 Contact information of contractors critical for repairs and resumption of operations.
 Warnings against hot work until fire protection is fully functional.
 Suppliers’ contact information to order fresh supplies after the temblor.
 Communication procedures with customers, informing them of any delays or
reductions in their business capabilities.
 CHAPTER-7
CASE STUDIES OF REAL-LIFE EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
BUILDING
7.1 BURJ KHALIFA PROJECT DETAILS
The world tallest man-made structure that is constructed as Earthquake resistant Building in
The world’s tallest building, Burj Khalifa took 6 years for its construction and was
inaugurated on 4th January 2010. The structure is 828m tall and the whole system is a
reinforced concrete tower structure. This was the first attempt in world history to have such
a large height for structures. This reason made the designers to employ one of the best and
latest technology and innovative structural design.

Figure:21 Burj Khalifa

The structure is located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The structural features include:
 160 + story tower
 Podium structure adjacent
 Have a six story office adjacent
 A two story pool facility near
The tower comprises 2,80,000 m2 area. This area is utilized for 700 residential apartments
located from 45 to 108 floors. Remaining spaces is till the 160 th floor is occupied by the
corporate officers. The total project cost is estimated to be US$20billion. The tower
construction itself costs $4.2billion. The structural elements used and their amount is
mentioned below:
1. Concrete Used = 250000 cubic meter
2. Curtain Walls = 83,600sq.m of glass and 27,900 sq.m of metal
3. Steel Rebars Used = 39,000 tones
4. Man-Hours = 22million man-hours
7.1.1 Structural System of Burj Khalifa
Shape of the Tower
Adrian Smith is the man behind the structural and the architectural design of Burj Khalifa.
The basic structure is a central hexagon core with three wings, which is clustered around it,
as shown in figure. While moving up along the tower, one wing at each tier is set back. This
makes decreasing cross section when moving up. The structure consists of 26 terraces.

Figure:22 Buttress core structural system

The Burj Khalifa employs a ‘Y’ shaped floor plan. This plan provide higher performance and
provides a full view of the Persian Gulf. The shape and the upward setbacks help the structure
to reduce the wind forces that is acting on the structure. The shape was finally fixed based on
the series of wind tunnel tests. The structural system employed for Burj Khalifa can be called
as the Buttressed Core System. The whole system is constructed by using high performance
concrete wall. Each wing buttresses the other through a hexagonal central core as shown in
figure-2. The central core has a higher resistance towards the torsional resistance. The structure
is more designed for wind force and related effects. There are corridor walls that extend from
the central core to the end of the wing. At the end, these walls are thickened by means of
hammer walls. These walls resist the wind shears and moments by acting like the web and the
flanges of the beams. There are perimeter columns which are connected to the mechanical
floors. The connection between the perimeter columns and the mechanical floors is provided
by means of outrigger walls. This help to resists higher wind loads laterally. The outrigger
depth is three storey heights. There is periodic encounter of outrigger system through the height
of the tower.

Foundation of Burj Khalifa

The superstructure of Burj Khalifa is supported over a large reinforced concrete raft. This raft
is in turn supported by bored reinforced concrete piles. The raft has a thickness of 3.7m and
was constructed in four separate pours. The grade of concrete raft is C50 which was self-
consolidating concrete. The concrete volume used in the raft is 12,500-meter cube. The
number of piles used were 194. The piles were 1.5m in diameter and have a length of 43m.
Each pile has a capacity of 3000 tons. The concrete grade used in piles where C60 SCC
concrete which were placed by tremie method. This utilized polymer slurry to carry out the
process. To reduce the detrimental effects of chemicals, cathodic protection where provided
under the raft. The C80 and C60 cube strength concrete is used incorporating fly ash, Portland
cement, and the local aggregates. A young’s modulus of 43800N/mm2 is said to be granted by
the C80 concrete.
 CHAPTER-8
LATEST TREND IN EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURE
When we see that there is an earthquake-related disaster in the news with pictures of collapsed
buildings and other structures spread all over the place, then we think that earthquake-resistant
construction of structures is still in the dark ages. Of course, the main objective of professionals
engaged in the area of earthquake resistant design is to create various cost-effective design
solutions to make structures less vulnerable to earthquakes, even large earthquakes. So we have
to learn enough about building structures that will behave predictably and within acceptable
damage limits during the earthquake. So today this field is very important for developing
countries like India. Developments of new technologies and replacing new materials, which
are not traditionally used in civil engineering structures, offer significant promise in reducing
seismic risk. Some improvements have been made in our understanding of earthquakes and the
response of structures. Advances in modelling ground motions development of more involved
and complex analysis tools; larger and better-quality database to predict ground motions; a shift
towards probabilistic and reliability-based design approaches and a gradual replacement of
descriptive codes by performance based design procedures are some of the significant changes
in this field.

8.1 NEW STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS

A number of new systems and devices has been developed using non-conventional Civil
engineering materials broadly for the following two reasons:
(a) to reduce the earthquake forces acting on a structure
(b) To absorb a part of the seismic energy released during the movement of the tectonic
plates.
The following new techniques are being developed, evaluated and implemented to make the
buildings to withstand the shaking and vibrations caused by earthquake.
1.Fixed base system:
In this system the conventional structures absorb energy through inelastic deformation in
structural members. Using this system large inter-storey drifts cause structural and non-
structural damages occur but loss of life and collapse of structure can be prevented.

Figure:23 Fixed base system

2. Seismic isolation system:
In this system the structures are supported on isolators which decouple structures from
damaging earthquake components and absorb seismic energy adding substantial damping.

Figure:24 Seismic Isolation System

3.Energy dissipation system:
Energy dissipation devices absorb seismic energy thereby reducing the demand on primary
structural members. Using this system the structural and non-structural is significantly reduced.

Figure:25 Energy dissipation system

4.Active control system:
Lateral stiffness and dynamic properties of structures are adjusted during the earthquake to
control its response. In this system complex control mechanism and elaborate hardware is
required.

Figure:26 Active control system

 CONCLUSION
In the coming years, the field of Earthquake Resistant Designing of structures is most likely to
witness the most reliable structure which could withstand the effect of earthquake in all kinds
of zones. The development of new structural systems and devices will continue for base-
isolation, passive energy dissipation and active control systems, along with the proliferation of
non-traditional civil engineering materials and techniques. This technique plays a crucial role
in reducing the impact of earthquakes on structures and human lives. Effective earthquake
resistant technique, such as Flexible foundations, dampers and Bracing systems can
significantly enhance a Building’s ability to withstand seismic forces. It’s essential to adhere
to local building codes and standard to ensure the safety of structures in earthquake prone areas.
Additionally, ongoing research and innovation continue to improve our understanding of
Earthquake engineering, leading to even more robust and resilient building designs in the
future.
 REFERENCES
1. www.Wikipedia.com
2. Advanced Reinforced Concrete Design by P.C Varghese, Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 2011
3. Chopra A.K. 2005, Earthquake Dynamic of Structures, a primer, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California.
4. IS:1893-2002
5. IS:13920-2008
6. Rai C. Durgesh, Future trends in Earthquake resistant design of structures,
current science, Oct 2001, Vol: 79, No:9.