QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Types of qualitative and quantitative research methods

Different types of research methods are generally classified into either qualitative or quantitative
research methods.

10.3.1 Qualitative research methods They

include:

A. Unstructured Interviews method

B. Open ended questionnaire method
C. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) method
D. Mapping method
E. Ranking and scoring method
F. Drama method
G. Transects method
H. Study of secondary information (document analysis) method
I. Historical profiles method
J. Observation method
K. Case study method
L. Personal description method
M. Psychological tests method

A. Unstructured interviews
This is described as an interview whereby the researcher does not decide in advance the
sequence of all the questions to be asked and followed during the interview. This means that the
series of questions that are asked during the interview will more depend on the responses given
to the previous questions. Questions will arise in this manner and responses generated are
recorded in written form or using a voice recorder.

Advantages of interview method

i. The researcher is likely to get correct information since she is in control of the situation
ii. The researcher will be able to better understand the feelings of the participants and
therefore adjust her questions properly
iii. The researcher is likely to get in-depth information because she is directly interacting with
the interviewee
iv. Interviews on face-to-face situation can help to build a relationship with respondents of
the research which is necessary in generating further information
v. It gives the researcher time to explain the meaning and purpose of the questions because
of direct interaction with the participants of the research

Disadvantages of interview method

i. It is time consuming since the researcher has to spend a lot of time interviewing each
subject and especially if they are scattered over a wide area

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 ii. It is an expensive method since the researcher has to travel to different locations to meet
with the respondents
iii. The respondents may not be free to open up to some questions that are found to be too
sensitive to their personal lives

NB: The following techniques should be considered to ensure success in using interview
method:

i. Plan for the interview and decide the type of information you would like to collect in
advance
ii. Formulate only useful questions
iii. Pilot the interview schedule if possible to make it better
iv. Ask one question at a time and repeat it if you realise that the respondent did not get the
question asked well
v. Be patient with the respondent and give enough time to respond
vi. All the responses given should be recorded down carefully such as in a notebook or
interview schedule sheet so the data is not lost. The responses can also be recorded in a
voice recorder as long as the respondent agrees/gives consent to do so

B. Open-ended questionnaires method

These are questionnaires that contain series of questions which give room for the respondents to
give own opinions/views, in their own words/explanations.

The following examples of questions that you can find in an open-ended questionnaire form:

1. What do you think should be done to promote ECDE program in the country?

2. How do you think the new Competency-Based Curriculum will affect teachers in ECDE?

3. Why are many children dropping out of school in your county?

Advantages open-ended questionnaires

i. Respondents are given room to give own version of responses
ii. It provides in-depth information because of the wider perspectives that are collected from
different respondents
iii. It helps to know the attitude/feelings of the respondents based on how they answer the
questions
iv. It gives the researcher a new way of thinking or approach of the topic being investigated
because of the new perspectives that may come up from the explanations given by the
respondents

Disadvantages of open-ended questionnaires

i. It is not easy to respond to some questions because the respondents are required to think
and give an answer based on their own judgement about the question asked

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 ii. It may take a long time to collect responses because the respondents may find it difficult
to answer some questions
iii. It is difficult for the researcher to organise the responses given since there could be many
answers provided by different people to the same question
iv. The responses given are likely to be biased because of the subjectiveness of different
people giving responses

C. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) method

FGDs are similar to interviews only that it involves more than one person. In FGDs, discussions
are held with a group of people, having common characteristics in relation to the research topic.

FGDs are directed by a moderator, usually the researcher himself. The moderator will ask
different questions to the group and generate many different views from the participants. The
views shared by the participants will be recorded down either in written form or using a voice
recorder.

Advantages of Focus Group Discussion method

i. It gives in-depth information because the researcher gets views from many people
ii. It may take shorter time than interviews because many people are engaged in a discussion
at the same time
iii. The researcher is able to clarify some issues related to the study and hence collect more
accurate information
iv. The researcher may be able to collect other related information that may be useful to
interpret the findings, otherwise which could not be possible in case questionnaire method
was used. For example the researcher can interpret the attitude of the respondents as they
interact during the discussion

Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion method

i. It is time consuming to engage everyone in a discussion and get views from each member
ii. Sometimes members may not be willing to participate in the discussion because they will
not feel free to disclose matters that are too sensitive in the presence of many people
iii. It could be expensive to collect information if the researcher has to travel to different
locations to meet with the respondents

D. Mapping method
This is a method of research whereby the investigator develops a sketch map which gives a
visual representation of how the participants in the research perceive the place in which they live
in.

The sketch map will have many features of the place such as mountains, forests, rivers and
valleys as well as other resources available such as shops, markets, transport networks, factories,
institutions like schools and health centres etc. This sketch map helps to analyse and understand
the area where the participants live in.

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Advantages of mapping method
i. It encourages participation of many people
ii. It helps the beneficiaries of the research to discover their resources including various
physical features such as forests and rivers in relation to the distance between them, where
they can get the livelihood
iii. The sketch map can lay a foundation for further analysis of other units related to research
iv. It encourages innovation and creativity in the use of local resources
v. It stimulates discussions about resource opportunity among the participants, challenges
and possible ways they can deal with the challenges

vi. It helps people participating in the research to gain more information and understanding
about the community

Disadvantages of mapping method

i. Some members may not be willing to participate and may not generate adequate data
ii. It requires a team of experts who are highly trained to assist in mapping and this may not
be always available

E. Ranking and scoring method

Ranking means putting various issues affecting participants in research, usually people in a
given community, in an order of importance/value/preference. Scoring means assigning values
to different issues under investigation according to some convenient scale.

In this method, the participants of the study will be asked to put in order issues according to their
value/preference/importance. For example in research whereby a researcher is interested in
finding out factors contributing to high dropout rates of pupils in a particular county, the
researcher may rank the factors according to the responses given such as shown below:
Problem Score Rank
Lack of funds 50 2
Early marriages 20 5
Peer influence 15 7
Lack of food 25 4
Religion 18 6
Culture 60 1
Drugs and substance 25 3
abuse

From the above data collected, the researcher may conclude based on the analysis that culture
and lack of funds most contribute to school drop out of pupils. These are followed by drugs and
substance abuse, lack of food and early marriages respectively. Religion and peer influence are
the least contributing factors to dropout rates of pupils from school.

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 F. Drama method
This is a method of research in which the respondents are required to act out roles in a play by
dramatizing a certain theme. In this case therefore, subjects investigated are given opportunity to
act and from the words and actions portrayed, the researcher will be able to understand the
thoughts, feelings or emotions of the subject under investigation.

Drama reveals a lot of information because people will reveal their concerns, various challenges
among other issues affecting their lives in real life situation.

Advantages of drama method

i. It reveals attributes such as emotions or feelings that cannot be measured using other
methods
ii. It is educative as people share their experiences in drama
iii. It works best to some groups such as children who otherwise it may be difficult to conduct
research using other methods such as questionnaires and interviews

Disadvantages of drama method

i. It takes a long time since it requires thorough preparation
ii. It may be costly because a lot of expenses are involved in organising for a drama such as
buying equipment and materials among other expenses involved during drama
presentation
iii. It is not suitable with subjects who have poor personality in acting or have low selfesteem

G. Transects
This is a method of research in which the researcher or team of researchers conduct an
investigation by having a walk a given area location. As the researcher(s) walk around, they
observed different phenomena such as natural resources in the area, environmental management
among other issues that related to people in a particular area such as economic activities in the
area etc.

Transects are usually conducted by a team of researchers, with some of the members consisting
of people from the local community and experts from outside who will assist to interpret the
observations made better.

Advantages of transect method

i. It allows for capturing more detailed information in the area under study
ii. It gives the community better understanding and appreciation of the resources they have
as they walk around
iii. It facilitates better analysis of what is available and how this can be utilised
iv. It might take a very short time to collect a lot of data
v. It provides visual impression of the area under study

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Disadvantages of transect method
i. It is tiresome especially if the team of researchers has to walk for long distances and in
areas such as those with poor climatic conditions, poor landscape, poor drainage systems
etc.
ii. It requires a lot of competence to interpret accurately what has been observed and experts
who do this may not always be available
iii. It is expensive since the researchers may be required to involve sophisticated equipment
or even forced to pay members of the community to form the team to conduct the transect
iv. Insecurity may hinder carrying out the research especially in hostile communities

H. Study of secondary information (document analysis)

This method involves a careful analysis of what other scholars have studied and recorded in
sources of information such as books, journals, research reports, newspapers, magazine articles,
internet etc. In this method, the researcher will carry out an in-depth examination of the
documents that contains similar research problem to the one the researcher is interested in
investigating. For example the researcher interested in investigating factors contributing to
school dropout in a particular sub-county, may go ahead and analyse already recorded
information by other researchers in relation to this similar research problem instead of going to
the field and collect first-hand information (primary data).

Advantages of document analysis method

i. It is easy to conduct the research since the information is already available
ii. It is less time-consuming since the researcher does not need to spend a lot of time in the
field to collect information directly from the subjects
iii. It is less expensive since the researcher does not get to the field to carry out the study
directly
iv. It helps to understand a given research problem from the past better
v. It is appropriate when the subjects the researcher is interested in are in accessible

Disadvantages of document analysis method

i. Information collected may not be accurate since passed variables may not apply to the
current situation
ii. It may be expensive if the information required is not readily available and if the
researcher may need to spend a lot of money to access some resource centres having the
required information
iii. It may be time consuming to analyse past documents especially if the techniques that were
applied in the past studies are too complicated to understand

I. Historical profiles
This is a method of research whereby the research analyses past documents related to the
problem being investigated. These historical profiles will contain major events of the history of
people, place or country. These profiles for instance will contain past trends, problems or

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achievements of people over a period of time. For example they will show major changes in
social cultural activities of a given community.

Advantages of historical profiles method

i. They help the community to understand and appreciate many events or changes that have
occurred within a period of time
ii. The community will be able to reflect on how these changes of events in the past have
influenced their lives
iii. Communities will be in a position to try and identify lessons in the past, both positive and
a negative, which will help to shape their future
iv. Historical profiles facilitates dialogue and critical analysis of issues because the
community will be able to trace the origin of certain issues

Disadvantages of historical profiles method

i. It may lead to wrong prediction of the future because past events may not be relevant to
the present and the future
ii. Since historical profiles only concentrate on major past events, they may ignore events in
the past that may be significant in fully understanding a given problem
iii. It may take a long time to fully study records in the past if they are not well recorded, if
they are inaccessible or scattered

J. Observation method
This is a method whereby the researcher conducts an investigation by simply observing the
subjects under investigation in a real-life situation. The interest of the researcher in this case is to
observe the behaviour of the subjects’ understudy in real life situation and record observations
made.

It is important to note that in observation method, the task of the researcher is to simply observe
behaviour without interfering with the subjects under study such as asking them questions.
Observations made should be recorded down for example on an observation schedule, notepad,
checklist or even use of a voice recorder or a video recorder.

Advantages of observation method

i. It is relatively less expensive since the researcher collects information directly from the
subjects under study
ii. It is possible to collect accurate information since the researcher observes the subjects in
their natural settings
iii. It is easy to collect information since the researcher records occurrences of behaviour
directly
iv. It is useful when the researcher wants to know the natural behaviour of the subjects
v. The researcher is able to collect other data related to the study as she carries out the
observation which can help to understand the findings better
vi. The researcher is able to collect in-depth information which can help to understand the
problem under investigation better

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Disadvantages of observation method
i. It can be difficult to collect information especially if the subjects are too mobile
ii. Sometimes information collected may not be accurate since the subjects might behave
artificially if they realise that they are being investigated
iii. It may take long time to record final findings especially if behaviour the researcher is
interested in does not occur often
iv. It is subjective since the researcher’s bias may affect interpretation of observations made
v. Observation method does not give information about the cause and effect relationship,
that is, it does not explain the factors contributing to the observed behaviour since the
researcher in this method only observes and records findings without manipulating the
subjects under investigation
vi. The researcher is not able to control the conditions under which the subjects are being
investigated such as asking them questions and hence the results may not be reliable

vii. Sometimes this method may prove expensive if it takes a long time to collect information
required
viii. Less data may be collected since the researcher only depends on observations made, even
though there could be other hidden information which could have been discovered if
questions asked in an interview

K. Case study method

Case studies are in-depth investigations, usually on a single subject such as one person or group
to establish a detailed understanding of a given issue.

A case study examines in details and analyses a given research problem for better understanding
of the present condition (effect) and the factors that may have contributed to a given issue
(cause). In simple words, it is used for better understanding of the cause-effect relationship.

Advantages of case study research

i. The research study is detailed and hence gives an in-depth understanding of the problem
under investigation
ii. It helps to establish the cause-effect relationship, that is, to establish the main factors that
might be contributing (cause) to the present condition being observed (effect)
iii. It is relatively easy to conduct since the sample is usually small
iv. It takes relatively shorter time because the sample selected is small
v. It is less expensive since the researcher does not deal with large samples

Disadvantages of case study research

i. The results might not be accurate since the sample is usually very small and hence
information collected from a particular sample may not reflect the entire population to
which it represents case studies
ii. Case studies might be time consuming in getting to establish the cause-effect relationship

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 L. Personal description method
This is a method of conducting research in which the subject under investigation writes a report
about him/herself. In this case the subject under investigation will give a detailed account of
his/her own experience in relation to the matter being investigated.

Generally, self-description may be done in form over a composition, painting, drawing or even
drama. The accuracy/reliability of the information given by the subject will depend on the
willingness to disclose about him/herself.

This research is especially appropriate in situations where the researcher is dealing with the non
observable behaviour such as attitude or perceptions towards something.

Advantages of personal description method

i. The researcher is able to collect a lot of information that he may not be aware of or cannot
observe such as a person’s attitude
ii. It gives detailed research information

Disadvantages of personal description research method

i. Some individuals may not be willing to disclose some issues about themselves especially
sensitive matters
ii. It is difficult for the researcher to confirm the reliability of the information given

M. Psychological tests method

Psychological tests are used to assess a variety of mental abilities and attributes, including
achievement and ability, personality, and neurological functioning.

Examples of psychological tests for children include

• Achievement and ability tests that are designed to measure the level of a child's intellectual
functioning and cognitive ability.

• Personality tests that evaluate the thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and behavioral traits that
comprise personality.

• Neuropsychological tests administered on children and adolescents who have experienced

a traumatic brain injury, brain damage, or other neurological problems in order to assess
their level of functioning and identify areas of mental impairment.

10.3.2 Quantitative research methods

There are different methods that may be used to conduct quantitative research. They include:

A. Structured interviews method

B. Closed-ended questionnaires method
C. Observation method
D. Study of secondary information method

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 E. Rating scale method

A. Structured interviews
It involves a systematic technique of asking questions that follow particular order already
determined in advance by the researcher. This means that questions asked in a structured
interview are decided and written down in a particular order before the interview is conducted.
The researcher will therefore follow the order predetermined in advance in an interview
schedule.

B. Closed-ended questionnaires
These are questionnaires that contain series of questions that do not give room for the
respondents to give their own opinion but simply answer the questions by choosing from the
alternatives given or supply a short straight forward answer.

The following are examples of questions that you can find in a closed-ended questionnaire:

1. Have you completed the course in ECDE Diploma Teacher training?

Yes []

No []

2. Do you plan to further your education?

Yes []

Not sure []

No []

3. If yes above (2a.), when do you intend to further your education:

In the next 1 to 2 years []

In the next 2 to 3 years []

In the next 3 to 4 years []

In the next 4 years and above [ ]

4. The government is doing enough in supporting ECDE program in Kenya.

Strongly Agree []

Agree []

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 Not Sure []

Disagree []

Strongly Disagree [ ]

Advantages of closed-ended questionnaires

i. It is easy to respond to the questions provided
ii. It takes shorter time to fill the questionnaire
iii. It is easy for the researcher to analyse the responses given because of limited choices
respondents are given, that is, they are not given room to elaborate their own opinion to
the questions asked

Disadvantages of closed-ended questionnaires

i. Respondents are not given room to provide their own version of answering a given
question because responses are limited to how a given question has been asked
ii. The responses given do not provide in-depth information on the research being carried out
because no explanations are given

Factors to consider in administration of a questionnaire

The following factors should be considered to ensure success in using questionnaire method:

i. Questions provided should be relevant to the research problem

ii. The language used should be simple and clear
iii. The questionnaire should not be too long because respondents may get tired and bored to
complete the questionnaire
iv. Arrange the questions in logical manner
v. Pilot the questionnaire if possible by administering it to another group of people (but not
the real subjects to be investigated) in order to make corrections to the questions to be
asked and hence make the questionnaire better
vi. Avoid questions that are too sensitive or that will make the respondents feel embarrassed
vii. Give the respondents time within which to mail the questionnaire back to you
viii. Personalize the questionnaire so that the respondents feel important because it is being
specifically addressed to him/her
ix. Clarify the nature of the research and why the information is required in the introduction
section
x. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope in a case of mailed questionnaires so that it is
returned back quickly

C. Study of secondary information method

This method involves a careful analysis of what other scholars have studied and recorded in
sources of information such as books, journals, research reports, newspapers, magazine articles,
internet etc. In this method, the researcher will carry out an in-depth examination of the
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documents that contains similar research problem to the one the researcher is interested in
investigating. For example the researcher interested in investigating factors contributing to
school dropout in a particular sub-county, may go ahead and analyse already recorded
information by other researchers in relation to this similar research problem instead of going to
the field and collect first-hand information (primary data).

Advantages of document analysis method

i. It is easy to conduct the research since the information is already available
ii. It is less time-consuming since the researcher does not need to spend a lot of time in the
field to collect information directly from the subjects
iii. It is less expensive since the researcher does not get to the field to carry out the study
directly
iv. It helps to understand a given research problem from the past better
v. It is appropriate when the subjects the researcher is interested in are in accessible
Disadvantages of document analysis method
i. Information collected may not be accurate since passed variables may not apply to the
current situation
ii. It may be expensive if the information required is not readily available and if the
researcher may need to spend a lot of money to access some resource centres having the
required information
iii. It may be time consuming to analyse past documents especially if the techniques that were
applied in the past studies are too complicated to understand

D. Observation method
This is a method whereby the researcher conducts an investigation by simply observing the
subjects under investigation in a real life situation. The interest of the researcher in this case is to
observe the behaviour of the subjects understudy in real life situation and record observations
made.

It is important to note that in observation method, the task of the researcher is to simply observe
behaviour without interfering with the subjects under study such as asking them questions.
Observations made should be recorded down for example on an observation schedule, notepad,
checklist or even use of a voice recorder or a video recorder.

Advantages of observation method

i. It is relatively less expensive since the researcher collects information directly from the
subjects under study
ii. It is possible to collect accurate information since the researcher observes the subjects in
their natural settings
iii. It is easy to collect information since the researcher records occurrences of behaviour
directly
iv. It is useful when the researcher wants to know the natural behaviour of the subjects
v. The researcher is able to collect other data related to the study as she carries out the
observation which can help to understand the findings better
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 vi. The researcher is able to collect in-depth information which can help to understand the
problem under investigation better

Disadvantages of observation method

i. It can be difficult to collect information especially if the subjects are too mobile
ii. Sometimes information collected may not be accurate since the subjects might behave
artificially if they realise that they are being investigated
iii. It may take long time to record final findings especially if behaviour the researcher is
interested in does not occur often
iv. It is subjective since the researcher’s bias may affect interpretation of observations made
v. Observation method does not give information about the cause and effect relationship,
that is, it does not explain the factors contributing to the observed behaviour since the
researcher in this method only observes and records findings without manipulating the
subjects under investigation
vi. The researcher is not able to control the conditions under which the subjects are being
investigated such as asking them questions and hence the results may not be reliable

vii. Sometimes this method may prove expensive if it takes a long time to collect information
required
viii. Less data may be collected since the researcher only depends on observations made, even
though there could be other hidden information which could have been discovered if
questions asked in an interview

E. Rating scale method

In this method, the participants in the research are required to write particular responses in
relation to the matter under investigation. In this case a rating scale is a tool of conducting a
research with a set of items, with varying degrees of dimension of an attribute being measured. A
rating scale allows the respondent to give his/her own judgement of a particular item.

A rating scale will have a set of categories of responses designed to elicit/give information on a
particular item in varying degrees/levels. For example the researcher may be interested in finding
out the attitude of teachers in using computers in instructional process and the scale of rating
maybe very good, good, average, poor and very poor. Respondents in this case will be required
to make a choice of the given five levels.

Another example could be a researcher interested in investigating the performance of a given

group of pupils in physical activities in a scale of 1 to 10. In this case the researcher will
compute the findings based on various levels of performance. For example two children may
score 3/10, five children may score 6/10, two children may score 8/10 and one child 10/10 and
so on. This information can later be analysed to make judgement on the performance of learners
in the class.

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