Cellular Network:

A cellular network is a telecommunications network that is composed of a large number of small

geographic areas called cells. Each cell is served by a base station or cell tower, which provides wireless
coverage to mobile devices within that cell. In cellular network, each cell uses a different set of
frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each
cell. Cellular networks are the foundation of mobile communication systems, such as mobile phones,
smartphones, and other wireless devices.

Cellular networks enable mobile communication by allowing users to make calls, send text messages,
access the internet, and use various applications on their mobile devices while on the move. They have
evolved significantly over the years, with each generation (e.g., 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G) offering improved
data rates, coverage, and capabilities. These networks have become an integral part of modern
communication, connecting people and devices across the globe.

What is Cell in Cellular Network:

A cell is the geographical area that is covered by a single base station in a cellular network. The coverage
area of cellular networks divided into cells, each cell having its own antenna for transmitting the signals.
Each cell has its own frequencies. Data communication in cellular networks is served by its base station
transmitter, receiver and its control unit.

The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon –

 Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
1. Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
2. Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

 Hexagon
A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and calculations. It offers the
following advantages –
1. Provides equidistant antennas
2. Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
3. Distance between centers of cells radius R is root 3 R
Structure of Cellular Network:

The structure of a cellular network is organized in a hierarchical and distributed manner to provide
wireless communication services efficiently. It consists of several key components and levels of
infrastructure, including:

1. Mobile Devices (User Equipment): Mobile devices, such as smartphones, feature phones, tablets, and
lot of devices, are the endpoints of the cellular network. They communicate wirelessly with the network
infrastructure to make calls, send text messages, and access data services.

2. Cell: The fundamental building block of a cellular network is the cell. Each cell is served by a base
station or cell tower, which provides wireless coverage to mobile devices within that cell. Cells can vary
in size, depending on population density and network capacity.

3. Base Station (Cell Tower): Base stations, also known as cell towers, are installed within each cell. They
consist of antennas and radio equipment that transmit and receive signals from mobile devices. The base
station connects to the core network infrastructure.

4. Base Station Controller (BSC): In older cellular network architectures like GSM (2G), the BSC is
responsible for managing multiple base stations within a specific geographical area. It controls call setup,
handovers, and resource allocation for the base stations it oversees.

5. Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is a central component in the core network that manages
call routing, call switching, and call handovers. It is responsible for connecting calls within the cellular
network and interfacing with external networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN)
and the internet.

6. Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber information, including
user profiles, authentication data, and current location. It is used for call routing and authentication
purposes.

7. Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a temporary database that stores information about mobile
users currently located in the service area of a specific MSC. It helps track the location of users and
facilitates call routing within the network.
8. Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC): The GMSC is responsible for routing calls between the
cellular network and external networks, such as other cellular networks or the PSTN.

9. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or Internet Gateway: These gateways provide
connectivity to external networks, allowing users to make calls to landline phones, other cellular
networks, or access internet services.

10. Short Message Service Center (SMSC): The SMSC is responsible for handling text messages (SMS) in
the network, storing and forwarding messages between users.

11. Data Network: In addition to voice and SMS services, modern cellular networks support data
services. They connect to data networks, including the internet and private data networks, to provide
services like mobile internet, email, and app access.

12. Core Network: The core network manages the overall operation of the cellular network, consisting of
various network elements, databases, and control functions that facilitate call routing, data transfer, and
network management.

The cellular network's hierarchical structure allows for efficient resource management, scalability and
seamless handovers as users move between cells. Different generations of cellular technology (e.g., 2G,
3G, 4G, and 5G) may have variations in their network architecture, with the goal of improving data
speeds, coverage, and capabilities.

Working Of Cellular Network:

1. Power On Mobile Device: When you turn on your mobile device, it scans for available cellular
networks.

2. Select a Cellular Network: You choose your preferred cellular network from the list of available
networks displayed on your device.

3. Network Registration: Your device sends a registration request to the selected cellular network, and
the network verifies your identity and connection.

4. Signal Transmission: Once registered, your device communicates with the nearest cell tower using
wireless radio signals, which carry your voice, data, and text messages.

5. Call Routing and Connection: When you make a call, the network routes it to the recipient by
determining their location and connecting the call through the appropriate cell tower.

6. Data Services (Optional): If you use data services, your device requests an IP address from the
network to enable internet access and app usage.

7. Continuous Connectivity: As you move, the network ensures continuous connectivity by handing off
your connection to the closest cell tower, maintaining the quality of your signal.

8. Security and Privacy: Cellular networks use encryption and security measures to protect your
communication and prevent unauthorized access.

9. Roaming (Optional): If you travel to an area outside your home network's coverage, your device may
roam onto another network, allowing you to stay connected while on the go.

In essence, a cellular network enables your mobile device to communicate wirelessly, providing voice
calls, text messaging, and data services, all while ensuring that your connection remains seamless,
secure, and reliable.

Features Of Cellular Network:

1. Wide Coverage: Cellular networks provide broad wireless coverage, allowing users to make calls and
access the internet over large areas.

2. Voice Calls: Users can make and receive voice calls from their mobile devices.

3. Text Messaging: Cellular networks enable text messaging services, allowing users to send and receive
text messages.

4. Data Services: Users can access the internet and use mobile apps to browse websites, send emails,
and more.

5. Roaming: Users can maintain connectivity when traveling outside their home network's coverage
area.
6. Seamless Handovers: Mobile devices switch between different cell towers without interrupting calls
or data connections.

7. Wireless Connectivity: Cellular networks provide wireless communication, eliminating the need for
physical connections.

8. Emergency Services: Users can reach emergency services, such as 911, for assistance during
emergencies.

GSM:
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital cellular technology
used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz
and 1900 MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM:

1. Macro: In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.

3. Pico: Small cells’ diameter of few meters.

4. Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems

1. BSS: BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a mobile phone
and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two components BTS and BSC.

2. NSS: NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of GSM. That carried
out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in network. NSS have different
components like VLR, HLR and EIR.

3. OSS: OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network operator
monitors and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-
effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.

Structure of GSM:
Mobile Devices (User Equipment): Mobile phones and devices, referred to as User Equipment (UE),
are the endpoints of the GSM network. These devices communicate with the network infrastructure to
make calls, send SMS, and access data services.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS, also known as a cell tower, is responsible for transmitting
and receiving radio signals within a specific cell. It communicates directly with mobile devices within its
coverage area.

Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC manages multiple BTSs within a geographical area. It handles
call setup, handovers, and resource allocation for the BTSs under its control.
 Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is the central component of the NSS, responsible for call
routing and switching. It connects calls within the cellular network and interfaces with external
networks, such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN).

Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a temporary database that stores information about
mobile users currently located within a specific MSC's service area. It helps track user location and
facilitates call routing within the network.

Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a centralized database that stores subscriber information,
including user profiles, authentication data, and current location. It is essential for user management,
authentication, and service provision.

Authentication Center (AUC): The AUC is responsible for verifying the authenticity of mobile
devices and protecting against fraud.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR stores information related to the identity of mobile
equipment, helping in the detection of stolen or compromised devices.

Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC): The OMC manages and monitors the network's
operational aspects, ensuring its efficient performance and providing maintenance functions .

Working of GSM:
- A mobile device registers with the GSM network when powered on.

- The device sends a registration request to the network, which verifies its identity and location.

- Calls or text messages are initiated from mobile devices and are routed through the BSS and MSC for
connection to the intended recipient.

- Data services, such as mobile internet access, involve data packet exchange between the device and
the network.

- Roaming allows users to connect to partner networks when traveling outside their home network's
coverage area.

Key Features of GSM:

1. Wide Coverage: GSM provides broad network coverage, including urban, suburban, and rural areas.

2. Voice Calls: Users can make and receive voice calls.

3. Text Messaging (SMS): GSM supports SMS for text communication.

4. Data Services: Users can access mobile data services, such as internet and email.
5. Security: GSM employs encryption and authentication to protect user privacy.

6. Roaming: Users can maintain connectivity while traveling.

7. Interoperability: GSM is a global standard, ensuring compatibility and connectivity worldwide.

Handoff In Mobile Connections:

Process of transferring a mobile telephone call from one cell to another without dropping the call.

Handoff, also known as handover. It is a critical process in wireless communication networks, particularly
in cellular networks. It involves the transfer of an ongoing call or data session from one cell or base
station to another, typically when a mobile device is on the move.

The primary purpose of handoff is to maintain the quality and continuity of a call or data session. It is
necessary because mobile devices are constantly on the move, and as they move away from one cell's
coverage area and enter another, the network must redirect the connection to a new cell. Handoffs are
fundamental in ensuring that mobile users can move freely within the network, whether in a car, on a
train, or simply walking, while maintaining voice or data connections without disruption. They are
designed to provide a seamless user experience and are a critical component of any mobile
communication network.

Situations for triggering Handoff:

Handoffs are triggered in any of the following situations –

 If a subscriber who is in a call or a data session moves out of coverage of one cell and enters coverage
area of another cell, a handoff is triggered for a continuum of service.

 Each cell has a pre-defined capacity and it can handle only a specific number of subscribers. If the
number of users using a particular cell reaches its maximum capacity, then a handoff occurs. Some of the
calls are transferred to adjoining cells, provided that the subscriber is in the overlapping coverage area of
both the cells.

 Cells are often sub-divided into microcells. A handoff may occur when there is a transfer of duties from
the large cell to the smaller cell and vice versa. For example, there is a traveling user moving within the
jurisdiction of a large cell. If the traveler stops, then the jurisdiction is transferred to a microcell to relieve
the load on the large cell.

 Handoffs may also occur when there is an interference of calls using the same frequency for
communication.

Handoff Process:

The handoff process involves several steps:

- Measurement: The mobile device continuously measures the signal strength and quality of neighboring
cells.

- Threshold Crossing: When the signal from the current cell degrades and the signal from the target cell
becomes stronger, a handoff is initiated.
- Handoff Decision: The network or mobile device decides to execute a handoff. If initiated by the device,
it sends a handoff request to the network.

- Preparation: Resources in the target cell are allocated, and the mobile device is prepared for the
handoff.

- Execution: The handoff is executed, involving the transfer of the connection from the source cell to the
target cell. In soft handoff, there is an overlap where both cells handle the connection.

- Verification: The connection is verified to ensure minimal or no interruption for the user.

Types of Handoffs

There are various types of handoffs as listed below, each of which are used in different scenarios.

 Soft handoff

 Hard handoff

 Forced handoff

 Delayed handoff

 Mobile-Assisted handoff

 Intersystem handoff

 Intercell handoff

 Intracell handoff

Soft Handoff

Soft handoff, also known as soft handover. Soft Handoff is a feature where a cellular device gets
connected to two or more cell BTS (or cell sectors) at the same time. If all the sectors to which the MS is
connected to are from the same cell, then it is referred to as a Softer Handoff.

It is designed to ensure a smooth and uninterrupted transition for mobile devices as they move between
different cells or base stations. Unlike hard handoff, which involves a brief interruption in the connection,
soft handoff allows the mobile device to communicate with both the current (source) cell and the target
cell simultaneously for a brief period during the handoff.

Example: Imagine you're on a long road trip, talking on your phone. As you drive, you move from one
cell phone tower's coverage (Cell A) to another (Cell B). Soft handoff makes sure that during this
transition, your phone keeps talking to both towers for a short time. This overlap ensures a smooth
handover without any call drop or interruption. Once your phone is firmly connected to Cell B, the
connection to Cell A is smoothly turned off. So, you can chat without a disruption, even while driving
between different cell towers.

Used In
Soft Handoffs are generally used in MS that employ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) or Wideband
CDMA (WCDMA), and its associated services, and also in applications that require a continuous
connection throughout, possibly for security purposes.

Advantages:

 Soft handoff ensures your call or data session stays connected when you move between different
cell towers, resulting in a smooth experience.

 It often leads to improved call quality, especially in areas with weak signals, as it uses both the
old and new towers.

 Soft handoff significantly reduces the chances of your call suddenly dropping.

 Soft Handoffs lead to an increase in the signal to interference ratio, without performance loss.
This is known as the Soft Handover Gain.
 Delay is very low.

Disadvantages

 Only supported for phones that employ CDMA/ WCDMA, and cannot be implemented in LTE or
GSM.
 Costlier to implement than Hard Handoff as a channel is always wasted by being the backup.

Hard handoff:

Hard Handoff is a technique that requires the user’s connection to be broken before connecting to
another while switching between two BTS and hence is equivalent to “breaking before making”. It is
generally implemented in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) based devices and is implemented when the subscriber/user is being connected to a base
station with a different radio frequency than the current base station.

Example: Imagine you're talking on your mobile phone while driving through an area with multiple cell
towers. As you move away from the coverage area of one tower (the source), your phone needs to
switch to a stronger signal from another tower (the target) to maintain the call. During this transition,
there's a brief interruption in your call, similar to when you briefly lose sound during a call when moving
through a tunnel. This momentary pause occurs as your phone disconnects from the source tower and
quickly reconnects to the target tower. It's akin to losing a few words in your conversation, but your call
continues without being dropped completely. This is a hard handoff in action, ensuring you stay
connected as you move between different cell towers, even though there's a short interruption during
the switch.

Used In:

Apart from being implemented in FDMA and TDMA devices, Hard Handoffs are also used in applications
that can afford slight delays, such as VoIP, Internet, and WiMAX.

Advantages:

 Hard Handovers are cheaper as they require only one channel to be active at a time.

 Hard Handoffs are generally implemented more than Soft Handoffs because of their efficiency.
Disadvantages:

 A delay is often experienced while switching, but it generally is quite small such that the user does not
experience it.