Designing for bottom stability is a crucial aspect of offshore pipeline engineering.

Achieving stable
pipeline deployment and preventing excessive movement or instability is essential to ensure the
integrity and functionality of the pipeline system. Here are some key considerations and data points for
designing bottom stability for offshore pipelines:

1. Geotechnical Survey: Conduct a comprehensive geotechnical survey of the seabed along the proposed
pipeline route. This survey should include soil sampling, geophysical investigations, and bathymetric
surveys to gather relevant data.

2. Soil Properties: Determine the properties of the seabed soils, such as grain size distribution, shear
strength, consolidation characteristics, and seabed profile. These parameters help in assessing the soil's
resistance to pipeline movement and calculating the required embedment depth.

Soil resistance consists in general of two parts: a pure Coulomb friction part; and, a passive resistance FR
due to the build up of soil penetration as the pipe moves laterally: Sand is here defined as a soil that is
permeable and with negligible cohesive effects. The most important parameters for describing pipe sand
interaction on sand are the coefficient friction and submerged sand weight. Special considerations
should be made if the sand contains a high fraction of calcium carbonate , Ref. Appendix B. Clay is here
defined as a soil that is not permeable and with significant cohesive effects. Rock is here defined as
crushed rocks with a 50 per cent diameter fractile larger than 50 mm. The coefficient of friction μ can
normally, for a concrete coated pipe, be taken as 0.6 on sand, 0.2 on clay and 0.6 on rock. A model for
passive resistance on sand and clay is described below whereas this effect should be neglected on rock.
A typical model for passive soil resistance consists of four distinct regions: 1) An elastic region where the
lateral displacement is less than typically 2% of the pipe diameter. 2) A region where significant
displacement may be experienced, up to half the pipe diameter for sand and clay soils in which the pipe
soil interaction causes an increase in the penetration and thus in the passive soil resistance. 3) After
break-out where the resistance and penetration decrease. 4) When the displacement exceeds typically
one pipe diameter, the passive resistance and penetration may be assumed constant.

3. Seabed Conditions: Evaluate the seabed conditions, including any potential hazards like steep slopes,
subsea features, or irregularities that may affect stability or introduce lateral forces on the pipeline.

4. Environmental Loads: Consider the expected environmental loads on the pipeline, such as wave,
current, and ice forces. Obtain relevant design criteria from recognized industry standards or regulatory
bodies.

Current Conditions :
The steady current flow at the pipe level may have components from:

— tidal current,

— wind induced current,

— storm surge induced current

— density driven currents.

The current velocity may be reduced to take account of the effect of the bottom boundary layer and
directionality:

5. Pipeline Design Codes: Refer to established pipeline design codes and guidelines, such as those
provided by the American Petroleum Institute (API), Det Norske Veritas Germanischer Lloyd (DNV GL), or
other recognized industry standards. These codes provide design methodologies, safety factors, and
criteria for stability analysis.

6. Embedment Depth: Analyze the required embedment depth based on geotechnical properties,
environmental conditions, and applied loads. The embedment depth should be sufficient to prevent
excessive pipeline movement caused by wave and current forces.

7. Stability Analysis: Perform stability analyses using numerical modeling techniques, such as finite
element analysis (FEA) or limit equilibrium methods. These analyses help assess the pipeline's response
to various loading conditions and ensure stability against potential failure mechanisms like lateral
buckling or upheaval buckling.

8. Trenching or Scour Protection: Consider trenching or scour protection measures in areas where the
pipeline is exposed to significant wave or current-induced scour. Trenching involves burying the pipeline
below the natural seabed, while scour protection involves placing rock berms or mattresses to prevent
excessive scour around the pipeline.

9. Risk Assessment: Conduct a risk assessment to evaluate the consequences and likelihood of stability-
related failures. This assessment should consider factors like environmental sensitivity, consequence of
failure, and potential mitigation measures.
10. Monitoring and Maintenance: Establish a monitoring and maintenance plan to regularly inspect the
pipeline's condition and stability throughout its operational life. This plan may involve periodic surveys,
remote sensing technologies, or other monitoring systems.

It's important to note that specific design requirements may vary depending on project-specific details,
regional regulations, and industry standards. Consulting with experienced offshore pipeline engineers
and incorporating site-specific data is crucial for a comprehensive bottom stability design.