Physical, Cognitive, &

Psychosocial Development in
Adolescence
 ADOELESCENCE:
A DEVELOPMENT
TRANSITION
This chapter discuss adolescence, a developmental period
involving physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes. It
highlights puberty as a significant physical change, leading to
sexual maturity or fertility. Adolescence spans from 11 to 19
or 20 years, varying in social, cultural, and economic settings.
ADOLESCENCE AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
Adolescence is a social
construction that has evolved
over time, with traditional and
preindustrial cultures
recognizing it as a unique
period in life. In the Western
world, adolescence was first
recognized as a unique period
in the twentieth century.
However, in most parts of the
world, adolescence is longer and
less clear-cut due to factors such
as early puberty, increased training
requirements for higher-paying
occupations, and the longer school
years. Young adults also delay
marriage and childbirth, settling into
permanent careers later and less
firmly than in the past.
ADOLESCENC: a time of opportunities and risks
Adolescence offers growth in cognitive and social competence, autonomy,
self-esteem, and intimacy. However, it also poses risks, including death
from accidents, homicide, and suicide. This riskiness may be due to the
immaturity of the adolescent brain. However, since the 1990s, adolescents
have shown a decrease in risky behaviors, such as alcohol, tobacco, and
marijuana use, and increased safety and responsibility.
 PHYSICAL HOW PUBERTY BEGINS:
DEVELOPMENT HORMONAL CHANGES
Puberty is a hormonal process triggered by the
hypothalamus, involving the release of hormones
such as GnRH, LH, and FSH. These hormones
affect both boys and girls differently, with girls
experiencing menstruation and boys experiencing
testosterone and androstendione. Puberty is
divided into two stages: adrenarche and
gonadarche. Adrenarche occurs between ages 6-8,
and the adrenal glands secrete androgens like
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which affects hair
growth, body growth, and body odor. Gonadarche,
on the other hand, occurs during maturing sex
organs, triggering a second burst of DHEA
production.
 Puberty typically begins at
age 8 in girls and 9 in boys,
TIMING, SIGNS, with the pubertal process
taking 3 to 4 years for both
AND SEQUENCE sexes. Race and ethnicity
also influence pubertal
OF PUBERTY development, with African
AND SEXUAL American and Mexican
American girls entering
MATURITY puberty earlier than white
and Asian American girls.
 Primary and Secondary
Sex Characteristics
Primary sex characteristics include reproductive organs in females and
testes in males, which enlarge and mature during puberty. Secondary sex
characteristics include physiological signs of sexual maturation, such as
breasts and broad shoulders, voice and skin texture changes, muscular
development, and growth of pubic, facial, axillary, and body hair. These
changes unfold more consistently than their timing.
Signs of Puberty
Puberty typically begins with breast tissue
and pubic hair in girls and enlargement of
the testes in boys. Girls' nipples enlarge,
while boys may experience temporary
breast enlargement. Pubic hair becomes
coarse, dark, and curly, with different
patterns in males and females. Voice
deepens, and skin becomes coarser and
oilier, leading to pimples and blackheads.
Acne is more common in boys and related
to increased testosterone levels.
The Adolescent Growth
Spurt
Adolescent growth spurt is a rapid
increase in height, weight, and muscle and
bone during puberty, typically occurring in
girls between 9½ and 14½ and boys
between 10½ and 16 years. It lasts about 2
years and ends soon after sexual maturity.
Girls between 11 and 13 tend to be taller,
heavier, and stronger. Boys grow
differently, with boys becoming larger and
girls having a more rounded appearance.
 Signs of Sexual Maturity: Sperm Production and
Menstruation
The maturation of reproductive organs leads to menstruation in girls and sperm
production in boys. Spermarche, the first ejaculation, occurs at age 13.
Menstruation, the monthly shedding of tissue from the womb, occurs late in female
development, ranging from 10 to 16½. The average age of menarche in U.S. girls has
decreased from over 14 years before 1900 to 12.8 years. However, the
reproductive system may not yet be functionally mature, especially in young girls.
Influences on Pubertal Timing
Puberty's start has declined in the twentieth century, a
secular trend originating from 100 years ago in the US,
Western Europe, and Japan, with girls showing earlier puberty.
Poor nutrition and disease lead to delayed puberty and
reduced growth spurt in children, with developed countries
having earlier sexual maturity ages than developing ones.

Hormonal activity signals puberty based on body fat

accumulation, possibly linked to obesity among young girls in
the US, with leptin, a hormone associated with obesity,
potentially contributing.
Prenatal factors like maternal smoking, social and genetic
factors influence puberty timing, with stress, non-firstborn
status, and conflicting father-mother relationships mediating
associations.
IMPLICATIONS OF PUBERTAL TIMING
Puberty, a period of up to
five years, can lead to
accelerated skeletal
maturation, psychosocial
difficulties, and adult
health issues like
reproductive tract
cancers, type 2 diabetes,
and cardiovascular
disease. It is also
predictive of adult obesity
and polycystic ovarian
syndrome. Early puberty
also impacts adolescent
mental health and adult
health behaviors.
Early-maturing boys Early-maturing girls
face negative face increased risks
outcomes like
of anxiety, depression,
substance use,
and substance abuse.
delinquency, and
The psychological
behavioral disorders,
while late-maturing effects depend on
boys experience interpretation and
feelings of inadequacy, context, while
self-consciousness, ethnicity, school, and
rejection, and neighborhood also
dominance, leading to
impact the effects of
conflict and school
puberty.
trouble.
 The Adolescent Brain
Adolescents exhibit behaviors like peer interest, Adolescent brain structure changes,
risk-taking, drug experimentation, recklessness, and
difficulty focusing on long-term goals due to their
including dendritic pruning and declines
brain's processing of information differently than in medial prefrontal cortex activity and
adults. This process, earlier in women and gray matter volume, are influenced by
continuing in the frontal lobes, results in increased cognitive stimulation, and drug use can
white matter and gray matter.
have severe effects on the brain.
Adolescents exhibit impulsivity and risk-
taking due to brain development
patterns, including underdevelopment of
frontal cortical systems, complex
relationships, social hierarchies, identity
changes, and self-consciousness. Peers
exert a stronger influence due to
heightened neurobehavioral susceptibility
to social reward cues and cognitive
immaturity.
 Sleep needs and
problems
Sleep deprivation among adolescent has been called
an epidemic

recommends that adolescents ages 13 to 18 should regularly

sleep a minimum of 8 to 10 hours per 24-hour period.
However, most do not. Children generally go to sleep
later and sleep less on school days the older they get.
 Nutrition and Eating disorder
Good nutrition is important to support the rapid growth of
adolescence and to establish healthy eating habits that will last
through adulthood. Unfortunately, many adolescents eat fewer
fruits and vegetables and consume more foods high in
cholesterol, fat, and calories and lower in nutrients than they
should.

Overweight and Obesity

overweight and obesity in children and adolescents has
increased substantially. In the developing world, nearly 13
percent of boys and more than 13 percent of girls were
overweight or obese in 2013. In developed countries. more than
22 percent of girls and nearly 24 percent of boys were
overweight or obese
 Overweight and Obesity
overweight and obesity in children and adolescents has increased substantially. In the
developing world, nearly 13 percent of boys and more than 13 percent of girls were
overweight or obese in 2013. In developed countries. more than 22 percent of girls
and nearly 24 percent of boys were overweight or obese

Body Image and Body Satisfaction

Boys and girls respond differently to the body changes that result from puberty.
Body image-or one's perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about one's body-can be
affected by puberty. Overall, boys tend to be more satisfied with their bodies
than girls
anorexia nervosa will use extreme diets or restrict their food intake to lose weight.
bulimia binge eat and then purge to lose weight.
 USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS
Although the great majority of adolescents do not abuse drugs, a significant minority do.

Substance abuse is harmful use of alcohol or other drugs. Abuse can lead to substance
dependence, or addiction, which may be physiological, psychological, or both and is likely
to continue into adulthood.
Trends in drug use
Nearly half (47 percent) of U.S. adolescents have
tried illicit drugs by the time they leave high school

Alcohol, Marijuana, Alcohol is a potent, mind-altering drug with major

effects on physical, emotional, and social wellbeing.
and Tobacco
Marijuana potency quadrupled from 1980 to 2014

The use of cigarettes and other tobacco products is a

global health issue.
 Depression
13.3 percent of young people ages 12 to 17
experienced at least one episode of major depression, and only
41.5 percent of them had been treated

Depression in young people does not necessarily appear as

sadness; it can also manifest as irritability, boredom, or an
inability to experience pleasure. At least 1 in 5 persons who
experience bouts of depression in childhood or adolescence
are at risk for bipolar disorder, in which depressive episodes
(“low” periods) alternate with manic episodes (“high” peri-
ods) characterized by increased energy, euphoria, grandios-
ity, and risk-taking
 DEATH IN ADOLESCENCE
Death this early in life is always tragic and usually but not always accidental. Worldwide
in 2012, a 50-year downward trend for lower adolescent mortality continued, although
that number still comprised some 1.3 million teens. Worldwide, leading causes of death
in adolescence include road traffic injuries, HIV/AIDS, suicide, lower respiratory infec-
tions, and interpersonal violence
 Deaths from Vehicle Accidents and
Firearms
Motor vehicle collisions are the
leading cause of accidental death among teenagers

The United States has a

higher firearm mortality rate than the next highest 25
industrialized nations combined

Adolescent boys are 8 times more likely to be fatally shot than girls
 Suicide
Suicide is the second leading cause of
death among U.S. 15- to 19-year-olds

firearms are the most common

method used to commit suicide

Adolescent girls are more likely to attempt suicide but tend to

use less lethal methods, such as suffocation or poisoning, and
thus are more likely to survive. Although adolescent boys are less
likely to attempt suicide, their greater propensity to use firearms
results in a greater chance of a successful attempt
 Aspects of Cognitive
Maturation
Adolescents not only look different from younger children, but they also think and talk
differently. Their speed of information processing continues to increase. Although their
thinking may remain immature in some ways, many are capable of abstract reasoning
and sophisticated moral judgments and can plan more realistically for the future.
 PIAGET’S STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS
Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest level of cognitive development—
formal operations—when they move away from their reliance on concrete, real-world
stimuli and develop the capacity for abstract thought. This development, usually around
age 11, gives them a new, more flexible way to manipulate information

HYPOTHETICAL DEDUCTIVE REASONING involves a methodical, scientific

approach to problem solving, and it characterizes formal operations thinking.
It involves the ability to develop, consider, and test hypotheses, and the
young person can be compared to a scientist exploring a problem.
 IMMATURE ASPECTS OF
CULTURE AND COGNITION
ADOLESCENT THOUGHT
As children’s thinking becomes more complex, they According to Piaget's theories, they originally provided
develop from egocentric beings to persons capable a holistic understanding of cognitive development in
of solving abstract problems and imagining ideal the West. However, cultural differences have been
societies. Yet in some ways, adolescents’ thinking recognized as significant influencers of the
seems strangely immature developmental path. An approach that is sensitive to
cultural diversity can enable better support for the
learning and growth of individuals from varying
More recent research suggests that while Elkind's model of
backgrounds.
adolescent thinking has its merits, it does not entirely capture
the complexities of the teenage mind. Additionally, while the
notion of the "imaginary audience" is an interesting concept,
the belief that everyone is always focused on an individual's
thoughts and behavior is not universally held by all
adolescents.
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT MORAL REASONING: KOHLBERG
THEORY
Children’s use of language generally reflects
their level of cognitive development.
Schoolage children are quite proficient in the
use of language, but adolescence brings
further refinements. Vocabulary continues to
grow as reading matter becomes more adult.
By ages 16 to 18, the average young person
knows approximately 80,000 words
As children attain higher cognitive levels,
they become capable of more complex
reasoning about moral issues. Adolescents
are better able than younger children to
take another person’s perspective, to
solve social problems, to deal with
interpersonal relationships,
and to see themselves as social beings.
Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages
 AN ETHIC OF CARE: GILLIGAN’S THEORY

Do men and women reason in the same fashion? This question was addressed by Carol
Gilligan (1982/1993), who asserted that Kohlberg’s theory was sexist and oriented toward
values more important to men than to women. Gilligan argued that men, Kohlberg
included, viewed morality in terms of justice and fairness. Women held a different set of
values, however, that placed caring and avoiding harm as higher goals than justice.
Kohlberg’s typology unfairly categorized women as less morally and cognitive complex
because of the exclusive focus on justice
 PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Prosocial behavior typically increases from childhood through

adolescence Parents play a role in this; parents who are warm,
sympathetic, and use prosocial reasoning themselves are more likely to
have teens who behave in prosocial ways.

Girls tend to show more prosocial behavior and empathic concern

than boys, and this difference becomes more pronounced in
adolescence.This may be in part because crossculturally, parents of
girls emphasize social responsibility more than parents of boys do.
 Educational and
Vocational Issues
School is a central organizing experience in most adolescents’ lives. It offers opportunities
to learn information, master new skills, and sharpen old skills; to participate in sports,
the arts, and other activities; to explore vocational choices; and to be with friends. It
widens intellectual and social horizons. Some adolescents, however, experience school
not as an opportunity but as one more hindrance on the road to adulthood
INFLUENCES ON SCHOOL
ACHIEVEMENT
Student Motivation and Self-
Efficacy
Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy
educational practices are based on the
assumption that students are, or can be,
motivated to learn. Educators emphasize
the value of intrinsic motivation the
student’s desire to learn for the sake of
learning. Students high in academic self-
efficacy who believe that they can
successfully achieve academic goals are
likely to do well in school
In adolescence, such factors as parenting practices, socioeconomic
status, and the quality of the home environment influence the course of
school achievement. Other factors include gender, ethnicity, peer
influence, quality of schooling, and students’ belief in themselves.
Gender
Reading tests conducted on 15-
year-olds in 72 countries show an
advantage for girls, although the
difference in scores for girls and
boys narrowed between 2009 and
2015. Although gender differences
in science are small, boys are more
likely to be top performers in all
countries
 Social and cultural forces that influence gender
differences include the following
01 Home influences 03 Neighborhood influences

Boys benefit more from enriched neighborhoods

Across cultures, parents’ educational level correlates
with their children’s math achievement. The amount of and are hurt more by deprived neighborhoods.
parental involvement in children’s education affects
math performance. Parents’ gender attitudes and
expectations also have an effect 04 Women’s and men’s roles
in society help shape girls’ and boys’ choices of
courses and occupations.

02 School influences:
Subtle differences in the way teachers
Cultural influences: Cross
treat boys and girls, especially in math
and science classes, have been
05 cultural studies show that the size of gender differences
in math performance varies among nations and becomes
documented.
greater by the end of secondary school. These differences
correlate with the degree of gender equality in the society.
Family, Ethnicity, and
Peer Influences Authoritative parents, who strike a balance between making
demands and being responsive, tend to have teens who do
better academically. Both “authoritarian parents”, who tend to
use more punishment and harsh control, and “permissive
Family and school experiences are subject parents”, who seem indifferent to grades, have children who
to a phenomenon referred to as spillover, show slightly lower achievement. However, while statistically
wherein experiences in different contexts significant, all of these differences
are small to very small (Pinquart, 2016). In other words, they
influence each other Stress at home has been
have little predictive
shown to predict problems with attendance
value in the real world.
and learning; conversely, problems with
attendance and learning contribute to family
stress
 The School
The quality of schooling strongly influences
student achievement. A good middle or high
school has an orderly, safe environment,
adequate material resources, a stable teaching
staff, and a positive sense of community. The
school culture places a strong emphasis on
academics and fosters the belief that all
students can learn.
Technology In 2013, approximately 78
percent of teens had a cell phone, 23
percent had a tablet computer, and 93
percent had access to a computer at
home (Madden, Lenhart, Duggan, Cortesi,
& Gasser, 2013). The expansion of
technology and the major
role it plays in children’s lives have
affected learning. Teachers often ask
students to conduct research online, as
well as to access (79 percent) and
submit (76 percent) homework and
assignments online
 DROPPING OUT OF HIGH SCHOOL

There are consequences both for society and for individuals to dropping out. Society
suffers when young people do not finish school. Dropouts are more likely to be unemployed
or to have low incomes, to end up on welfare, and to become involved with drugs, crime,
and delinquency. They also tend to be in poorer health
 The search for identity
Identity formation - it is the process of developing a unique and
coherent sense of self. It involves exploring different
possibilities and roles, and making choices about who you want
to be and what you want to do with your life.

identity vs role confusion

The virtue of fidelity - it is sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense
of belonging. It develops when adolescents are able to make
commitments to themselves, their values, and their
relationships.
 identity status - crisis & commitment
01 IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT
status of individuals who have explored different
options and made commitments to their values,
beliefs, and goals. They have a clear sense of
who they are and what they want out of life.
02 FORECLOSURE
status of individuals who have made
commitments without exploring different options.
They have accepted the values and beliefs of
their parents or other authority figures without
much thought.
03 MORATORIUM
status of individuals who are currently exploring
different options and have not made any
commitments yet. They are in a state of identity
crisis, but they are actively working to resolve it.
04 IDENTITY DIFFUSION
status of individuals who have neither explored
different options nor made any commitments.
They have a vague sense of who they are and
what they want out of life.
 Gender differences in identity
formation
Gender differences in identity formation have been a subject of study for years,
with some suggesting women develop their identities through relationships, while
men develop them through achievement.
Ethnic factors in identity formation
 Sexuality
In the 20th century, there was a noticeable
shift in societal norms and acceptance
surrounding sexual activities in the United
States and other industrialized nations.
Prevailing attitudes became more tolerant
towards practices like premarital sex and
homosexuality, which were previously
heavily stigmatized.
Sexual orientation
and identity
The adolescence stage as a critical point for
individuals to clarify their sexual orientation,
which may include consistent attraction to the
opposite sex (heterosexual), same sex
(homosexual), or both sexes (bisexual). Similar
to other aspects of development, adolescents
may experience varying identity statuses while
forming their sexual identity.
Lgbt identity
Development
Most gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth begin to
identify as such between the ages of 12 and
17 years. However, there is a great deal of
variation in when individuals come to terms
with their sexual orientation. Some people may
know that they are gay, lesbian, or bisexual
from a very young age, while others may not
realize their sexual orientation until adulthood.
 sexually transmitted infections
Adolescent egocentrism or Personal fable - teenager may believe that bad things won't
happen to them because they are special or unique.

Teenagers and young

HPV is the most STIs can have serious
adults are at high risk
common STI health consequences
for STI

This is because they are It is a virus that can Undiagnosed and

more likely to have cause genital warts and untreated STIs can lead
multiple sexual partners cervical cancer. There is a to infertility, pelvic
and to engage in risky vaccine available to inflammatory disease, and
sexual behaviors, such as protect against HPV, but other health problems.
unprotected sex. vaccination rates are low
among adolescents.
 TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND
CHILDBEARING
According to estimates, 2 million girls under the age of 15 and 21 million teenage girls in developing nations become
pregnant annually. In addition, about 3.9 million girls between the ages of 15 and 19 have an unsafe abortion.

Across the nations for which statistics are available, pregnancy rates differ significantly. Despite comparable rates
of teenage sexual activity, the United States has higher rates of teen pregnancy than other similar countries in the
developed world. For instance, the rate of adolescent births and pregnancies is more than twice as high as that of
France and six times higher than that of Switzerland. Teenage birthrates in the United States peaked in 1957 at
96.3 births.
 Adolescent pregnancy outcomes are not always favorable. A large
number of the mothers are uneducated, underprivileged, and drug
Outcomes of teenage - addicts. Many gain too little weight, eat improperly, and receive
insufficient or no prenatal care. They run a higher risk of experiencing
pregnancy other birth complications and their babies are likely to be premature
or dangerously small. Additionally, they are more likely to experience
abuse and neglect, academic and health difficulties, and
developmental disabilities that could last into adulthood.

Sex Education Teenagers mainly learn about sex from the media, friends, parents, and sex
education in schools. Teenagers who feel comfortable discussing sexual matters
and with their parents and older siblings are more likely to be supportive of safer
sexual practices. Unfortunately, roughly 22% of teenage girls and 30% of

Pregnancy - teenage boys say that their parents never discuss sexual or reproductive health
issues with them. A lot of teenagers receive their "sex education" from the
media, which presents a skewed image of sexual activity, associating it with
Prevention competition, fun, excitement, or violence and rarely highlighting the risks of
unprotected sex. Unexpectedly, teenagers report more exposure to erotic.
 Relationships with Family,
Peers, and Adult Society
Age becomes a powerful bonding agent in adolescence. Adolescents spend more time
with peers and less with family. Even as adolescents increasingly turn toward peers to
fulfill many of their social needs, they still look to parents for a secure base from which
they can try their wings.

adolescent rebellion THE MYTH OF ADOLESCENT

Pattern of emotional turmoil,
characteristic of a minority of
adolescents, that may involve conflict
with family, alienation from adult society,
reckless behavior, and rejection of adult
values.
REBELLION
Teenage years have been described as a period of rebellious
adolescence. However, overt rebellion is rather unusual, even in countries
that lean Western. The majority of youth have positive and close
feelings toward their parents and hold similar views.
 ADOLESCENTS AND PARENTS
The majority of teenagers say they get along well with their parents.
Adolescence, however, presents unique difficulties. Parents want their children
to be independent, but they struggle to let go, much as teenagers struggle
with the need to break away from their parents and become independent.

Individuation
Adolescents’ struggle for autonomy and personal identity.
 Individuation and Family
Conflict
If you were like most teens, you probably listened
to different music from your parents, dressed in
a different style of clothing, and felt
it was reasonable to keep certain things private
from them. This process, called
individuation by psychologists, begins in infancy
and continues throughout adolescence.
It involves the struggle for autonomy and
differentiation, or personal identity.
Parenting Styles and Parental
Authority
Authoritative parenting continues to foster
healthy psychosocial development.
Authoritative parents insist on important rules,
norms, and values but are willing to listen,
explain, and negotiate. They exercise
appropriate control over a child’s conduct but
not over the child’s feelings, beliefs, and sense
of self (psychological Control) .
 Parental Monitoring and Adolescents’ Self-disclosure
Part of monitoring involves knowing what a teen is up to. Young people’s growing autonomy and the
shrinking areas of perceived parental authority redefine the types of behavior adolescents are expected to
disclose to parents. Both adolescents and parents see prudential issues, behavior related to health and safety
(such as smoking, drinking, and drug use), as most subject to disclosure, followed by moral issues (such as lying),
conventional issues (such as bad manners or swearing), and multifaceted, or borderline, issues (such as seeing an
R-rated movie), which lie at the boundary between personal matters and one of the other categories.
Both adolescents and parents see personal issues (such as how teens spend their time and money) as least
subject to disclosure.

Family Structure and Atmosphere

Conflict in the home can affect the process of individuation, and changes in marital distress or
conflict predict corresponding changes Divorce can affect this process as well. Adolescents whose
parents later divorced showed more academic, psychological, and behavioral problems before the
breakup than peers whose parents did not later divorce.
Family Structure and Atmosphere
Mothers’ Employment and Economic Stress
The impact of a mother’s work outside the home may depend
on how many parents are present in the household. Single
mothers may find that work affects how much time and
energy is left to spend with children or monitor their activities.
 ADOLESCENTS AND SIBLINGS
Changes in sibling relationships in many ways mirror the changes we see in the
relationships of adolescents and their parents. As adolescents spend more time with
peers, they spend less time with siblings. Generally, and perhaps as a result of this,
adolescents tend to be less close to siblings than to friends and are less influenced by
them. This distance grows across adolescence.
 ADOLESCENTs AND PEERS
• Adolescents are influenced by their peers during
adolescence.
• Cliques and crowds are two types of peer groups.
• Friendships become more intimate and important during
adolescence.
• Social media and electronic interaction can have both
positive and negative effects on adolescents.
• Romantic relationships are a central part of most
adolescents' social worlds.
• Dating violence is a significant problem in the United
States.
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY
Juvenile delinquency is a serious problem that can have lifelong consequences.
It is important to understand the factors that contribute to juvenile delinquency in
order to develop effective prevention and treatment programs.
 BIOLOGICAL
INFLUENCES
Genes play a role in Neurobiological deficits • Early-onset antisocial
antisocial behavior. can also contribute to behavior is more likely to be
antisocial behavior. associated with biological
factors.
 ENVIRONMENTAL
INFLUENCES
Parenting practices can Peer influences can also
influence antisocial play a role.
behavior.

Family economic
• Neighborhood social
circumstances can also
organization can also
influence antisocial
influence delinquency
behavior.
LONG-TERM PROSPECTS
The vast majority of young people
who engage in juvenile delinquency do
not become adult criminals.

However, those who do not see

positive alternatives or who come from
dysfunctional families are more likely to
adopt a permanently antisocial lifestyle.

School performance is also a key

predictor of long-term antisocial
behavior.
 Preventing and
treating delinquency
• Preventive efforts should focus on early
childhood.

Programs such as teen hangouts and summer

camps for behaviorally disturbed youth can be
counterproductive.

More effective programs-scouts, sports, and

church activities-integrate deviant youth into
the nondeviant mainstream.
Thank You for Listening!