Introduction to Research – Revision Material

• Writing a Research Proposal:

– Purpose of a research proposal
Convince reader of your competence and the value of your project

– What is a research proposal?

An overall plan, structure and strategy designed to obtain answers to each research
question
 Scientific scrutiny for others to judge appropriateness of project
 Reference document to show the research will be/was carried out

– Where does a research proposal go?

 Academic degree requirement
 Solicit funding
 Seek collaboration

– Proposals in quantitative and qualitative or mixed methods research

 Same structure
 Differ in: 1. Content
2. Methodology
3. Proposed methods

– Information about the study

 What the research is proposing to do?
 How to find answers to what is proposed? – Does NOT give answers or results
 Why the proposed strategies of investigation were selected?

– Content of a research proposal

1. Introduction – INC brief literature review
 overview of main area under study
 historical perspective – development, growth, pertinent to study area
 philosophical/ideological issues relating to topic
 trends – prevalence if possible
 major theories
 main issues, problems, and advancements in subject under study
 theoretical practical issues r/t central problem under study
 main findings relating to core issues
2. Theoretical framework – underpins the study
3. Conceptual framework – basis of the study
4. Objectives / Research questions
 Clearly stated
 Specific in nature
5. Hypotheses – if applicable (for a quantitative study)
6. Proposed/adopted study design
 Study population
 Sampling method
 Accessibility of the selected sample
 Consent to participate sought
 Collection of data – interview, questionnaire, observation
 Ethical issues considered
 Analysis of data
7. Setting for the study
8. Research instruments
9. Sampling design and size
10. Ethical issues – involved and how they’re dealt with
11. Data processing procedure
12. Study problems and limitations – communicating problem: availability of data, access
to sample, etc
13. Proposed time-frame for the project

Which of the below is not part of the

research proposal?
A. Background (literature review)
B. Results
C. Methods and tools
D. Budget
  Selecting Methods of Data Collection:
– Differences in methods of collecting data
Depends on the answers to questions related to the:
 Philosophical approach underpinning the research approach
 Collection of information, format – structured/unstructured/flexible/both
 Discussion of questions/issues during data collection – predetermined/developed
during data collection
 Recording of gathered info – descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative, on a
scale
 Analysis of information – descriptive, categorical, numerical analysis
 Different methods used in undertaking the study

– Major sources of information gathering

1. Primary Sources – researcher undertakes the data collection
2. Secondary Sources – data is already available, re-analyzed – Documents: govt.
publications, earlier research, census, personal records, client histories, service
records

– Collecting data using primary sources

o Observation - Watching and listening to interactions

1. Participant Observation - purposeful, systematic, selective way of watching
Researcher engages in the activities of the research participants
2. Non-Participant Observation – Researcher enters social system to observe events,
activities, interaction with aim of gaining a direct understanding of phenomenon in
its natural context (passive) for e.g.: watching how nurses deal with patients.
Situations in which observations can be made:
1. Natural – observing w/o interfering in normal activities
2. Controlled – introducing stimulus to the group and observing reaction
Problems of Observations:
1. Hawthorne Effect – participants are aware of observation, change behavior
2. Elevation Effect – Researcher over-uses a particular scale for recording. The level
and severity of subjective reports often decline over repeated assessments.
3. Halo Effect – Researcher bias towards particular participant
Recording of Observations:
1. Narrative Recording: description of interaction in own words
2. Categorical Recording: e.g. positive, neutral, negative
Adv.: spend less time, concentrate on observation. Disadv.: does not provide in-depth
interaction information
3. Recording on electrical device
4. Video
5. Audio Recording - listen number of times to understand the issue.

o The interview – questioning people

1. Structured Interviews: interview schedule predetermines the questions, wording,
and order
2. Unstructured Interviews: freedom in structure, content, wording and order of
questions
o The questionnaire – written list of questions completed by the respondent
 1. Mail/Postal Questionnaire – covering letter
2. Collective Administration – e.g. students in class, people attending an event
Adv.: quest way to collect information, high response rate, saves money
3. Online Questionnaire – survey monkey
4. Administration in public place
To choose b/w interview schedule and questionnaire, consider:
 The nature of investigation – drug use, personal finance
 Geographical distribution of study population – hill area, mountain, hard to reach
 Type of study population – educated, young/old, handicapped

• Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
Questionnaires
Limited application
Low response rate
Convenient – saves time
Responses cannot be supplemented with other
information
Inexpensive – saves human/financial Self-selecting bias
resources Lack of opportunity to clarify issues
Greater anonymity –no face to face No opportunity for spontaneous responses
interaction Responses influenced by other responses to
Likelihood to obtain more accurate info questions
on sensitive questions Others can influence answers
Interviews
More appropriate for complex
Time consuming, expensive
questions
Useful for collecting in-depth
Possibility of research bias
information
Information can be supplemented Data quality depends on: qlty of interaction
Questions can be explained Data quality depends on: qlty of interviewer
Data quality could vary when multiple
Wider application
researchers are involved

• Types of questions

Types of Questions Open-Ended Closed-Ended

In-depth information
Advantages Greater variety of information
No investigator bias
Analysis more difficult – answers
need to be classified
Disadvantages Loss of information if respondents
cannot express themselves
Possible interviewer bias
Easy to answer
Easy to analyze due to ready- made
categories
Information lacks depth and variety
Answers may not reflect respondents
opinion – selected from list
Greater possibility of interviewer bias
 • Formulating effective questions
 Easy and everyday language
 Avoid: Ambiguous questions
Double barreled questions – q within a q e.g. how often and how much time
do you spend on mobile
Leading questions
Questions based on assumptions

• Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research

 Personal and sensitive questions
 Order of questions
 Pre-testing a research instrument
Pre-requisites for data collection:
 Motivation to share required information
 Clear understanding of questions
 Possession of required information

– Methods of data collection in qualitative research

1. Interviews – Unstructured, In-depth, Focus-group
2. Nominal group techniques
3. Narratives
4. Oral histories
5. Observation

– Collecting data using secondary sources

Sources:
 Government/Corporate Websites
 Earlier Research
 Personal Records
 Mass Media

Possible Problems:
 Validity and Reliability
 Personal Bias
 Availability
 Format
 Review 1
• Please indicate whether the below is a primary or secondary data collection:

– Abstract: Low birth weight (LBW) remains the main cause of mortality and morbidity in infants, and a
problem in the care of pregnant women world-wide particularly in developing countries. The purpose of this
study was to describe the socio-demographic, nutritional, reproductive, medical and obstetrical risk factors
for delivering a live LBW infant at Harare Maternity Hospital, Zimbabwe.

– Methods: A secondary data analysis from data obtained through review of delivery records was conducted.
Linear regression models with a complimentary log-log link function were used to estimate the relative risks
for all LBW, term LBW and preterm LBW.

– Results: The frequency of LBW was 16.7%. Lack of prenatal care (adjusted relative risk [ARR] 1.69, 95% CI
1.44, 1.98), mother’s mid-arm circumference below 28.5 cm, (ARR 1.35, 95% CI 1.19, 1.54) and rural
residence (ARR 1.22, 95% CI 1.04, 1.40) increased the risk of LBW. Eclampsia, anemia, and ante-partum
hemorrhage, were associated with LBW (ARR 2.64, 95% CI 1.30, 5.35; ARR = 2.63, 95% CI 1.16, 5.97; and ARR
= 2.39, 95% CI 1.55, 3.68), respectively. Malaria increased the risk of LBW (ARR = 1.89, 95% CI 1.21, 2.96).
Prenatal care, infant sex, anemia, antepartum hemorrhage, premature rapture of membranes and preterm
labor were associated with the three LBW categories. History of abortion or stillbirth, history of LBW,
malaria, eclampsia, and placenta Previa, were associated with all LBW and preterm LBW, while pregnancy
induced hypertension, and number of children alive were associated with all LBW and term LBW.

– Conclusions: LBW frequency remains high and is associated with nutritive, reproductive, medical and
obstetrical factors. Preterm LBW and term LBW have similar and also different risk factors. Understanding
the role of different risk factors in these different LBW categories is important if the goal is to reduce LBW
frequency, and its complications, in Zimbabwe.

Review 2
• Kindly indicate whether the below statements
are true or false:
– Observation is a method of secondary data
collection

– In a ‘participant observation’, the researcher only

observes the research participants

Review 3
• Kindly indicate whether the below statements
are true or false:
– Controlled observation refers to a situation when
the researcher introduces a stimulus and observes
the reaction of the research participants

– A researcher who is sympathetic with one

participants and tends to treat him differently in
an observation research is an example of
Hawthorne effect

 Validity and Reliability

  Validity:
Definition: ability of research instrument to measure what it is designed to measure
“Are we measuring what we think we’re measuring?”
 Types of validity:
1. Face and Content Validity - based on subjective logic – different people may have
different opinions
Face validity: logical link b/w research instruments and objectives
Establishing the link indicates the validity of the instrument – higher the link, higher the face
validity
Content Validity: all aspects of the issue are measured

2. Concurrent and Predictive Validity – based on types of comparison

Concurrent Validity: judged by how well an instrument compares with a second assessment
concurrently done (validity coefficient) e.g. comparing dietary assessment w/ blood test
Predictive Validity: judged by the degree to which an instrument can forecast an outcome.
E.g. tested validity of dietary assessment by checking method predicts obesity

3. Construct Validity – statistical procedures establish the contribution of each

important factor. E.g. ascertain the degree to which people consider each factor
important for job satisfaction, see the contribution of each factor to total variance
Greater the variance attributable to the constructs, the higher the validity of the instrument
Disadv: need to know the required statistical procedure

 Reliability:
Definition: Research tool is consistent, stable, predictable and accurate each time/ when
used repeatedly. Repeat measurements under constant conditions will give the same
result.
Two Questions:
1. How reliable is an instrument?
After repeated use, same results - reliable
2. How unreliable is it?
Degree of inconsistency in measurements made by instrument, ‘error’ during repeated use
reflects instrument’s unreliability

Types
1. Test and Retest – instrument is compared with itself -
2. Parallel Forms of the Same Test – two instruments measure the same test e.g. two
versions of the same exam; forms in Arabic and English

 Factors that Affect the Reliability of a Research Equipment

 Wording of questions
 Physical setting
 Mood of the respondent/interviewer
 Nature of interaction

 Validity and reliability in qualitative research

  not set procedures for validity and reliability in qualitative research
 Concepts of validity and reliability relate more to quantitative research
 Validity and reliability is used differently in quantitative and qualitative research
Trustworthiness and Authenticity
Indicators that reflect validity and reliability in qualitative research:
1. Credibility – believable from participant’s perspective
2. Transferability – generalized
3. Dependability – expectation of same result in repeat research
4. Confirmability – degree to which results can be confirmed

Criteria for Judging Research

Traditional Alternative
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Internal Validity Credibility
External Validity Transferability
Reliability Dependability
Objectivity Confirmability
 Review 1
• Which of the below refers to the concept of
reliability of a tool:
A. The results generated by the tool are very close
to those obtained by a more superior method.
B. The results obtained by the tool are measuring
what the researcher has intended to measure
C. The tool when applied twice, generates similar
results

Review 2
• Kindly indicate what type of reliability is in the
following scenario:
A. The teacher has prepared two version of the
exams in order to decrease the risk of ‘cheating’

B. The researcher bought a new heart monitor, he

used 3 consecutive times to ensure that it is
giving similar results each time

Review 3
• Which of the below corresponds to the term
‘validity’ in qualitative studies:
A. Credible
B. Dependable
  Selecting a Sample

 What is sampling – selection of study units from a defined study population

subgroup of the total population selected as the basis for estimating/predicting the
prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation/outcome regarding the
population
 Representativeness
Representative sample has all the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
Valid conclusion – sample should be representative of that population

 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling

Advantages Disadvantages
Sample and sampling population may differ
Saves time, financial and human resources
Possibility of error in estimation
Estimating proper sample, reduces the level of inaccuracy

 Definition of sampling terminology in quantitative research

The group the sample is taken from e.g students in class,
1. Study Population families in a community
Denoted by N
Refers to the number of items/people in the sample e.g.
2. Sample Size no. of students
Denoted by n
3. Sampling Unit Each of the sample is sample unit
4. Sampling Design/
Way of selecting sample
Sampling Strategy
List identifying each item/person in the study population
5. Sampling Frame
e.g students, families, voters
Refers to findings based on information collected from
6. Sample Statistics
respondents
Estimates arrived at from the sample statistics e.g.
7. Population Parameter
population mean

 Principles of Sampling

1. Difference b/w the sample statistics and true population mean is attributable to the
selection of the units in the sample
2. The greater the sample size the more accurate the estimate of true population mean
3. The greater the difference in variable in study population the greater the difference
b/w sample statistics and true population mean

 Sampling in Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

 Quantitative Qualitative
Ease of access, uniqueness of
Criteria Unbiased and Representative situation being studied, override
concerns of bias or representation
Draw inferences about
Gain extensive knowledge about the
Goal population – extended or
respondent
generalized population level
No bearing (1,2, few samples), non-
Sample Size Bigger better, predetermined
pre-determined
Done to minimize choosing
Randomization biased/unrepresentative No randomization
samples
Probability, non-probability
Type of Sampling Non-probability sampling only
used depending on study

 Differences in Sampling in Quantitative and Qualitative research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Unbiased Ease of Access
Representative Purpose Driven
Make Inferences Information rich respondents
Random Samples Few cases until saturation is
Large Sample Sizes reached

 Types of sampling

Random Probability Sampling

Each element in sampling frame has equal and independent chance of selection in
Definition
sample
Representative of total sampling population
Inferences drawn can be generalized into total sampling population
Advantages
Statistical tests based upon theory of probability can be applied only to data
collected from random samples
 Small population – number each element using paper slips
Fishbowl Draw – place slips in jar – pick number of slips = sample size w/o
looking
Methods of
Computer Programs Random sample selecting computer programs
Drawing Random
Samples
Tables of randomly Available online or research methodology books – select
generated numbers sample using random numbers from such tables

SRS – Simple Random Sampling

Total population is divided into smaller groups/strata to
Stratified Random complete sampling process; formed based on some
common characteristics in population data
Designs Population is divided into multiple groups for research,
Cluster Sampling
groups selected randomly
Members of population are put in some order, starting
Systematic Sampling point is selected at random, every nth member is selected
to be in the sample
Non-Probability Sampling
Not all members of the population have an equal chance of participating in the
Definition
study – use of methods that do not have random sampling at any stage
Advantage Useful when population is either unknown or cannot be individually identified
Selection based on exact/visible characteristics and quota
of subjects in the sample when impossible to list all
Quota Sampling members of population
Quick and cheap to organize, not the most representative
of samples, impossible to assess sampling error
Purposive/selective sampling;
based on researcher’s experience and knowledge of
individuals being sampled; primarily used when there are
limited number of people that have expertise in the area
Judgmental Sampling
Selecting Non- being researched;
Random Samples used to construct historical reality, describe phenomenon,
explore something that is little known about
sample size might not be determined
Requires respondents that are expert in the field of
interest;
Mostly used in qualitative research
Expert Sampling No of samples depend on data saturation point – point
where you don’t get any new info/negligible
Determines sample size,
Quantitative use – sample number must be pre-determined
Selecting sample using networks, start with few individuals
Snowball Sampling and collect information, ask respondents for others who
will qualify, continued until saturation point

 Sample size
Greater number of respondents are needed to reach saturation point when there is greater
heterogeneity/diversity in what is to be found out
Cause-Effect studies consider: level of confidence, variation and degree of accuracy when
selecting sample size.

Calculating sample size:

More cases = better representativeness
Optimal sample size: adequate for making correct generalization from the sample to the
target population.
Consider: cost, effort, data collection, discomfort to participants, accessibility of samples

Study power – number/percentage that indicates probability that a study will obtain
statistically significant effect.
e.g power of 80% (0.8) – survey/study when conducted repeatedly overtime is likely to
produce statistically significant results 8 times out of 10.

 Concept of saturation point in qualitative research

 Qualitative research uses non-probability sampling, collects information from pre-
determined number of people, sampled until saturation point reached – no new
information
 Guided by judgement – who is likely to provide the ‘best’ information

Quantitative: random sampling, represent sampling population

Qualitative: non-random sampling, collect best information from sample
  Ethical Issues in Data Collection

 The concept of ethics

Code of conduct on how to conduct research appropriately
Differs b/w disciplines and professions
Principles of conduct: addresses issue of contents of ethical practice in a profession
Avoid:
 Causing harm to individuals
 Breaching confidentiality
 Using information improperly
 Introducing bias

 Stakeholders in research – researchers, organizations?

 Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants

1. Collecting information
Obtain respondents’ informed consent
Consider and convince others of the relevance and usefulness of research
2. Seeking Informed Consent – subjects made aware of the type of information wanted
from them, why it is being sought, and the purpose
 Unethical to collect info w/o the knowledge of participants, expressed willingness and
informed consent
 Consent – voluntary and w/o any pressure
 Participant must meet 3 criteria:
1. Competent to give consent
2. Provided with sufficient information
3. Voluntary and Un-forced consent
3. Providing Incentives – varied opinion
Giving a small gift after obtaining information given as an appreciation for participants
giving their time – ethical
Giving present before data collection - unethical
4. Seeking Sensitive Information
Such as sexual behavior, drug use – intrusive
Questions on marital status, income, age – invasion of privacy by some
 Tell respondents about the type of information you are going to ask, assure them of
confidentiality, give sufficient time to deicide
5. Possibility of Causing Harm to Participants
Harm – hazardous medical experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment and invasion of
privacy] unethical
When collecting data, examine whether respondent’s involvement is likely to harm them;
ensure risk is minimal i.e. extent of harm not > than ordinarily encountered in daily life
6. Maintaining Confidentiality
Sharing information with others is unethical, provided information should be kept
anonymous, unethical to identify individual respondent, source cannot be identified.
  Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher
1. Avoiding Bias
Bias on part of researcher – unethical
Bias- deliberate attempt to hide/highlight disproportionately to its true existence
2. Provision/Deprivation of Treatment
Deprivation to control group – not unethical
Deprivation of possible benefits – unethical by some
3. Using Inappropriate Research Methodology – unethical
Biased sample, invalid instrument, drawing wrong conclusions
4. Incorrect Reporting
Unethical to report findings that changed/serves own interest
Correct and unbiased reporting – important characteristic of ethical research practice
5. Inappropriate Use of Information – directly/indirectly affects respondents adversely –
unethical

 Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation

1. Imposed Restrictions
Sponsoring organizations may exercise direct/indirect controls – methodology selection,
prohibition of public findings, impose restrictions in way of obtaining/disseminating
accurate information
 Imposition/acceptance of these controls - unethical
2. Misuse of Information – using research as pretext for promoting

 Ethical issues in collecting data from secondary sources

1. Plagiarism
2. Informed Consent
3. Misinterpretation of Data
4. Disclosing Data Source
5. Using Data collected by covert means w/o participant’s consent

Review 2
• Which of the below is/are NOT ethical
principles:

A. Not causing harm to individuals

B. Breaching confidentiality
C. Using information properly
D. Avoiding bias
 Review 3
• Which of the below is not an important
elements of the consent form:
A. The subject must be competent to give the
consent
B. Sufficient information must be provided
C. Consent must be voluntary
D. Consent form should be signed

Review 4
• Kindly indicate which of the below statements
are true or false:
– Giving incentives in research is not allowed
– A researcher should not seek to collect sensitive
information
– Keeping information anonymous means not telling
the participants about the purpose of the research
– Researchers should not taken any money from
sponsoring organizarions