Department of Civil Engineering

1. STUDY – BUILDING AREA CALCULATION

INTRODUCTION
‘Building' means any structure for whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever material constructed and
every part thereof whether used for human habitation or not and includes foundations, plinth, walls,
floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building services, verandah, balcony, cornice or projections, part
of a building or anything affixed thereto or any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or space
and signs and outdoor display structures

ESTIMATION
Estimation of any construction work may be defined as the process of calculating the quantities and
costs of various items required in connection with the work. It is prepared by calculating the quantities
from the dimensions on the drawings for the various items required to complete the project and
multiplied by unit cost of the item concerned. To prepare an estimate, drawings consisting of the plan,
the elevation and the sections through important points, along with a detailed specification giving
specific description of all workmanship, properties and proportion of materials are required.

BUILT UP AREA
Built-up area is the total area measured on the outer line of your building, including balcony, terrace,
etc. or the built up covered area in all floors including basement floor.

PLINTH
Portion of a structure between ground surface and the floor immediately above the ground.

PLINTH AREA
Built covered area measured at the floor level of the basement. It is calculated by taking external
dimensions of building at floor level excluding plinth offsets if any.

Following shall be included in the plinth area:

 All floors, area of walls at the floor level excluding plinth offsets, if any.
 Internal shafts for sanitary installations provided if these do not exceed 2sqm in area, air condition
ducts, lifts, etc.
 The area of barsati (small roof top room) and the area of mumty (staircase tower) at terrace level
 Area of porches other than cantilevers

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Following shall not be included in the plinth area:

 Area of loft (upper storey directly under the roof)

 Courtyard, open areas, balconies and cantilever projections
 Internal sanitary shafts provided if these area more than 2sqm
 Unenclosed balconies
 Towers, domes, etc., projecting above the terrace level, not forming a storey at the terrace level
 Architectural bands, cornices etc.
 Sunshades, vertical sun breakers or box louvers projecting out.

FLOOR AREA
Total area of floors in between walls and consists of floors of all rooms , verandah, passages, corridor,
hall, kitchen, stores, bathrooms etc.
Floor area = Plinth area – Area occupied by walls

CARPET AREA
It is the total useful area or liveable area of the building.
Carpet Area = Total Floor Area – Non Usable Area

Carpet area exclude the following,

a. Sanitary accommodation
b. Verandah
c. Corridor and passages
d. Kitchen and pantry
e. Entrance hall and porches
f. Barsaties
g. Garages
h. Shafts for lifts
i. Staircase and mumties
j. Air conditioning ducts and plant room etc.

 The carpet area of an office building is 60% to 75% of the plinth area of the building.
 The carpet area of residential building is 50% to 65% of the plinth area of the building.
 For framed structure the area occupied by walls is 5% to 10% of the plinth area.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

1A. COMPUTATION OF PLINTH AREA, CARPET AREA AND

FLOOR AREA

AIM
To prepare a rough sketch of a single storey building and to compute the plinth area, carpet area
and floor area by taking linear measurements.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS

Measuring tape

PROCEDURE

1. Measured the length and breadth of the given room for computing area of a single storied
building.
2. Measured the outer sides and thickness of the wall.
3. Computed the plinth area, carpet area and floor area.

RESULT

Plinth area for the given building = ……………..m2

Carpet area for the given building =……………...m2
Floor area for the given building =………….…..m2

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 Department of Civil Engineering

1B. DETERMINATION OF AREA OF A PLOT

AIM
To determine area of a given plot using tape.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS

Measuring tape (30m)

PROCEDURE

1. Visited the site to be measured.

2. Points A, B, C & D are marked on field.
3. Took dimensions of all the sides & any one diagonal by dividing given plot into triangles.
4. Calculated the area of the plot using Heron’s formula.

Area, A = √s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

a+b+c
Where a, b and c are sides of the triangle and S =
2

RESULT
Plot area = …………. m2

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 Department of Civil Engineering

2. MEASUREMENTS USING VERNIER CALIPER AND SCREW

GAUGE
VERNIER CALIPER

A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. The
vernier caliper consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at one end. Another jaw, containing the
vernier scale, moves over the main scale. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale
and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a
positive or negative zero error.

PARTS OF A VERNIER CALIPER

Main Scale

The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one edge and in inches at
the other edge. It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two jaws are in contact, the
zero of the main scale and the zero of the vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not
coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.

Vernier Scale

A vernier scale slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any position by the retainer. On the vernier scale,
0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts.

Outer Measuring Jaws

The outer measuring jaws help to take the outer dimension of an object.

Inner Measuring Jaws

The inner measuring jaw helps to take the inner dimension of an object.

Retainer

The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the vernier calipers.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

Depth Measuring Prong

The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an object.

LEAST COUNT

The least count or the smallest reading which we get with the instrument, and can be calculated
as:-

Least Count = One Main Scale (MS) division – One Vernier Scale (VS) division

OR

𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 (𝑀𝑆) 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Least Count =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

First, calculate the least count and then only place the object between the two jaws. Record the
position of zero of the vernier scale on the main scale.

CALCULATION OF DIMENSIONS

When the body is between the jaws of the vernier caliper, and if the zero of the vernier scale lies
ahead of the Nth division of the main scale, then,

Main Scale Reading (MSR) is: -

MSR = N

If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale, then,
Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) is:-
VSR = n𝗑 L.C ( Least count of Vernier caliper)

Total Reading (TR),

TR = MSR + VSR = N + (n 𝗑 LC)

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 Department of Civil Engineering

SCREW GAUGE

The screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring accurately the diameter of a thin wire orthe
thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle which is
attached to a thimble.

Parallel to the axis of the thimble, a scale graduated in mm is engraved. This is called pitch scale. A
sleeve is attached to the head of the screw. The head of the screw has a ratchet which avoids undue
tightening of the screw. On the thimble there is a circular scale known as head scale which is divided
into 50 or 100 equal parts. When the screw is worked, the sleeve moves over the pitch scale.

A stud with a plane end surface called the anvil is fixed on the ‘U’ frame exactly opposite to the tip
of the screw. When the tip of the screw is in contact with the anvil, usually, the zero of the head scale
coincides with the zero of the pitch scale.

PITCH OF THE SCREW GAUGE

The pitch of the screw is the distance moved by the spindle per revolution. To find this, the distance
advanced by the head scale over the pitch scale for a definite number of complete rotations of the
screw is determined.

The pitch can be represented as,

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤

Pitch of the screw =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

LEAST COUNT

The Least count (LC) is the distance moved by the tip of the screw, when the screw is turned
through 1 division of the head scale.

The least count can be calculated using the formula: -

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least Count =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

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 Department of Civil Engineering

ZERO ERROR AND ZERO CORRECTION

To get the correct measurement, the zero error must be taken into account. For this purpose, the screw
is rotated forward till the screw just touches the anvil and the edge of cap is on the zero mark of the
pitch scale. The screw gauge is held keeping the pitch scale vertical with its zero downwards. When
this is done, anyone of the following three situations can arise:

1. The zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line. In this case, the zero error and the
zero correction, both are nil.
2. The zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not crossit. In this
case, the zero error is positive and the zero correction is negative depending on how many divisions
it is above the reference line.
3. The zero mark of the head scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero error is negative
and the zero correction is positive depending on how many divisions it is below the reference line.

CALCULATION OF DIMENSIONS

With the rod between the screw and anvil, if the edge of the cap lies ahead of the N th division of the
linear scale;

Then, linear scale reading (P.S.R.) = N

If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line;

Then, circular scale reading (H.S.R.) = n x (L.C.) [L.C. is least count of screw gauge]

Total reading (T.R.) = P.S.R. + corrected H.S.R. = N + (n x L.C.)

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 Department of Civil Engineering

2A. MEASURENMENTS OF DIAMETER OF FLAT BAR USING VERNIER

CALIPER
AIM
To determine the diameter of given flat bar using vernier caliper.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

Vernier caliper, flat bar

PROCEDURE

1. First calculated the vernier constant (VC), which is the least count (L.C) of the vernier caliper.
2. Adjusted the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw and estimated the zero error.
Procedure repeated 2 times and recorded the values.
3. Opened the jaws of the vernier caliper and placed the bar between the two jaws and adjusted the
movable jaw, such that it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. Tightened the
screw attached to the Vernier scale.
4. Noted the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale. Recorded the main
scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale (MSR).
5. Noted the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which coincides with the division of the main
scale.
6. Calculated total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+ (n x L.C) and apply the zero
correction.
7. Took the mean of the different values of the dimensions.
8.

RESULT

Thickness of flat bar =………………. Cm

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 Department of Civil Engineering

2B. MEASUREMENT OF THICKNESS OF STEEL ROD USING SCREW

GAUGE
AIM

To determine the thickness of given steel rod using screw gauge.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

Screw Gauge, steel rod

PROCEDURE

1. Calculated the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.

2. Adjusted the anvil and screw in contact with each other and calculated the zero error. Took three
trials and recorded them.
3. Moved the screw away from the anvil and placed the rod and moved the screw towards the anvil
using the ratchet head. Stopped when the ratchet slips without moving the screw.
4. Noted the number of divisions on the pitch scale that is visible and uncovered by the edge of the
cap (PSR).
5. Noted the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over the reference line.
6. Calculated total reading using the equation and applied zero correction in each case.
7. The diameter of rod was taken as the average of dimensions measured.

RESULT

Mean diameter of the rod = ……………….. cm

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 Department of Civil Engineering

3. TRANSFER THE LEVEL FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER USING A

WATER LEVEL

AIM

To transfer the level from one point to another

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

Level tube

PROCEDURE

1. Filled the level tube with water without entrapped air.

2. Marked the required/known level on the wall.
3. Using thumb the ends are closed to prevent the water from spilling. Then held one end of level tube
on the marked position.
4. Adjusted the other end on level transferring position.
5. Released the thumbs and continued to check the levels by sliding the free end of the tube, till the
water level on both ends of the tube are same.
6. Checked the water level on either end of the tube.

RESULT
The level transferred from one point to another point.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

4. SETTING OUT

INTRODUCTION
Setting out a building is the process of transferring architectural proposals from drawings into the
ground. It establishes the location points for site boundaries, foundations, columns, centre-lines of
walls and other necessary structural parts. Also, it establishes the buiding's correct extent, angle and
level.

Basically a set-out survey involves transferring a building design onto the land itself so the builders
can follow it during construction. Examples of this would be for the earthworks, roads, car parks,
sewerage, water and the actual buildings themselves.

The main reason for setting out (other than to guide the workers as they begin construction) is to ensure
the construction remains within the legal boundary. This means there will be no legal disputes later on,
such as those regarding property boundaries and rights of access.

AIMS OF SETTING OUT

There are two main aims when undertaking setting out operations: -

1. The various elements of the scheme must be correct in all three dimensions both relatively and
absolutely, that is each must be its correct size, in its correct plan position and correct reduced level.
2. Once setting out begins it must proceed quickly with little or no delay in order that the works can
proceed smoothly and the cost can be minimized.

PRINCIPLES OF SETTING OUT

Horizontal control techniques
In order that the design of the scheme can be correctly fixed in position, it is necessary to establish
points on the site which the E, N coordinates are known.

These are horizontal control points and, once they have been located they can be used with a positioning
technique to set out E, N coordinates of the design points.
Two factors need to be considered when establishing horizontal control points.

1. The control points should be located throughout the site in order that all the design points can be
fixed from at least two or three of them so that the work can be independently checked.
2. The design points must be set out to the accuracy stated in the specifications.

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Baselines
A baseline is a line running between two points of a known position. Where a baseline is specified to
run between two points then once the points have been established on site, the design points can be set
out from the baseline by offsetting using tapes.

Reference grids
Reference grids are used for accurate setting out of works of large magnitude.

Offset pegs
Once excavations for foundations begin, the corner pegs will be lost. To avoid these extra pegs called
offset pegs are used.

METHODS OF SETTING OUT

a. Using tape only -3,4,5 method
b. Using cross staff

a. Setting out Right Angles using Tape only 3-4-5 Method

1. To set out right angles in the field, a measuring tape, two ranging poles, pegs and three persons
are required.
2. The first person holds together, between thumb and finger, the zero mark and the 12 metre mark
of the tape.
3. •he second person holds between thumb and finger the 3 metre mark of the tape and the third
person holds the 8 metre mark.
4. When all sides of the tape are stretched, a triangle with lengths of 3 m, 4 m and 5 m is formed
and the angle near person 1 is a right angle.

b. Setting out Right Angles using Cross Staff

1. Fix the first point by measuring the distance from road or wall.
2. Place the cross staff and set perpendicular to previously fixed point and markthe second point
using tape according to the plan.
3. Similarly fix tape according to the plan.
4. Check all the obtained point using tape.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

4A. SETTING OUT OF A ONE ROOM BUILDING WITH A GIVEN

PLAN AND MEASURING TAPE

AIM

To set out the foundation trenches of a room of size 3m x 4m

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
Pegs, Hammer, Measuring Tape, Thread, L-Square, and Water Level.

PROCEDURE
1. For setting out the foundations of the given room size, the centre line of the longest outer wall
of the building AB with offset 50cm on either side is first marked on the ground (F and H) by
stretching a thread between wooden or mild steel pegs driven at the ends. This line serves as
the reference line.
2. Measured 50cm on both sides by measuring tape and marked the points A and B on the thread.
3. Placed the L-Square on A along the reference line, measured 50cm offset perpendicular to the
reference line and mark the point E with a peg.
4. Tied the thread from reference line to E and extended it through A and extended up to point J
to make the centre line of other side wall AC.
5. Checked the right angles at corners, by taking 4 feet on AB line and 3 feet on AJ line, if our
work is correct the diagonal will measure 5 feet. Repeated the steps, till it measured correctly.
6. From the point J repeated the above procedure for the corners C and D.
7. Checked the accuracy of the setting out by measuring diagonals accurately.

RESULT
Setting out was done successfully.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

5. LEVELLING

INTRODUCTION

Levelling is a method of surveying used for determination of the difference of elevations or levels of
various points on the surface of the earth. The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or
below a reference level, called datum. The most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L.).
The levelling deals with distances in a vertical plane.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN LEVELLING

Dumpy Level
The dumpy level consists of a telescope, generally the internal focusing type, fixed on a vertical
spindle. The telescope tube and the vertical spindle are cast as one piece. The spindle revolves in the
socket of the levelling head. The levelling head consists of two parallel plates held apart by three (or
four) levelling screws. The upper plate is called tribrach and the lower one is called trivet stage. The
telescope can be rotated in the horizontal plane about its vertical axis.

A sensitive level tube is fitted on the top of the telescope or on its side. An inclined mirror is attached
to the level tube to enable the observer to view the bubble from the eye end of the telescope without
moving round the instrument. The cross hairs of the diaphragm normally havea vertical line and a
horizontal line. When instrument is in adjustment, the line of sight of the instrument is perpendicular
to the vertical and parallel to the bubble tube axis as shown in figure.

The modern dumpy levels are provided with a clamp for clamping the telescope to the tribrach in any
desired position. Also, a graduated horizontal circle is provided to determine the direction of the
telescope. The dumpy level is simple in construction and requires fewer permanent adjustments.

Levelling Staff

A leveling staff is a graduated rod of rectangular section. It is usually made of teak wood. Two main
classes of rod are:

i. Self-reading which can be read by the instrument operator sighting through the telescope and
noting the apparent intersection of the cross hairs on the road. This is the most common type.
ii. Target rods having a movable target that is set by rod person at the position indicated bythe
signals from the instrument man.

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TERMS USED IN LEVELLING

Level Surface

A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is called level surface, e.g., a still lake. A
level surface is a curved surface, every point on which is equidistant from the centre of the earth. It is
normal to the plumb line at all the points.

Vertical line

It is a line from any point on the earth's surface to the centre of the earth. It is commonly considered to
be the line defined by a plumb line.

Level line

It is a line lying on a level surface. It is normal to the plumb line at all the points.

Horizontal plane

It is a plane tangential to the level surface at the point under consideration. It is perpendicular to the
plumb line.

Horizontal line

It is a line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line tangential to the level line.

Axis of telescope

It is a line joining the optical centre of the objective to the centre of the eyepiece.

Line of collimation

It is a line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the optical centre of the objective and its
continuation. It is also called the line of sight.

Axis of level tube or bubble tube

It is an imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the tube at its mid-point.

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Height of instrument (H.I.)

It is the elevation of the plane of collimation when the instrument is leveled. It should be noted that the
height of instrument does not mean the height of the centre of the telescope above the ground, where
the level is set up.

Back sight (B.S.)

It is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation, e.g., a sight on a bench mark or on a change
point. It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up. It is also called plus sight.

Fore sight (F.S.)

It is a staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be determined, e.g., a sight on a change point.
It is also called a minus sight. It is the last staff reading and denotes the shifting of the instrument.

Intermediate sight (I.S)

It is a staff reading taken on a point of unknown elevation between backsight and foresight.

Change point (C.P.) or turning point (T.P.)

It is a point, denoting the shifting of the level. Both F.S. and B.S. are taken on this point.

Station

A point, whose elevation is to be determined is called station.

Parallax

It is the apparent movement of the image relative to the cross-hairs when the image formed by the
objective does not fall in the plane of the diaphragm.

Bench Mark

It is a fixed reference point of known elevation.

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TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF A DUMPY LEVEL

These consist of setting up, levelling, and elimination of parallax.

Setting Up

Since the level is not to be set at any fixed point. the setting up of a level is much simple as compared
to other instruments. While locating the level the ground point should be so chosen that

(a) the instrument is not too low or too high to facilitate reading on a bench mark

(b) the length of the backsight should preferably not be more than 98.0 m

(c) the backsight distance and foresight distance should be equal, and the foresight should be so
located that it advances the line of levels. Setting up includes fixing the instrument and
approximate levelling by leg adjustment.

Fixing the instrument over tripod

The clamp screw of the instrument is released. The level is held in the right hand. It is fixed on the
tripod by turning round the lower part with the left hand and is firmly screwed over the tripod.

Leg adjustment

The instrument is placed at a convenient height with the tripod legs spread well apart and so adjusted
that the tripod head is as nearly horizontal as can be judged by the eye.

Levelling Up

1. The telescope is held parallel to two-foot screws, the two-foot screws are turned uniformly towards
each other or away from each other until the circular bubble is central.

2. Turn the telescope through 90° and bring the circular bubble in centre by turning the third foot
screw.

3. Now the circular bubble should be central for any orientation of telescope.

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Elimination of Parallax

Focusing the eyepiece

This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear distinct and clearly visible. The following steps
are involved:

1. The telescope is directed skywards or a sheet of white paper is held in front of the objective.

2. The eyepiece is moved in or out till the cross-hairs appear distinct.

Focusing the objective

This operation is done to bring the image of the object in the plane of the cross-hairs. The following
steps are involved:

1. The telescope is directed towards the staff.

2. The focusing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.

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 Department of Civil Engineering

5A. LEVEL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANY TWO POINTS USING DUMPY

LEVEL

AIM
To find level difference between the points.

INSTRUMENTS

Dumpy Level, Levelling Staff

PROCEDURE

1. The dumpy level set up at a convenient position so that Bench Mark and maximum pointsare
visible and levelled the instrument by doing all the temporary adjustments.
2. Observed the reading to the staff kept on Bench Mark, point A. That was the first reading
and that entered in the back sight column of the field book.
3. The last reading t a k e n a t p o i n t E entered in Foresight column and all the other sights to
points B, C, D entered in the intermediate sight column.
4. Calculated the Reduced Levels of stations at each point by Height of collimation method:

Height of the instrument = R.L of Bench Mark + Back Sight

Reduced Level = Height of the Instrument – Foresight/Intermediate Sight

Then checked,

∑ B.S - ∑ F.S = Last R.L - First R.L

RESULT

Reduced level of given points was found by using height of collimation method and the difference in
elevation between stations A & E, = ___________m

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 Department of Civil Engineering

6. STUDY OF BRICK MASONRY

INTRODUCTION
Masonry may be defined as the construction of building units bonded together with mortar. The
building units may be stones, bricks or precast blocks of concrete. Masonry construction using brick
is termed as brick masonry. Brick masonry is normally used for the construction offoundation,
walls, and other similar structural components of building.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN MASONRY

Modular bricks confirm to the size laid down by the Bureau of Indian standards (BIS). The nominal
size of modular brick is 20cm𝗑10cm𝗑10cm, while actual size of brick is 19cm𝗑9cm𝗑9cm.

Mortar
Mortar is the binding material used to bind the individual bricks to form a compact mass. It also acts
as a cushion to make up inequalities in the bricks, so as to distribute the pressure evenly. Commonly
used mortars are Lime mortar, Cement mortar and Mud mortar.

Stretcher
Stretcher is the longer face of the brick visible in elevation when it is laid flat.

Header
Header is the shorter face of the brick (i.e., 9cm 𝗑 9cm) visible in elevation when it is laid flat.

Arrises
The edges formed by intersection of plane surfaces of a brick are known as arrises.

Lap
The horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick courses is known as lap.

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Course
A complex layer of bricks laid on the same bed is known as a course. In brick masonry, the thickness
of a course will be equal to the thickness of a brick plus thickness of one mortar joint.

Closer
It is a portion of a brick with the cut made longitudinally. It helps in preventing vertical joints of
successive courses coming in a vertical line. A queen closer is a brick which is half as wide as a full
brick.

Bat
It is the portion of a brick cut across the width. Thus, a bat is smaller in length than a full brick.If
the length of bat is half that of a full brick, it is known as a half bat. A three-quarter bat is one having
its length three quarter of the length of a full brick.

Bond
The interlocking arrangement of bricks in order to tie them together in a mass of brick work is known
as bonding. The main objective of bond is to ensure that vertical joints do not come directly one over
another. A brick wall having continuous joint vertically will not act as a single unit but will act as
individual columns. Bonds are distinguished by their elevation on face appearance.

TYPES OF BONDS
1) English bond
2) Flemish bond

ENGLISH BOND

This is the most commonly used bond for all thickness of walls. This bond is considered to bethe
strongest. This bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. In order to break the
vertical joints in successive courses, it is essential to place a queen closer after the first header.
Essential Features
i. Alternate courses will show either header or stretcher in elevation.
ii. There is no continuous vertical joint.

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iii. Walls of odd multiples of half brick in thickness (e.g 1 ½ , 2 ½ etc) will show stretchers on one
face and headers on the other.
iv. Walls of even multiples of half brick in thickness (e.g., 1, 2, 3 etc) will show the same ppearance
on both faces.
v. The hearting (middle portion) of each of the thicker walls consists entirely of headers.
vi. A header course should never start or end with a queen closer as it will get displaced.The
queen closer should be placed just next to exterior header.
vii. Since the number of vertical joints in header course are twice the number of vertical joints in
stretcher course, the joints in header course are made thinner than joints in the stretcher course.

FLEMISH BOND
In this bond, each course is comprised of alternate layers of headers and stretchers. Evenalternate
course starts with a header at the corner. Each course presents the same appearance both in the front
face as well as in the back face.

Essential Features

i. Every course consists of headers and stretchers placed alternately.

ii. The facing and backing of the wall, in each course have same appearance.
iii. Queen closers are used next to first headers in every alternate course.
iv. In walls having thickness equal to odd multiples of half bricks, half bats and three- quarter bats
are used.
v. For walls of thickness equal to even multiples of half brick, no bats are required. A header or
stretcher will come out as header or stretcher on the same course in front as well as back faces.

TOOLS US ED IN BRICK MASONRY

Trisquare
It is used for setting out right angles and for checking perpendicularity during construction of walls.

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Trowel
It is a short handled, flat bladed tool for lifting and spreading mortar, for cutting bricks and
construction of joints.

Straight edge
It is a bar with one edge accurately straight and is used for laying mortar uniformly over walls
and floors during plastering.

Shovel
It is used for thorough mixing of mortar.

Pan
It is a small vessel for carrying concrete and mortar to the working place.

Plumb bob
It is a conical metallic bob pointed at one end and with a hole at the other for attaching a string. Itis
used to establish a true vertical line.

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6A. WALL JUNCTION OF 1 ½ BRICK THICKNESS OF ENGLISH BOND AND

ESTIMATION OF BUILDING BLOCKS TO CONSTRUCT THE WALL

AIM
To construct right angle wall junction of English bond with one and a half brick thickness of height 50
cm and length 60 cm.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS

Bricks, trowel, shovel, plumb bob, straight edge, try square, pan

PROCEDURE

Marked the alignment of walls by tying thread in two perpendicular directions. Used trisquare to make
the junction a right angle. Arranged the first course of bricks. The bricks carefully aligned just to touch
the string and to maintained right angle junction.

Arranged the next course of bricks. That layer arranged over the 1st layer to suit the bond. Used closers
and bats at suitable place to avoid vertical joints. Used straight edge for arranging the brick in the
horizontal direction. Checked the alignment in vertical direction by using plumb bob. Checked the
angle at junction using try square. Repeated the procedure for successive courses for specified wall
thickness.Counted the number of various types of bricks taken to construct the wall.

RESULT
Wall of height 50 cm, length 60 cm and wall thickness 1½ bricks using English bond is constructed
successfully.
No. of bricks required =

No. of queen closers required =

No. of bats required =

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7. INTRODUCTION TO PLUMBING AND SANITARY FITTINGS

INTRODUCTION

A complete plumbing system consist of the supply plumbing which carries the water from the source
to all the points of use and the waste plumbing which carries the waste water after use to a disposal
area. Plumbing system is designed, installed and maintained in a building for convenience, sanitation
and health.

SANITARY FITTINGS

Sanitary fittings are the appliances used in waste plumbing system to receive the human excreta and
sullage of the house.

WASH BASINS

Wash basins are waste fixtures used for abolitionary purposes. They are usually made of fireclay,
stoneware, glazed earthenware, vitreous china clay, pressed steel or plastic. Wash basins may either
be supported on brackets or on pedestals. It has oval shaped bowl, with an overflow slot at the top.
The waste pipe with a metallic strainer is provided at the bottom of the bowl.

URINALS

These are soil fixtures required for schools, theaters, hospitals, offices and other public places. Urinals
are usually of two types (1) bowl or basin type and (2) slab or stall type. The bowl type is generally
used for private buildings and stall type is use d for public buildings.

Basin or Bowl Type Urinal

These type urinals are of one-piece construction, each urinal being provided with two fixing
holes on each side for fixing on the wall. They are made of glazed earthenware or vitreous china clay.
They are usually flushed with siphon type of flushing cisterns which act automatically at desired
intervals of time.

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Stall or Slab Type Urinals

They are cheaper and used in railway stations, municipal toilets, cinema house etc. The urinal consists
of simple compartments made by raising side walls and the in front is glazed. The usual centre to
centre spacing of units is kept at about 60cm in both types of urinals

WATER CLOSETS

A water closet is a water flushed plumbing fixture, designed to receive the human excreta directly
and is connected to the soil pipe by means of trap.

1. Squatting or Indian type

2. Pedestal or European type

Squatting or Indian Type

This type of water closet is manufactured integrally with squatting pan and trap. They are made of
glazed earthen ware or vitreous and is available in white and colour. The selection of P or S type trap
can be done on the basis whether the outlet pipe has to go through the rear wall or vertically through
the floor. The top of P or S trap is connected to the anti-siphon or vent pipe.

If the Indian WC are provided in upper floors, it is necessary to provide a minimum of 55 cm sunk
slab to accommodate water closet and trap.

Pedestal or European Type

This consists of pan with an integral P or S trap made vitreous china or glazed earthen ware. They
are provided with an inlet or supply horn for connecting to supply pipe. This type requires low space
and easy to install.

MANHOLES

For the operation and proper maintenance of sewerage system various devices are essential. These

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include manhole, drop manholes etc. At every change of alignment, gradient or diameterof the
sewer, manholes are constructed for giving access to the sewer for inspection, cleaning, repair and
maintenance.

WATER SUPPLY FITTINGS

In every building various type of fittings such as taps, bends, tees, sockets, etc. are required for the
distribution and formation of network of pipes inside the building.

STOP COCKS

The stop cocks or stop taps should be provided within the boundary of the premises between the street
main and the building at accessible and convenient part of premises. It should be enclosed in a proper
iron box with a hinged cover.

WATER TAPS

These are provided inside the building and in streets and in the public latrines and baths etc. They
are of several varieties. The most common type is the bib type. The bib taps are draw off taps with
horizontal inlet and free outlet whereas stop taps are valves with suitable means of connection for
insertion in a pipe line for controlling or stopping flow. To minimize the wastage in public amenities
self-closing taps should be provided. These are operated by pushing lever or button and are closed
automatically by reaction spring or other means provided. The pillar taps are draw off taps with a
vertical inlet and an uplift or horizontal free outlet are generally fitted to wash basins.

PIPE FITTINGS

In addition to pipes, valves and taps, various types of fittings such as cap, plug, tees, elbows,bend
set are used during lying of distribution pipes.

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8. RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM

COMPONENTS
A rainwater harvesting system comprises components of various stages - transporting rainwater
through pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge. The system mainly
constitutes of following sub components:

 Catchment
 Coarse Mesh
 Gutters
 Conduits
 First flush
 Filter
 Storage Capacity
 Recharge Structures

Catchments

The catchment of a water harvesting system is the surface which directly receives the rainfalland
provides water to the system. It can be a paved area like a terrace or courtyard of a building, or an
unpaved area like a lawn or open ground. A roof made of reinforced cement concrete (RCC),
galvanised iron or corrugated sheets can also be used for water harvesting. Therefore, the catchment
is the area, which actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system.

Coarse mesh
Coarse Mesh is provided at the roof to prevent the passage of debris

Gutters

Gutters are channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and transport rainwater to the
storage tank. Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be made using:

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 Locally available material such as plain galvanised iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to
required shapes.
 Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be readily prepared by cutting those pipes intotwo
equal semi-circular channels.
 Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.

The size of the gutter should be according to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable
to make them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.

Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off when loaded with water. The way in which
gutters are fixed depends on the construction of the house; it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets
into the walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some method of attachment to the rafters is
necessary.

Conduits
Conduits are pipelines or drains that carry rainwater from the catchment or rooftop area to the
harvesting system. Conduits can be of any material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanized iron
(GI), materials that are commonly available. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI PVC pipes) of
required capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take pipe. At
terraces, mouth of each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.

First Flush
First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first shower of rains
needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the probable
contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other
material deposited on roof during dry seasons. Provisions of first rain separator should be made at
outlet of each drainpipe.

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Filter
The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater collected over roof. A filter unitis a
chamber filled with filtering media such as fibre, coarse sand and gravel layers to remove debris
and dirt from water before it enters the storage tank or recharge structure. Charcoal can beadded for
additional filtration.

Storage facility
There are various options available for the construction of these tanks with respect to the shape,
size and the material of construction.

Shape:

Cylindrical, rectangular and square.

Material of construction:

Reinforced cement concrete, (RCC), ferrocement, masonry, plastic (polyethylene) or metal

(galvanised iron) sheets are commonly used.

Position of tank:

Depending on space availability these tanks could be constructed above ground, partly underground
or fully underground. Some maintenance measures like cleaning and disinfection are required to
ensure the quality of water stored in the container.

Recharge structures

Rainwater may be charged into the groundwater aquifers through any suitable structures like dug
wells, bore wells, recharge trenches and recharge pits.

Various recharge structures are possible - some which promote the percolation of water through soil
strata at shallower depth (e.g., recharge trenches, permeable pavements) whereas others conduct water

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to greater depths from where it joins the groundwater (e.g., recharge wells). At many locations,
existing structures like wells, pits and tanks can be modified as recharge structures, eliminating the
need to construct any structures afresh.

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Muthoot Institute of Technology and Science, MITS