University of Mosul/College of Engineering Computer Engineering Department/Real-Time Lab

Experiment (1)
Characteristics of sensors
Objectives
 Study the characteristics and applications of different switches:
1. Reed switch
2. Limit switch
3. Mercury switch
4. Vibration switch
5. Proximity switch
 Study the characteristics and applications of different electromagnetic sensors:
6. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Digital)
7. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Analog)
8. Hall Current Sensor

Discussion of Fundamentals

1. Reed switch
The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. Two metal
reeds are enclosed in a hermetically sealed glass capsule. Figure SM4-1 shows ON/OFF read
switch and its symbol. The overlapping reeds can be closed or opened by positioning a
permanent magnet close to the reed contacts.

Figure SM4-1: ON/OFF read switch and its symbol.

One or more reed switches inside a coil is a reed relay. Reed relays are used when operating
currents are relatively low, and offer high operating speed, good performance with very small
currents which are not reliably switched by conventional contacts, high reliability and long
life. Millions of reed relays were used in telephone exchanges in the 1970s and 80s.

In addition to their use in reed relays, reed switches are widely used for electrical circuit
control, particularly in the communications field.

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2. Limit switch

Limit switches are switches operated by the motion of a machine part or presence of an
object. They are used for control of a machine, as safety interlocks, or to count objects
passing a point. A limit switch is an electromechanical device that consists of an actuator
mechanically linked to a set of contacts. When an object comes into contact with the actuator,
the device operates the contacts to make or break an electrical connection. Limit switch
structure and its symbol are shown in Figure SM4-2.

Figure SM4-2: Limit switch structure and its symbol.

Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their
ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation. They can determine the presence
or absence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of an object.

3. Mercury switch

A mercury switch (also known as a mercury tilt switch) is a switch which opens and closes
an electrical circuit through a small amount of liquid mercury.
Mercury switches have one or more sets of electrical contacts in a sealed glass envelope
which contains a bead of mercury, Figure SM4-3. The envelope may also contain air, an inert
gas, or a vacuum. Gravity is constantly pulling the drop of mercury to the lowest point in the
envelope. When the switch is tilted in the appropriate direction, the mercury touches a set of
contacts, thus completing the electrical circuit through those contacts. Tilting the switch in
the opposite direction causes the mercury to move away from that set of contacts, thus
breaking that circuit. The switch may contain multiple sets of contacts, closing different sets
at different angles allowing, for example, single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) operation.

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Figure SM4-3: Mercury switch structure and its symbol.

Mercury switches were used in automobiles for lighting controls (for example, trunk lid
lights). They are also used for a rollover or tip over warning for construction equipment and
lift vehicles operating in rugged off-highway terrain.

4. Vibration switch

The vibration switch is normally open with vibration springs. When a vibration occurred, the
switch changes to close state and the switch turns ON. Figure SM4-4 shows vibration switch
structure and its symbol.

Figure SM4-4: Vibration switch structure and its symbol.

5. Proximity switch

A proximity switch is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact.

A proximity sensor, Figure SM4-5, often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of

electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different
proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive photoelectric
sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always requires a
metal target. The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range".

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Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection
distance.

Figure SM4-5: Proximity switch and its symbol (Equipment Circuit).

Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence
of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.

Proximity sensors are also used in machine vibration monitoring to measure the variation in
distance between a shaft and its support bearing. This is common in large steam turbines,
compressors, and motors that use sleeve-type bearings.

6. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Digital)

The linear Hall-effect (digital) sensor, Figure SM4-6, detects the motion, position, or change
in field strength of an electromagnet. The output null voltage is nominally one-half of the
supply voltage. A south magnetic pole, presented to the branded face of the Hall effect sensor
will drive the output higher than the null voltage level. A north magnetic pole will drive the
output below the null level.

Figure SM4-6: The structure and symbol of magnetic hall-effect (digital).

7. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Analog)

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The Hall element (analog), Figure SM4-7, provides an output voltage that is proportional to
the magnetic field which it is exposed. The sensed magnetic field can be either positive or
negative. As a result, the output of the amplifier will be driven either positive or negative.

Figure SM4-7: The structure and symbol of magnetic hall-effect (analog).

8. Hall Current Sensor

When a magnetic field is applied to a specimen, Figure SM4-8 carrying a current in the
direction perpendicular to the current, a potential difference proportional to the magnitude of
the applied magnitude field appears in the direction perpendicular to both the applied
magnetic field and current. This represents the operation principle for the hall current sensor.

Figure SM4-8: Schematic representation of a hall-effect device.

Hall current sensors have a simple structure consisting of a gapped magnetic core and hall-

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Figure SM4-9: Schematic representation of a hall-effect sensor and its symbol.

University of Mosul/College of Engineering Computer Engineering Department/Real-Time Lab

effect device placed in the gap of the magnetic core, Figure SM4-9.

Hall current sensors provide the output voltage proportional to amperage of the input current
flowing through the current line, under the condition that the control current if held constant.
The transformation from the input current to the output voltage proceeds through the medium
of the magnetic field generated by the input current around the current line which provides
complete isolation between the sensing circuit and the current being sensed and allows
continuous sensing either DC or AC current. One of its applications is the clamp meter which
allows to measure current without the need of cutting the circuit.

Description of Experimental Circuits

1. Reed switch

Figure SM4-10 shows a reed switch circuit. When a permanent magnet positioned near to the
reed contacts, the reeds are closed and then both the transistor and buzzer are turned on. If the
magnet moves away from the contacts, the reeds are opened and the buzzer is turned off.

Figure SM4-10: Reed switch circuit.

2. Limit switch

The circuit of Figure SM4-11 is a limit switch circuit with a NAND latch. When the COM
terminal is closed to the NC terminal, the output states of latch are low at pin 3 and high at
pin4, and hence the LED1 is on and LED2 is off. If the COM terminal is switched to the NO
terminal, the states of latch and LEDs change to the other binary state.

Figure SM4-11: Limit switch circuit.

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3. Mercury switch

Figure SM4-12 shows a mercury switch circuit. When the sensor is tilted an angle about 15
degrees, the two electrodes will conduct through mercury and then the transistor and buzzer
are turned on.

Figure SM4-12: Mercury switch circuit.

4. Vibration switch

Figure SM4-13 shows a monostable multivibrator using a vibration switch trigger. The
monostable multivibrator is composed of timer 555 and supporting components. In normal
situation, the vibration switch is off, the output voltage of timer is low, and the buzzer is off.
If the switch contacts are closed by vibration, the trigger signal at pin 2 goes to low and the
output of timer goes to high and turns on the buzzer. After a period determined by R1 and C1,
the output of timer changes state to low and turns off the buzzer.

Figure SM4-13: Vibration switch circuit.

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5. Proximity switch

Figure SM4-14 shows the inductive type proximity switch for the experimental circuit. The
sensor is on the “HIGH” position when there is no metal approach, through the U3-a inverter
the Vo22 point is at low position that is why there is no alarm by the buzzer.
When a metal object is being near to the sensor, the LED turns on and output pin becomes at
low position, through the inverter Vo22 point becomes at high position then the transistor
turns on and so that the alarm.

Figure SM4-14: Proximity switch circuit.

6. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Digital)

Figure SM4-15 shows the circuit of a digital magnetic hall-effect sensor. The IC of the sensor
provides a constant-current to the hall element X and a regulated voltage to amplifiers. When
a magnet is placed in close to the hall sensor, its output is affected by the pole and magnitude
of the magnetic field. To determine its output state (high or low), the output must be
amplified by a differential amplifier. Then the amplified output is send to two inverters,
which act as a wave shaper and trigger latch, which in turn determine the output state. In
order to reverse the output state, a magnetic field of opposite polarity should be added.

Figure SM4-15: Digital hall circuit.

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7. Magnetic Hall-Effect (Analog)

Figure SM3-16 shows a hall detector using an analog hall IC. The output of this hall element
is directly proportional to the distance from the magnetic field. The differential amplifier U3
amplifies the analog signal.

Figure SM4-16: Analog hall circuit.

8. Hall Current Sensor

From the characteristics of the hall current sensor we know that the input current (If) is 0~3A,
so that the output voltage (Vh) is 0~4V. Figure SM4-17 shows the hall current transducer
circuit, for the proportion of the value of output voltage to input current:

Vo1 = -(R2+R9) / R1 • Vi Vo = -R5 / R4 • Vo1

= -0.75 • (4V) = -(10K / 10K) • (-3V)

= -3V = 3V

So that when the input current changes from 0~3A, output voltage is 0~3V. R3 and R6 are
DC offset adjustment.

Figure SM4-17: Hall current transducer circuit.

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Equipment Required
 KL-62001/KL-61001A/KL-31001
 KL-64001 Experimental Module
 KL-64002 Experimental Module
 KL-64003 Experimental Module
 KL-64008 Experimental Module
 Power Supply
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Inductive type proximity switch
 Metal
 Magnet
 Measuring Tape

Experiments and Records

A. Reed Switch
1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 2 6.REED SWITCH

2. Switch the power ON.

3. Move the magnet toward the reed switch and use the measuring tape to record the
distance when the buzzer turns ON.
Distance= ---------- cm.

B. Limit Switch
1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 3 9.LIMIT SWITCH

2. Switch the Power ON.

3. Record the LEDs status.
LED1= --------- (ON or OFF)
LED2= --------- (ON or OFF)
4. Press the Limit switch and record the status of LEDs.
LED1= --------- (ON or OFF)
LED2= --------- (ON or OFF)

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C. Mercury Switch
1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 2 8.MERCURY SWITCH

2. Switch the power ON.

3. Tilt the module until the buzzer turns ON and record the tilting angle approximately.
Angle= --------- °.

D. Vibration Switch
1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 3 10.VIBRATION SWITCH

2. Switch the power ON.

3. What is the status of the buzzer?
Status= ---------- (ON or OFF)
4. Knock the sensor from side, what is the status of the buzzer?
Status= ---------- (ON or OFF)
5. Knock the sensor from top, what is the status of the buzzer?
Status= ---------- (ON or OFF)

E. Proximity Sensor
1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 8 22.PROXIMITY SENSOR

2. Plug-in the inductive proximity switch to the module.

3. Switch the power ON.
4. When no metal approaches the proximity switch, what is the voltage on the output pin Vo22?
Vo22= ----------V.
5. When the metal approaches the proximity switch, what is the voltage on the output pin Vo22?
Vo22= ----------V.

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F. Digital Hall Sensor

1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
Sensor Module 1 3.Magnetic (Hall-effect)~Digital

2. Connect Vo3 Signal to the DMM.

3. Switch the power ON.
4. Move the magnet toward the Hall sensor and record Vo3.
Vo3= ----------V.
5. Change the polarity of the magnet and move it again toward the sensor and record Vo3.
Vo3= ----------V.

G. Analog Hall Sensor

1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
Sensor Module 1 4.Magnetic (Hall-effect)~Analog

2. Connect Vo4 signal to the DMM.

3. Switch the power ON.
4. Move the magnet toward the Hall sensor and use the measuring tape to position the
magnet away from the sensor according to distances in Table 1. Read the value of Vo4 at
each distance and complete the table.

Distance 0cm 1cm 2cm 3cm 4cm 5cm 7cm 10cm

Vo4
Table 1

5. Change the polarity of the magnet and use the measuring tape to position the magnet
away from the sensor according to distances in Table 2. Read the value of Vo4 at each
distance and complete the table.

Distance 0cm 1cm 2cm 3cm 4cm 5cm 7cm 10cm

Vo4
Table 2

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H. Hall Current Sensor

1. Refer to the following section and area to locate the sensor:
Section Area
SENSOR MODULE 8 21.HALL CURRENT SENSOR

2. Switch the power ON.

3. Connect Vo21 signal to a DMM.
4. From the characteristics of the sensor, we know that when If=0, its Vo(offset) ≈40mV. So
use a test-lead to short "5:Vin+" and "6:Vin-". Adjust VR3 and VR6 to make
Vo21≈40mV.
5. Remove the test-lead between "5:Vin+" and "6:Vin-".
6. Turn ON the Power Supply and adjust the output current to minimum.
7. Connect the power supply current output I+ and I- to KL-64008 "5:Vin+" and "6:Vin-".
8. Change the power supply output to 1A, adjust VR9 to make voltage output Vo21=1V.
9. Complete Table 3.

Current (A) 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 1.75 2 2. 5 3

Voltage (V)
Table 3

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