Starch - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Starch

Starch
Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate
Starch
consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by
glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most
green plants as energy storage. It is the most common
carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large
amounts in staple foods like potatoes, wheat, maize (corn),
rice, and cassava.

Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is

insoluble in cold water or alcohol. It consists of two types
of molecules: the linear and helical amylose and the Identifiers
branched amylopectin. Depending on the plant, starch CAS Number 9005-25-8
generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80%
(http://www.commonchemistry.org
amylopectin by weight.[4] Glycogen, the glucose store of
/ChemicalDetail.aspx?ref=9005-25-8)
animals, is a more highly branched version of amylopectin.

In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by ChemSpider none

malting, and fermented to produce ethanol in the
ECHA 100.029.696
manufacture of beer, whisky and biofuel. It is processed to
InfoCard (https://echa.europa.eu/substance-
produce many of the sugars used in processed foods.
information/-/substanceinfo
Mixing most starches in warm water produces a paste,
/100.029.696)
such as wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening,
EC Number 232-679-6
stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food
use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process. RTECS GM5090000
Starch can be applied to parts of some garments before number
ironing, to stiffen them. Properties
Chemical (C6H10O5)n
formula
Molar mass Variable
Contents Appearance White powder
Etymology Density Variable[1]
History Melting point decomposes
Energy store of plants Solubility in insoluble (see starch gelatinization)
Biosynthesis water
Degradation Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy 4.1788 kilocalories per gram
of (17.484 kJ/g)[2]
combustion
(ΔcHo298)
Hazards

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Properties
Safety data ICSC 1553 (http://www.inchem.org
Structure sheet /documents/icsc/icsc/eics1553.htm)
Hydrolysis Autoignition 410 °C (770 °F; 683 K)
Dextrinization temperature
Chemical tests US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
Food PEL TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5
Starch industry (Permissible) mg/m3 (resp)[3]
Starch sugars
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for
Modified starches materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F],
Use as food additive 100 kPa).
Use in pharmaceutical industry
verify (what is ?)
Resistant starch
Infobox references
Industrial applications
Papermaking
Corrugated board adhesives
Clothing starch
Other
Occupational safety and health
See also
Structure of the amylose molecule
References
External links

Etymology
The word "starch" is from a Germanic root with the meanings
"strong, stiff, strengthen, stiffen".[5] Modern German Stärke (starch)
is related.

"Amylum" for starch is from the Greek ἄμυλον, "amylon" which

means "not ground at a mill". The root amyl is used in biochemistry
for several compounds related to starch.
Structure of the amylopectin molecule

History
Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha (cattails, bullrushes) as flour have been identified from grinding stones in
Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago.[6] Starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue,
Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago.[7]

Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus.[8] The extraction of starch is first
described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79.[9] Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to
powder the hair and to thicken sauces. Persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva.
Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in paper production in China since 700 CE.[10]

In addition to starchy plants consumed directly, 66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year worldwide

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by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for industrial applications and
60% for food uses,[11] most of the latter as glucose syrups.[12]

Energy store of plants

Most green plants use starch as their energy store. An exception is the family Asteraceae (asters, daisies and
sunflowers), where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin.

In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide. The glucose is used to make
cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts.
Toward the end of the growing season, starch accumulates in twigs of trees near the buds. Fruit, seeds, rhizomes, and
tubers store starch to prepare for the next growing season.

Glucose is soluble in water, hydrophilic, binds with water and then takes up much space and is osmotically active;
glucose in the form of starch, on the other hand, is not soluble, therefore osmotically inactive and can be stored much
more compactly.

Glucose molecules are bound in starch by the easily hydrolyzed alpha bonds. The same type of bond is found in the
animal reserve polysaccharide glycogen. This is in contrast to many structural polysaccharides such as chitin, cellulose
and peptidoglycan, which are bound by beta bonds and are much more resistant to hydrolysis.[13]

Biosynthesis
Plants produce starch by first converting glucose 1-phosphate to ADP-glucose using the enzyme glucose-1-phosphate
adenylyltransferase. This step requires energy in the form of ATP. The enzyme starch synthase then adds the ADP-
glucose via a 1,4-alpha glycosidic bond to a growing chain of glucose residues, liberating ADP and creating amylose.
Starch branching enzyme introduces 1,6-alpha glycosidic bonds between these chains, creating the branched
amylopectin. The starch debranching enzyme isoamylase removes some of these branches. Several isoforms of these
enzymes exist, leading to a highly complex synthesis process.[14]

Glycogen and amylopectin have similar structure, but the former has about one branch point per ten 1,4-alpha bonds,
compared to about one branch point per thirty 1,4-alpha bonds in amylopectin.[15] Amylopectin is synthesized from
ADP-glucose while mammals and fungi synthesize glycogen from UDP-glucose; for most cases, bacteria synthesize
glycogen from ADP-glucose (http://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?C00498) (analogous to starch).[16]

In addition to starch synthesis in plants, starch can be synthesized from non-food starch mediated by an enzyme
cocktail.[17] In this cell-free biosystem, beta-1,4-glycosidic bond-linked cellulose is partially hydrolyzed to cellobiose.
Cellobiose phosphorylase cleaves to glucose 1-phosphate and glucose; the other enzyme—potato alpha-glucan
phosphorylase can add a glucose unit from glucose 1-phosphorylase to the non-reducing ends of starch. In it,
phosphate is internally recycled. The other product, glucose, can be assimilated by a yeast. This cell-free bioprocessing
does not need any costly chemical and energy input, can be conducted in aqueous solution, and does not have sugar
losses.[18][19][20]

Degradation
Starch is synthesized in plant leaves during the day and stored as granules; it serves as an energy source at night. The
insoluble, highly branched starch chains have to be phosphorylated in order to be accessible for degrading enzymes.

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The enzyme glucan, water dikinase (GWD) phosphorylates at the C-6 position of a glucose molecule, close to the chains
1,6-alpha branching bonds. A second enzyme, phosphoglucan, water dikinase (PWD) phosphorylates the glucose
molecule at the C-3 position. A loss of these enzymes, for example a loss of the GWD, leads to a starch excess (sex)
phenotype,[21] and because starch cannot be phosphorylated, it accumulates in the plastids.

After the phosphorylation, the first degrading enzyme, beta-amylase (BAM) can attack the glucose chain at its non-
reducing end. Maltose is released as the main product of starch degradation. If the glucose chain consists of three or
fewer molecules, BAM cannot release maltose. A second enzyme, disproportionating enzyme-1 (DPE1), combines two
maltotriose molecules. From this chain, a glucose molecule is released. Now, BAM can release another maltose
molecule from the remaining chain. This cycle repeats until starch is degraded completely. If BAM comes close to the
phosphorylated branching point of the glucose chain, it can no longer release maltose. In order for the phosphorylated
chain to be degraded, the enzyme isoamylase (ISA) is required.[22]

The products of starch degradation are predominantly maltose[23] and smaller amounts of glucose. These molecules
are exported from the plastid to the cytosol, maltose via the maltose transporter, which if mutated (MEX1-mutant)
results in maltose accumulation in the plastid.[24] Glucose is exported via the plastidic glucose translocator (pGlcT).[25]
These two sugars act as a precursor for sucrose synthesis. Sucrose can then be used in the oxidative pentose phosphate
pathway in the mitochondria, to generate ATP at night.[22]

Properties

Structure
While amylose was thought to be completely unbranched, it is now known
that some of its molecules contain a few branch points.[26] Amylose is a
much smaller molecule than amylopectin. About one quarter of the mass of
starch granules in plants consist of amylose, although there are about 150
times more amylose than amylopectin molecules.

Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline

granules. Each plant species has a unique starch granular size: rice starch is
relatively small (about 2 μm) while potato starches have larger granules (up Starch, 800x magnified, under
to 100 μm). polarized light, showing
characteristic extinction cross
Starch becomes soluble in water when heated. The granules swell and
burst, the semi-crystalline structure is lost and the smaller amylose
molecules start leaching out of the granule, forming a network that holds water and increasing the mixture's viscosity.
This process is called starch gelatinization. During cooking, the starch becomes a paste and increases further in
viscosity. During cooling or prolonged storage of the paste, the semi-crystalline structure partially recovers and the
starch paste thickens, expelling water. This is mainly caused by retrogradation of the amylose. This process is
responsible for the hardening of bread or staling, and for the water layer on top of a starch gel (syneresis).

Some cultivated plant varieties have pure amylopectin starch without amylose, known as waxy starches. The most
used is waxy maize, others are glutinous rice and waxy potato starch. Waxy starches have less retrogradation, resulting
in a more stable paste. High amylose starch, amylomaize, is cultivated for the use of its gel strength and for use as a
resistant starch (a starch that resists digestion) in food products.

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Synthetic amylose made from cellulose has a well-controlled degree of

polymerization. Therefore, it can be used as a potential drug deliver
carrier.[17]

Certain starches, when mixed with water, will produce a non-newtonian

fluid sometimes nicknamed "oobleck".

Hydrolysis Rice starch seen on light

The enzymes that break down or hydrolyze starch into the constituent microscope. Characteristic for the
sugars are known as amylases. rice starch is that starch granules
have an angular outline and some of
Alpha-amylases are found in plants and in animals. Human saliva is rich in them are attached to each other and
amylase, and the pancreas also secretes the enzyme. Individuals from form larger granules
populations with a high-starch diet tend to have more amylase genes than
those with low-starch diets;[27]

Beta-amylase cuts starch into maltose units. This process is important in the digestion of starch and is also used in
brewing, where amylase from the skin of seed grains is responsible for converting starch to maltose (Malting,
Mashing).[28][29]

Dextrinization
If starch is subjected to dry heat, it breaks down to form dextrins, also called "pyrodextrins" in this context. This break
down process is known as dextrinization. (Pyro)dextrins are mainly yellow to brown in color and dextrinization is
partially responsible for the browning of toasted bread.[30]

Chemical tests
A triiodide (I3−) solution formed by mixing iodine and iodide (usually from
potassium iodide) is used to test for starch; a dark blue color indicates the
presence of starch. The details of this reaction are not yet fully known, but
it is thought that the iodine (I3− and I5− ions) fit inside the coils of amylose,
the charge transfers between the iodine and the starch, and the energy level
spacings in the resulting complex correspond to the absorption spectrum in
the visible light region. The strength of the resulting blue color depends on
the amount of amylose present. Waxy starches with little or no amylose
present will color red. Benedict's test and Fehling's test is also done to Granules of wheat starch, stained
indicate the presence of starch. with iodine, photographed through a
light microscope
Starch indicator solution consisting of water, starch and iodide is often
used in redox titrations: in the presence of an oxidizing agent the solution
turns blue, in the presence of reducing agent the blue color disappears because triiodide (I3−) ions break up into three
iodide ions, disassembling the starch-iodine complex. A 0.3% w/w solution is the standard concentration for a starch
indicator. It is made by adding 3 grams of soluble starch to 1 liter of heated water; the solution is cooled before use
(starch-iodine complex becomes unstable at temperatures above 35 °C).

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Each species of plant has a unique type of starch granules in granular size, shape and crystallization pattern. Under the
microscope, starch grains stained with iodine illuminated from behind with polarized light show a distinctive Maltese
cross effect (also known as extinction cross and birefringence).

Food
Starch is the most common carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in many staple foods. The major sources
of starch intake worldwide are the cereals (rice, wheat, and maize) and the root vegetables (potatoes and cassava).[31]
Many other starchy foods are grown, some only in specific climates, including acorns, arrowroot, arracacha, bananas,
barley, breadfruit, buckwheat, canna, colacasia, katakuri, kudzu, malanga, millet, oats, oca, polynesian arrowroot,
sago, sorghum, sweet potatoes, rye, taro, chestnuts, water chestnuts and yams, and many kinds of beans, such as favas,
lentils, mung beans, peas, and chickpeas.

Widely used prepared foods containing starch are bread, pancakes, cereals, noodles, pasta, porridge and tortilla.

Digestive enzymes have problems digesting crystalline structures. Raw starch is digested poorly in the duodenum and
small intestine, while bacterial degradation takes place mainly in the colon. When starch is cooked, the digestibility is
increased.

Starch gelatinization during cake baking can be impaired by sugar competing for water, preventing gelatinization and
improving texture.

Before the advent of processed foods, people consumed large amounts of uncooked and unprocessed starch-containing
plants, which contained high amounts of resistant starch. Microbes within the large intestine fermented the starch,
produced short-chain fatty acids, which are used as energy, and support the maintenance and growth of the microbes.
More highly processed foods are more easily digested and release more glucose in the small intestine—less starch
reaches the large intestine and more energy is absorbed by the body. It is thought that this shift in energy delivery (as a
result of eating more processed foods) may be one of the contributing factors to the development of metabolic
disorders of modern life, including obesity and diabetes.[32]

Starch industry
The starch industry extracts and refines starches from seeds, roots and tubers, by wet grinding, washing, sieving and
drying. Today, the main commercial refined starches are cornstarch, tapioca, arrowroot,[33] and wheat, rice, and potato
starches. To a lesser extent, sources of refined starch are sweet potato, sago and mung bean. To this day, starch is
extracted from more than 50 types of plants.

Untreated starch requires heat to thicken or gelatinize. When a starch is pre-cooked, it can then be used to thicken
instantly in cold water. This is referred to as a pregelatinized starch.

Starch sugars
Starch can be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates by acids, various enzymes, or a combination of the two. The
resulting fragments are known as dextrins. The extent of conversion is typically quantified by dextrose equivalent
(DE), which is roughly the fraction of the glycosidic bonds in starch that have been broken.

These starch sugars are by far the most common starch based food ingredient and are used as sweeteners in many

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drinks and foods. They include:

Maltodextrin, a lightly hydrolyzed (DE 10–20) starch product used as a bland-tasting filler and thickener.
Various glucose syrups (DE 30–70), also called corn syrups in the US, viscous solutions used as sweeteners and
thickeners in many kinds of processed foods.
Dextrose (DE 100), commercial glucose, prepared by the complete hydrolysis of starch.
High fructose syrup, made by treating dextrose solutions with the enzyme glucose isomerase, until a substantial
fraction of the glucose has been converted to fructose. In the United States sugar prices are two to three times
higher than in the rest of the world;[34] high fructose corn syrup is significantly cheaper, and is the principal
sweetener used in processed foods and beverages.[35] Fructose also has better microbiological stability. One kind
of high fructose corn syrup, HFCS-55, is sweeter than sucrose because it is made with more fructose, while the
sweetness of HFCS-42 is on par with sucrose.[36][37]
Sugar alcohols, such as maltitol, erythritol, sorbitol, mannitol and hydrogenated starch hydrolysate, are
sweeteners made by reducing sugars.

Modified starches
A modified starch is a starch that has been chemically modified to allow the starch to function properly under
conditions frequently encountered during processing or storage, such as high heat, high shear, low pH, freeze/thaw
and cooling.

The modified food starches are E coded according to the International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS):[38]

1400 Dextrin
1401 Acid-treated starch
1402 Alkaline-treated starch
1403 Bleached starch
1404 Oxidized starch
1405 Starches, enzyme-treated
1410 Monostarch phosphate
1412 Distarch phosphate
1413 Phosphated distarch phosphate
1414 Acetylated distarch phosphate
1420 Starch acetate
1422 Acetylated distarch adipate
1440 Hydroxypropyl starch
1442 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate
1443 Hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol
1450 Starch sodium octenyl succinate
1451 Acetylated oxidized starch
INS 1400, 1401, 1402, 1403 and 1405 are in the EU food ingredients without an E-number. Typical modified starches
for technical applications are cationic starches, hydroxyethyl starch and carboxymethylated starches.

Use as food additive

As an additive for food processing, food starches are typically used as thickeners and stabilizers in foods such as
puddings, custards, soups, sauces, gravies, pie fillings, and salad dressings, and to make noodles and pastas. Function
as thickeners, extenders, emulsion stabilizers and are exceptional binders in processed meats.

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Gummed sweets such as jelly beans and wine gums are not manufactured using a mold in the conventional sense. A
tray is filled with native starch and leveled. A positive mold is then pressed into the starch leaving an impression of
1,000 or so jelly beans. The jelly mix is then poured into the impressions and put onto a stove to set. This method
greatly reduces the number of molds that must be manufactured.

Use in pharmaceutical industry

In the pharmaceutical industry, starch is also used as an excipient, as tablet disintegrant, and as binder.

Resistant starch
Resistant starch is starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals. High amylose starch from
corn has a higher gelatinization temperature than other types of starch and retains its resistant starch content through
baking, mild extrusion and other food processing techniques. It is used as an insoluble dietary fiber in processed foods
such as bread, pasta, cookies, crackers, pretzels and other low moisture foods. It is also utilized as a dietary supplement
for its health benefits. Published studies have shown that resistant starch helps to improve insulin sensitivity,[39]
increases satiety[40] and improves markers of colonic function.[41] It has been suggested that resistant starch
contributes to the health benefits of intact whole grains.[42]

Industrial applications

Papermaking
Papermaking is the largest non-food application for starches globally,
consuming millions of metric tons annually.[11] In a typical sheet of copy
paper for instance, the starch content may be as high as 8%. Both
chemically modified and unmodified starches are used in papermaking. In
the wet part of the papermaking process, generally called the "wet-end", the
starches used are cationic and have a positive charge bound to the starch
polymer. These starch derivatives associate with the anionic or negatively Starch adhesive
charged paper fibers / cellulose and inorganic fillers. Cationic starches
together with other retention and internal sizing agents help to give the
necessary strength properties to the paper web formed in the papermaking process (wet strength), and to provide
strength to the final paper sheet (dry strength).

In the dry end of the papermaking process, the paper web is rewetted with a starch based solution. The process is
called surface sizing. Starches used have been chemically, or enzymatically depolymerized at the paper mill or by the
starch industry (oxidized starch). The size/starch solutions are applied to the paper web by means of various
mechanical presses (size presses). Together with surface sizing agents the surface starches impart additional strength
to the paper web and additionally provide water hold out or "size" for superior printing properties. Starch is also used
in paper coatings as one of the binders for the coating formulations which include a mixture of pigments, binders and
thickeners. Coated paper has improved smoothness, hardness, whiteness and gloss and thus improves printing
characteristics.

Corrugated board adhesives

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Corrugated board adhesives are the next largest application of non-food starches globally. Starch glues are mostly
based on unmodified native starches, plus some additive such as borax and caustic soda. Part of the starch is
gelatinized to carry the slurry of uncooked starches and prevent sedimentation. This opaque glue is called a SteinHall
adhesive. The glue is applied on tips of the fluting. The fluted paper is pressed to paper called liner. This is then dried
under high heat, which causes the rest of the uncooked starch in glue to swell/gelatinize. This gelatinizing makes the
glue a fast and strong adhesive for corrugated board production.

Clothing starch
Clothing or laundry starch is a liquid prepared by mixing a vegetable starch in water (earlier preparations also had to
be boiled), and is used in the laundering of clothes. Starch was widely used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to
stiffen the wide collars and ruffs of fine linen which surrounded the necks of the well-to-do. During the 19th and early
20th century it was stylish to stiffen the collars and sleeves of men's shirts and the ruffles of women's petticoats by
applying starch to them as the clean clothes were being ironed. Starch gave clothing smooth, crisp edges, and had an
additional practical purpose: dirt and sweat from a person's neck and wrists would stick to the starch rather than to the
fibers of the clothing. The dirt would wash away along with the starch; after laundering, the starch would be reapplied.
Today, starch is sold in aerosol cans for home use.

Other
Another large non-food starch application is in the construction industry, where starch is used in the gypsum wall
board manufacturing process. Chemically modified or unmodified starches are added to the stucco containing
primarily gypsum. Top and bottom heavyweight sheets of paper are applied to the formulation, and the process is
allowed to heat and cure to form the eventual rigid wall board. The starches act as a glue for the cured gypsum rock
with the paper covering, and also provide rigidity to the board.

Starch is used in the manufacture of various adhesives or glues[43] for book-binding, wallpaper adhesives, paper sack
production, tube winding, gummed paper, envelope adhesives, school glues and bottle labeling. Starch derivatives,
such as yellow dextrins, can be modified by addition of some chemicals to form a hard glue for paper work; some of
those forms use borax or soda ash, which are mixed with the starch solution at 50–70 °C (122–158 °F) to create a very
good adhesive. Sodium silicate can be added to reinforce these formula.

Textile chemicals from starch: warp sizing agents are used to reduce breaking of yarns during weaving. Starch is
mainly used to size cotton based yarns. Modified starch is also used as textile printing thickener.
In oil exploration, starch is used to adjust the viscosity of drilling fluid, which is used to lubricate the drill head and
suspend the grinding residue in petroleum extraction.
Starch is also used to make some packing peanuts, and some drop ceiling tiles.
In the printing industry, food grade starch[44] is used in the manufacture of anti-set-off spray powder used to
separate printed sheets of paper to avoid wet ink being set off.
For body powder, powdered corn starch is used as a substitute for talcum powder, and similarly in other health
and beauty products.
Starch is used to produce various bioplastics, synthetic polymers that are biodegradable. An example is polylactic
acid based on glucose from starch.
Glucose from starch can be further fermented to biofuel corn ethanol using the so-called wet milling process.
Today most bioethanol production plants use the dry milling process to ferment corn or other feedstock directly to
ethanol.[45]
Hydrogen production could use glucose form starch as the raw material, using enzymes.[46]

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Occupational safety and health

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for
starch exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour
workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a Recommended exposure limit
(REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[47]

See also
Acrylamide, which is present in fried and baked foods
Amylase, an enzyme that helps break down starch into sugars
Starch production
Starch analysis

References
1. Roy L. Whistler; James N. BeMiller; Eugene F. Paschall, eds. (2012). Starch: Chemistry and Technology.
Academic Press. p. 220. "Starch has variable density depending on botanical origin, prior treatment, and method
of measurement"
2. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 49th edition, 1968-1969.
3. "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0567" (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0567.html). National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
4. Brown, W. H.; Poon, T. (2005). Introduction to organic chemistry (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-44451-0.
5. New Shorter Oxford Dictionary, Oxford, 1993
6. Revedin, A.; Aranguren, B.; Becattini, R.; Longo, L.; Marconi, E.; Lippi, M. M.; Skakun, N.; Sinitsyn, A.; et al.
(2010). "Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
/PMC2973873). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (44): 18815–9.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1006993107 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1006993107). PMC 2973873
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2973873) . PMID 20956317 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/20956317).
7. "Porridge was eaten 100,000 years ago" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/6834609/Porridge-was-eaten-
100000-years-ago.html). The Telegraph. 18 Dec 2009.
8. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (Pliny), Book XIII, Chapter 26, The paste used in preparation of paper
(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&query=head%3D%23817)
9. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (Pliny), Book XIII, Chapter 17, [1] (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper
/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D18%3Achapter%3D17)
10. Hunter, Dard (1947). Papermaking. DoverPublications. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-486-23619-3.
11. NNFCC Renewable Chemicals Factsheet: Starch (http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-renewable-
chemicals-factsheet-starch)
12. International Starch Institute Denmark, Starch production volume (http://www.starch.dk/isi/market/index.asp)
13. Zeeman, Samuel C.; Kossmann, Jens; Smith, Alison M. (June 2, 2010). "Starch: Its Metabolism, Evolution, and
Biotechnological Modification in Plants" (http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-arplant-
042809-112301). Annual Review of Plant Biology. 61 (1): 209–234. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112301
(https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-arplant-042809-112301).
14. Smith, Alison M. (2001). "The Biosynthesis of Starch Granules". Biomacromolecules. 2 (2): 335–41.
doi:10.1021/bm000133c (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbm000133c). PMID 11749190 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
/pubmed/11749190).

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External links
Starch - Stärke (http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/5007532/home), scientific journal on starch
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0567.html), information for
workers

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