LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Investigating the effect of roasting on functional properties of defatted

hazelnut flour by response surface methodology (RSM)
Deniz Turan*, Esra Capanoglu, Filiz Altay

a Campus, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Chemical and Metallurgical, Department of Food Engineering, Ayazag

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of roasting on functional properties of defatted hazelnut flours was evaluated by using
Received 2 January 2014 response surface methodology (RSM). Color, water absorption capacity, emulsion and foaming properties
Received in revised form were the main responses that determine the degree of roasting. After roasting of hazelnuts, the oil ab-
13 March 2015
sorption and water absorption capacity, foam and emulsion stability of the flour were increased, whereas
Accepted 14 March 2015
bulk density, foaming capacity and emulsion activity of flours decreased. The roasting temperature was
Available online 21 March 2015
found to be the main factor affecting color development, emulsion properties and foaming capacity. The
maximum responses for color, emulsion and foaming properties were obtained at 140
C and 40 min
Keywords:
Response surface methodology (RSM)
from the regression equations. RSM is a useful tool which can be applied to adjust the desired functional
Defatted hazelnut flour properties of flours. The results indicated that roasted defatted hazelnut flours may have a good potential
Roasting conditions to be used as value-added food ingredients, similar to other protein sources with various functional
Emulsion properties for food applications due to their nutritional value and improved functionality.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Hazelnut (Corylus maxima M. and Corylus avellana L.) is a pop-
ular tree nut worldwide (Alasalvar, Hoffman, & Shahidi, 2008). In
addition, Turkey dominates hazelnut industry by contributing 80%
of total world's production (Huntrods, 2012) and supplying 80% of
global hazelnut exports (Anonymous, 2012; FAO, 2010).
Although the world tree nut market is divided into two major
categories as “in shell” and “shelled tree” nuts, the most common
form in food processing sector is the shelled nut. The shelled nuts
undergo processes such as blanching, dicing, coating, roasting or
grinding to meet the product’ formulation requirements, or to add
consumer appeal (Demir, Baucour, Cronin, & Abodayeh, 2003). It is
important to provide accurate scientific data on the characteristics
of hazelnut to design the process and the equipment better due to
the fact that hazelnuts constitute one of the most important raw
materials for the pastry and chocolate industry because of their
organoleptic characteristics (Fallico, Arena, & Zappala, 2003). In
addition, hazelnuts add flavor and texture to bakery, confectionery,
cereal, dairy, salad, entree, sauce and dessert formulation
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 212 2857318; fax: þ90 212 2857333.
E-mail address: turande@itu.edu.tr (D. Turan).
(Alasalvar, Shahidi, Amaral, & Oliveira, 2008; Kirbaşlar & Erkmen,
2003; Ozdemir & Akinci, 2004; Yag
cı & Go
€g
üş, 2008).
Roasting is one of the most important processes which gives the
product the necessary alterations to become value-added nuts
(Demir, Celayeta, Cronin, & Abodayeh, 2002). The term “roasting” is
defined as the dry heat treatment of seeds and nuts for flavor, color
and texture development whereas the term “dehydration” means
merely removal of water (Alamprese, Ratti, & Rossi, 2009; Fallico
et al., 2003). Time and temperature of the roasting process are
important factors in hazelnut production in terms of both quality
and safety. Hazelnuts are generally roasted at temperatures be-
tween 100 and 180
C from 5 to 60 min (Demir et al., 2002). When
many factors and interactions affect desired responses for a given
process, the response surface methodology (RSM) is an effective
technique for evaluating the process parameters with the least
number of experiments (Firatligil-Durmus & Evranuz, 2010;
Ozdemir & Devres, 2000).
After extracting the oil from hazelnut, residual fruit waste is
defined as the defatted hazelnut flour. It is high in protein
(35e41%), fiber (10%), and other nutritional constituents which
makes it a promising source for the production of various func-
tional ingredients (Yag
cı & Go
€g
üş, 2008). Proteins perform various
functions in food systems, and therefore functional properties of
proteins in oily seeds have recently taken the attention of re-
searchers. Several studies on functional properties of proteins in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.061
0023-6438/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765 759

Table 1 2.3. Proximate analysis

Actual roasting conditions for hazelnuts and coding levels of independent variables
used in developing experimental for roasted hazelnuts.
The moisture content (AOAC method 925.09, 1990), the oil
# Actual Coded content using the Soxhlet method (AOAC method 960.39, 1990), the
Roasting Exposure Roasting Exposure protein content using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC method 950.48,
temperature (
C) T time (min) t temperature (
C) X1 time (min) X2 1990), and ash (AOAC method 923.03, 1990) content of raw hazel-
1 130 40 1 1 nut were determined.
2 150 20 1 1
3 150 40 1 1 2.4. Functional properties
4 130 20 1 1
5 140 30 0 0
6 140 30 0 0 2.4.1. Color measurements
7 160 30 2 0 The measurements were performed after hand-blanching the
8 120 30 2 0 entire hazelnut samples to remove skins. The poor quality hazel-
9 140 50 0 2
nuts were also removed. Color parameters (Hunter L, a, and b
10 140 10 0 2
values) were measured for roasted samples using a hand colorim-
eter Minolta Chroma Meter- 400 (Ramsey, New Jersey, USA). A
white tile is calibrated L ¼ 96.82, a ¼ þ0.02 and b ¼ þ2.08 as
almond (Olatidoye, Sobowale, Akinlotan, & Olorode, 2011), reference (Ozdemir & Devres, 2000). Three readings were taken for
bambara groundnut (Eltayeb, Ali, Abou-Arab, & Abu-Salem, 2011), each sample and mean values with standard deviations were
macadamia nut (Jitngarmkusol, Hongsuwankul, & Tananuwong, reported.
2008), walnut (Mao & Hua, 2012) and some other nuts (Oladele
& Aina, 2007; Sharma, Su, Joshi, Roux, & Sathe, 2010) have been
2.4.2. Bulk density
reported in the literature. However, information regarding the ef-
Bulk density of raw and roasted defatted hazelnut flour was
fect of roasting temperature on functional properties of tree nuts is
determined according to Narayana and Narasinga Rao (1984). The
very limited (Ma et al., 2011; Omosulis, Ibrahim, Oloye, Aladekoyi, &
flour samples were placed into a 5 ml graduated cylinder by con-
Ogundowole, 2011). Although composition, nutritional value
stant tapping until there was no further change in volume. The
(Alasalvar, Pelvan, & Amarowicz, 2010; Alasalvar, Shahidi, et al.,
contents were weighed and the bulk density of samples was
2008) and antioxidant capacity (Alasalvar, Hoffman, et al., 2008)
calculated. Results were reported as g/ml (Falade & Okafor, 2013).
of hazelnuts have been reported in many studies, as to our
Treatments were replicated twice.
knowledge there is no information about functional properties of
defatted hazelnut flour and the effect of roasting on these proper-
2.4.3. Oil absorption capacity
ties in the literature.
The oil absorption capacity (OAC) was determined by vortex
The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of roasting
mixing 1 g of flour and 10 ml of refined vegetable oil (corn oil,
time and temperature on the functional properties of hazelnut flour
density ¼ 0.89 g/ml), for 30 s and allowed to stand for 30 min. The
including the oil and water absorption capacity, emulsifying and
mixture was centrifuged (3000 g, 20 min @ 25
C), and the weight
foaming properties by using RSM. The outcomes of this study will
of the supernatant was determined. The volume (ml) of oil absor-
contribute to establish control system for roasting and selection of
bed per gram of flour was reported (Abbey & Ibeh, 1988; Falade &
roasting conditions to obtain the desired functional properties of
Okafor, 2013). The measurements were replicated twice.
flour. It may help to find new applications for the defatted hazelnut
flour in various food products due to its functional properties.
2.4.4. Water absorption capacity
The water absorption capacity (WAC) was determined by vortex
2. Materials and methods
mixing 1 g of flour and 10 ml of distilled water for 30 s and left for
30 min. The mixture was centrifuged (3000 g, 20 min @ 25
C), and
2.1. Materials
the weight of the supernatant was determined. The volume (ml) of
water absorbed per gram of flour was reported (Abbey & Ibeh,
The raw hazelnuts harvested in Ordu (Palaz), Turkey were
1988). Treatments were replicated twice.
supplied by Damak Kuruyemiş. All chemicals used in analyses were
reagent grade.
2.4.5. Emulsifying properties
The emulsifying activity (EA) and emulsion stability (ES) were
2.2. Roasting treatment and sample preparation
measured for raw and roasted defatted hazelnut flour samples
(Njintang, Mbofung, & Waldron, 2001; Vioque, Sa nchez-Vioque,
The conditions of roasting (time and temperature) are given in
Clemente, Pedroche, & Milla n, 2000). 100 ml of 2% (w/v) sample
Table 1. The hazelnuts were roasted in oven (UNB 400, Memmert,
solutions were homogenized (Janke-Kunkel Ultra Turrax T25,
Büchenbach, Germany) at given temperatures and times. The
Staufen, Germany) at 9500 rpm for 30 s at room temperature
covering testa were removed by squeezing and then winnowed to
(about 25
C). After addition of 100 m of corn oil to the solution, the
obtain roasted nuts. Each treatment was repeated twice.
mixture was homogenized at 9500 rpm for 1 min. Finally, the
Both raw and roasted hazelnuts were ground by an electric mill
emulsion (50 ml) was centrifuged (Nüve NF 615, Ankara, Turkey) at
(Sinbo SCM 2934, Istanbul, Turkey) to pass through a 1 mm sieve.
1200 g for 5 min. All analyses were performed in duplicate. The EA
The ground meal was defatted for 48 h using hexane at a flour:-
was determined by the following equation:
hexane ratio of 1:5 (w/v) under continuous stirring. The defatted
meal was air-dried at room temperature and then in the oven at Height of emulsified layer
50
C for 2 h and ground again to pass through a 0.8 mm sieve. After EA ð%Þ ¼  100
Height of the contents of tube
cooling to room temperature, defatted seed flour was packed in
polyethylene bags and stored at room temperature until further The emulsion was re-centrifugated after heating at 80
C for
analysis. 30 min, and then ES was calculated from the following equation:
760 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765
Height of remaining emulsion layer
ES ð%Þ ¼  100
Height of original emulsified layer
2.4.6. Foaming properties
The foaming capacity (FC) and the stability (FS) were measured
for raw and roasted defatted hazelnut flour samples. 150 ml 3% (w/
v) solution was prepared with de-ionized water. The solutions were
stirred in a homogenizator at 9500 rpm for 2 min. The blend was
immediately transferred into a 250 ml graduated cylinder. The
volume was recorded before and after stirring. FC was expressed as
the volume (%) increased due to stirring. For the determination of
FS, foam volume changes in the graduated cylinder were recorded
at 5, 10, 20, 30, 60 min of storage. All analyses were performed in
duplicate. FC and FS were then calculated according to the
following formula, respectively (Njintang et al., 2001):
Volume after whippingðmlÞ Volume before whippingðmlÞ
FC ð%Þ ¼
Volume before whippingðmlÞ
 100
Volume after standingðmlÞ  Volume before whippingðmlÞ
FS ð%Þ ¼
Volume before whippingðmlÞ
 100
2.4.7. Experimental design and statistical analysis
RSM was used to determine the influence of two independent
variables, time and temperature, on the functional properties of
defatted hazelnut flour. The process variables and the responses
were defined from published data (Demir et al., 2002; Saklar,
Katnas, & Ungan, 2001). The effect of variables temperature (x1)
and time for roasting (x2) on functional properties of hazelnut flour
was investigated. Each variable was coded at five levels: 2, 1, 0, 1,
2 (Table 1). Alpha value was 2. The central point was 140
C and
30 min and replicated four times.
The variables were coded according to the following equation:
xi  x*i
Xi ¼
Dxi
where Xi is the dimensionless value of an independent variable, xi is
the real value of an independent variable, xi* is the real value of an
independent variable at the center point, Dxi is the step change. The
response function investigated was Ycolor, Ybulk (g/ml), YWAC (g
water/g defatted flour), YOAC (g oil/g defatted flour), YEA, YEC, YFC,
andYFS (%) for each functional property, respectively.
A central composite design (CCD) was used to allow for fitting of
second-order model. All experiments were carried out in a ran-
domized order to minimize any effect of extraneous factors on the
observed responses.
To approximate a mathematical function Y(Y ¼ f(T; t)), second-
degree polynomial equations were used:
2 2
Yi ¼ B0 þ B1 Xi1 þ B11 Xi1 þ B2 Xi2 þ B22 Xi2 þ B12 Xi1 Xi2 þ e
where B0 is the intercept when Y equals zero; Bi and Bij are constant
coefficients, and Xi's are the coded independent variables, linearly
related to T and t.
The results were statistically analyzed by the analysis of vari-
ance method (ANOVA) and means were compared using least sig-
nificant difference (LSD) at 0.05 level using Minitab 16 (State
College, PA, USA).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Proximate analysis
Results for the proximate composition of raw hazelnut flour
indicated that hazelnuts are good sources of proteins and are rich in
oil content (Table 2). All results were in accordance with the pre-
vious published data (Artık, 2004; Kirbaşlar & Erkmen, 2003;
Ozdemir & Akinci, 2004). The high protein content of raw hazel-
nut (15.35 g/100 g dry solid) leads the hazelnut flour to be
considered as rich in protein and compared favorably with other
meals as a potential non-conventional source of proteins (Mizubuti,
Biondo Júnior, de Oliveira Souza, dos Santos Ferreira da Silva, & Ida,
2000; Oladele & Aina, 2007).
3.2. Effect of different roasting processes on functional properties
The regression equations obtained were used to generate
response surfaces (Figs. 1e3). All showed quadratic model. More-
over, for quadratic models, the critical point can be characterized as
maximum, minimum, or saddle. It is possible to find the optimum
region through visual inspection of the surfaces (Bezerra, Santelli,
Oliveira, Villar, & Escaleira, 2008).
3.2.1. Color measurements
The results of Hunter L, a, and b values of defatted hazelnuts are
shown in Table 3. Hunter L value is for lightness to darkness
(0 ¼ black and 100 ¼ white), a (redness (þve) to greenness (ve))
and b (yellowness (þve) to blueness (ve)) are for the color-
opponent dimensions (Ma et al., 2011). Hunter L values of hazel-
nuts were used to quantify the color change to determine the op-
timum temperature and time during roasting (Demir et al., 2002;
Ozdemir et al., 2001). The correlation coefficient of regression
equation was 0.91 for color parameters Hunter a value of the
roasted defatted hazelnut with non-significant lack of fit (Table 4).
Hence, it can be concluded that the proposed model approximates
the response surfaces and can be used suitably for prediction at any
values of the parameters within the experimental domain. It was
observed that the linear and quadratic terms of the roasting tem-
perature significantly affected all color parameters of the roasted
defatted hazelnut (Table 4). Demir et al. (2002) reported that
among the color parameters L, a and b, the L values of hazelnuts had
the highest sensitivity for air roasting time and temperature. In this
study, it was also observed that both time and temperature were
significant for color parameters (p < 0.05) although Ozdemir and
Devres (2000) stated that roasting time was insignificant for the
color attributes of hazelnut. The regression equations (Table 5)
were used to generate response surfaces for all responses.
Maximum temperature responses were reached at 149
C, 131
C
and 158
C for L, a and b values, respectively. Maximum time
response for L value was found 43 min. The response surfaces of the
color values are shown in Fig. 1. Color parameters showed that an
increase in roasting temperature and time led to an increase in
brown color due to Maillard reactions and the amount of hydrox-
ylmethyl furfural (HMF), as expected (Fallico et al., 2003). It was
observed that L value decreased with increasing temperature and
variation of time does not have an effect (Fig. 1a), while a and b
values increased with increased roasting time (Fig. 1b and c). These
results similarily with recent studies indicated that roasting yielded
darker color (lower L value, higher a and b value) (Ozdemir &
Devres, 2000). This color change on the thermally treated flours
may be advantageous during their incorporation into certain foods,
such as cookies and extruded snacks, in which a golden or brownish
color is desired (Ma et al., 2011).
 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765 761

Table 2 can be mixed or the final product can be packed in a predetermined

Proximate composition of raw hazelnut. container (Barbosa-Ca novas, Ortega-Rivas, Juliano, and Yan,
Composition % % For Palaz hazelnut H.,2005).
(Artık, 2004; Kirbaşlar & Erkmen, 2003;
Ozdemir & Akinci, 2004)
3.2.3. Oil absorption capacity (OAC)
Moisture 4.64 ± 0.08 3.38e8.1
Ash 2.06 ± 0.04 2.05e2.61 The (OAC) results are shown in Table 3. The observed OAC for
Crude protein 15.35 ± 0.01 14.66e18.18 defatted raw hazelnut flour was 1.11 ± 0.31 g/g flour which was
Crude oil 64.04 ± 0.01 57.65e69.4 similar to the previously reported value as 0.84 g/g for soy bean
Carbohydrate 13.92 ± 0.02 10.8e14.21
flour (Lin, Humbert, & Sosulski, 1974), and almond (1.08 g/g)
(Olatidoye et al., 2011). This result indicates the nutritional poten-
tial of hazelnut flour as a flavor retainer which requires a system
3.2.2. Bulk density with high OAC. The correlation coefficient of the OAC model was
The bulk density value obtained for raw hazelnut flour was found as low as bulk density model but model fitting showed no
0.31 ± 0.02 g/ml (Table 3). Since the flour has such a low bulk lack of fit. Thus, the model could be used for the prediction of OAC
density value, it may be preferred in the preparation of the com- parameter. Significant linear term of time (p ¼ 0.031) and signifi-
plimentary blends. It has been reported low bulk density as 0.72 g/ cant cross-product term for OAC value (p ¼ 0.032) were found
ml for cashew nut flour (Omosulis et al., 2011). The correlation (Table 4). The regression equation with given coefficients (Table 5)
coefficient of the bulk density model was found lower than other were used to generate the response surface. Only significant co-
model parameters. Model fitting showed no lack of fit, regardless of efficients were taken into consideration for the calculation of
low correlation coefficient. Therefore, this model could be used for equation. The OAC of the defatted hazelnut flour was found to in-
the prediction of bulk density functional parameter through the crease by 23% with a saddle point at 150
C and 20 min (Fig. 2a),
experimental design space. Significant quadratic temperature and also maximum point for temperature response was calculated at
quadratic time effects were found the bulk density model (Table 4). 148
C from the regression equation The major chemical compo-
According to the results, roasting process reduced the bulk density nent affecting OAC is protein, which is composed of both hydro-
of defatted hazelnut flour in between 8% (@ 140
C and 10 min) to philic and hydrophobic parts (Jitngarmkusol et al., 2008). Higher
35% (@ 130
C and 40 min). The reducing effect of temperature on OAC might be due to the partial denaturation of proteins with
bulk density might be due to the combined effect of higher tem- exposition of high hydrophobic proteins which show superior
perature and relatively higher fiber content of the blend due to an binding to hydrocarbon chains of lipids (Oladele & Aina, 2007). It is
increase in the pressure (Yag
cı & Go€g

üş, 2008). Bulk density is used also reported that surface area and hydrophobicity improve OAC
especially for food quality control purposes, whether a raw material and also high protein content shows high OAC (Mao & Hua, 2012).

Fig. 1. Response surfaces for L-value (a), a-value (b), and b-value (c) of defatted roasted hazelnut flours.
762 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765

Fig. 2. Response surfaces for oil absorption capacity of defatted roasted hazelnut flours (a), water holding capacity of defatted roasted hazelnut flours (b), emulsion activity of
defatted roasted hazelnut flours (c) and emulsion stability of defatted roasted hazelnut flours (d).

OAC, the amount of oil absorbed by gram of sample, is an
important characteristic in food formulations since they improve
the satiety, flavor and mouthfeel of foods (Odoemelam, 2005;
Omosulis et al., 2011). Binding oil ability of protein is very impor-
tant for applications as meat replacement and extenders (Giami,
Adindu, Akusu, & Emelike, 2000). The improved OAC of the heat
processed samples may be useful in cold meat industry, particularly
for sausages, where the protein usually bridge the fat/oil and water
in order to obtain high quality products (Mao & Hua, 2012).
3.2.4. Water absorption capacity (WAC)
According to the results, while raw defatted hazelnut flour did
not absorb water, there was an increase in defatted flours after
roasting (Table 3). The correlation coefficients of the WAC model
were found higher than OAC model with non-significant lack of fit
(Table 4). Therefore, it can be can be used suitably for prediction at
any values of the parameters within the experimental domain. It
was observed that the linear and quadratic terms of the roasting
time significantly affected the WAC of defatted hazelnut flour.
Moreover, significant cross-product term was found (p ¼ 0.012)
(Table 4). The regression equation with given significant co-
efficients (Table 5) were used to generate the response surface.
There was a maximum point and the highest WAC among all the
roasted samples was found at 150
C and 40 min (Fig. 2b). From the
regression equation, maximum point was calculated as 150
C and
15 min. The largest increase in WAC was observed as 200%. This

Fig. 3. Response surfaces for foam capacity of defatted roasted hazelnut flours (a), foam stability at 60 min of defatted roasted hazelnut flours (b).
 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765 763

Table 3
Experimental data of response parameters color, bulk density, oil and water absorption capacities, emulsion activity and stability, foaming capacity and stability for defatted
hazelnut flour measurements under different roasting conditions of temperature and time. Color analyses was performed in triplicate. All the other analyses were replicated
twice.

Roasting Response
conditions


T ( C) t (min) L value a value b value Bulk Oil absorption Water absorption Emulsion Emulsion Foaming Foaming stability (%)
density capacity capacity activity (%) stability (%) capacity (%)
5 min 10 min 20 min 30 min 60 min
(g/mL) (g/g flour) (g/g flour)

150 20 60.97 2.88 16.15 0.243 1.351 1.5 60 66 200 90 90 90 87 87

140 30 56.13 2.34 13.22 0.224 1.293 1.5 60 54 230 100 97 97 97 80
140 30 60.54 2.84 17.49 0.249 1.328 1.2 56 55 240 100 96 93 93 83
140 10 66.59 1.31 16.16 0.288 1.291 1.6 54 40 180 100 100 100 100 90
140 50 56.67 4.81 17.42 0.239 1.281 1.9 50 50 260 93 78 75 63 63
160 30 59.7 4.38 17.36 0.256 1.323 2.2 60 70 250 100 100 100 100 78
150 40 59.14 4.85 17.8 0.253 1.303 1.9 60 61 250 100 100 100 90 78
130 40 65.94 1.68 16.99 0.228 1.282 1.1 40 60 250 100 100 100 87 77
140 30 56.37 2.58 14.62 0.228 1.319 1.6 58 52 230 100 97 93 93 85
120 30 67.94 1.46 14.79 0.242 1.328 1.0 40 76 250 98 98 90 80 80
120 30 65.14 1.2 13.81 0.287 1.326 0.9 32 70 250 98 98 88 75 75
140 30 55.72 3.04 14.18 0.216 1.282 1.1 56 55 250 104 100 96 96 89
150 20 62.05 2.62 16.05 0.260 1.363 1.5 60 60 200 93 93 93 90 90
150 40 56.93 4.13 16.41 0.248 1.308 2.1 54 56 270 100 100 100 94 82
130 20 64.73 2.13 16.93 0.227 1.282 1.6 50 50 200 100 100 100 90 87
140 10 60.80 1.81 15.27 0.283 1.317 1.4 54 50 170 100 100 94 91 91
130 40 59.61 1.95 15.42 0.278 1.318 1.5 44 60 240 103 103 100 90 75
130 20 69.43 1.35 16.68 0.219 1.290 1.7 54 56 200 100 100 100 90 87
160 30 58.58 5.31 18.23 0.250 1.331 1.7 66 60 260 100 98 98 98 88
140 50 57.18 3.44 15.4 0.246 1.309 1.9 52 56 290 90 77 74 67 67
Raw 69.93 1.34 16.79 0.31 ± 0.02 1.11 ± 0.31 0.0 ± 0.0 63 ± 3 34 ± 0 400 ± 0 100 ± 0 100 ± 0 55 ± 7 45 ± 7 45 ± 7
hazelnut
flour

effect might be due to the structural differences of the thermally
treated flours allowing greater porosity and fluid entrapment and/
or greater water binding properties of subunits or higher polar
amino acid residues exposed as a result of denaturation. Moreover,
starch gelatinization and the swelling of crude fiber during heating
might also support to increase WAC since they contain hydrophilic
parts, such as polar or charged side chains (Eltayeb et al., 2011). The
fact that WAC is a critical function in various food products such as
soups, dough and baked product, incorporation of hazelnut flour
into food formulation enhance both their nutritive values and
handling characteristics (Ma et al., 2011; Olatidoye et al., 2011).
3.2.5. Emulsion properties
Emulsion activity (EA) and emulsion stability (ES) was studied
as emulsion properties and results were shown in Table 3. The EA
value of raw defatted hazelnut flour was 63%, and the ES of raw
defatted hazelnut flour was 34%. It is found that while roasting
process decreased the EA of flours, ES of flours were increased after
roasting (Table 3). The correlation coefficients of regression equa-
tion were 0.89 and 0.75 for EA and ES of the roasted defatted
hazelnut flour with both non-significant lack of fit, respectively
(Table 4). Hence, it can be concluded that the proposed models of
emulsion properties approximate the response surfaces and can be
used suitably for prediction at any values of the roasting parame-
ters within the experimental domain. It was observed that the
linear and quadratic terms of the roasting temperature significantly
affected emulsion properties of the roasted defatted hazelnut flour
(p ¼ 0.005). Significant linear term of time (p ¼ 0.044) for ES of
defatted roasted flour was also found (Tables 4 and 5). The
regression equations with given significant coefficients (Table 5)
were used to generate response surfaces for all responses. Among
roasted flours conditions, there was a maximum at 140
C and
30 min for EA (Fig. 2c). From the regression equations, maximum
points were found at 143
C and at 142
C, 31 min for responses of

Table 4
ANOVA table showing the effect of treatment variables as a linear term, quadratic term and interactions (cross-product) and model fitting for response parameters of roasted
hazelnuts.

Source Sum of squares

df L value a value b value Bulk density (g/mL) Oil absorption Water absorption Emulsion Emulsion Foaming Foaming stability
capacity (g/g flour) capacity (g/g flour) activity (%) stability (%) capacity (%) @60 min (%)

Model 5 229.02 (S) 28.94 (S) 12.53 (S) 0.004 (NS) 0.005 (NS) 1.81 (S) 1194.05 (S) 986.57 (S) 17293.7 (S) 977.407 (S)
Linear 2 53.67 (S) 1.31 (S) 2.73 (S) 0.002 (NS) 0.003 (S) 0.44 (S) 174.18 (S) 615.25 (S) 804.3 (NS) 44.309 (NS)
Quadratic 2 47.83a 0.38a 2.10a 0.002a 0.002a 0.22a 121.21a 854.03a 1572.9a 100.532a
2FI 1 0.34 (NS) 1.39 (NS) 1.29 (NS) 0.005 (NS) 0.002 (S) 0.36 (S) 24.50 (NS) 66.12 (NS) 112.5 (NS) 3.125 (NS)
Residual 14 114.14 2.72 24.72 0.05 0.005 0.62 145.95 311.98 1761.3 147.393
Lack of fit 3 43.42 (NS) 0.28 (NS) 9.06 (NS) 0.002 (NS) 0.002 (NS) 0.19 (NS) 48.95 (NS) 121.48 (NS) 686.3 (NS) 19.143 (NS)
Pure error 11 70.72 2.44 15.66 0.003 0.003 0.42 97.00 190.50 1075.0 128.250
R2 (%) 86.74 91.40 33.64 42.92 49.65 74.64 89.11 75.98 90.76 86.90

S: significant at P < 0.05; NS: not significant.

2FI: two-factor interaction term.
a
Shows suggested model.
764 D. Turan et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 63 (2015) 758e765

Table 5
Regression equation coefficients, presented as actual terms, for response parameters of color, bulk density, oil and water absorption capacities, emulsion activity and stability,
foaming capacity and stability @ 60 min for defatted hazelnut flour measurements under different roasting conditions of temperature and time.

Coefficients

L value a value b value Bulk density Oil absorption Water absorption Emulsion Emulsion Foaming Foaming
capacity capacity activity stability capacity stability @60 min.

B0 342.643(S) 27.136(NS) 67.5923(S) 1.4542 (NS) 1.53601(S) 10.6393(NS) 336.226(S) 631.223(S) 1163.56(S) 119.339(S)
B1 3.633(S) 0.3336(NS) 0.6620(S) 0.0185(NS) 0.00887(NS) 0.0825(NS) 5.417(S) 9.275(S) 13.79(S) 3.000(S)
B2 0.809(S) 0.552(S) 0.6779(S) 0.0052(NS) 0.02364(S) 0.3357(S) 1.923(NS) 5.020(S) 1.34(NS) 0.434(S)
B11 0.012(S) 0.0011(NS) 0.0021(S) 0.0001(S) 0.00005(NS) 0.0001(S) 0.019(S) 0.036(S) 0.05(S) 0.011(S)
B22 0.006(S) 0.0005(S) 0.0022(S) 0.0001(S) 0.00002(NS) 0.0008(S) 0.011(NS) 0.014(S) 0.02(NS) 0.017(S)
B12 0.002(S) 0.0042(S) 0.0040(S) 0.0001(NS) 0.00016(S) 0.0021(S) 0.017(NS) 0.029(S) 0.04(NS) 0.006(S)

Y ¼ B0 þ B1x1 þ B2x2 þ B11x21 þ B22x22 þ B12x1x2 where x1 ¼ roasting temperature (
C) and x2 ¼ roasting time (min).
S: significant at P < 0.05; NS: not significant.

EA and ES, respectively. The ES value of raw defatted hazelnut flour
was 34% and showed a saddle point and an increase minimum by
32% in flours after roasting (Fig. 2d). Interaction between protein
molecules, when induced by heating, may give rise to the formation
of protein aggregates high enough to entrap oil in the three-
dimensional matrices of the aggregates, so it could form a good
emulsion (Radha, Ramesh Kumar, & Prakash, 2008). Moreover,
solid hazelnut particles may be acted as Pickering particles due to
their proteins. It is reported that partial unfolded protein particles
improved the diffusive mobility of protein and enhanced interfacial
wetting at the oilewater interface, producing Pickering emulsions
with superior stability against coalescence (Gao et al., 2014).
Therefore, the above result may be explained on the basis of a
structureefunctionality relationship based on protein denaturation
and Pickering effect. Those properties are very important in
development of traditional or novel foods due to the contribution of
proteins and other amphoteric molecules. Superior emulsifying
properties of hazelnut flour could be very useful in food systems
such as salad dressing, beverages, and meat analogs (Ma et al.,
2011).
3.2.6. Foaming properties
The foaming capacity (FC) and foaming stability (FS) results of
defatted roasted hazelnut flours are given in Table 3. The results
indicated that FC of raw defatted nut flour was 400%, which was
significantly high compared to the values reported among nuts in
the literature (Eltayeb et al., 2011; Mao & Hua, 2012; Olatidoye
et al., 2011; Yadav, Yadav, & Dhull, 2012). FS of raw defatted nut
flour was 45% after 60 min and while roasting increased the FS of
flour, FC values showed a decrease after roasting. The correlation
coefficients of regression equation were 0.91 and 0.87 for FC and FS
of the roasted defatted hazelnut flour with both non-significant
lack of fit, respectively (Table 4). Therefore, it can be concluded
that the proposed models of foaming properties approximate the
response surfaces and can be used suitably for prediction at any
values of the roasting parameters within the experimental domain.
It was observed that the linear and quadratic terms of the roasting
temperature significantly affected foaming properties of the roas-
ted defatted hazelnut flour (p ¼ 0.027 and p ¼ 0.033, respectively).
Significant quadratic term of time (p ¼ 0.009) for FS at 60 min for
defatted roasted flour was also found (Tables 4 and 5). The
regression equations with given significant coefficients (Table 5)
were used to generate response surfaces for foaming properties
responses (Fig. 3). From the regression equations, the maximum
point for temperature was found 138
C for response of foaming
properties. Moreover, an inverse relationship between FC and FS
was observed as expected (Eltayeb et al., 2011; Mao & Hua, 2012).
This is probably due to the denaturation of protein during heat
processing and the reduction in the amount of native protein
present (Omosulis et al., 2011; Radha et al., 2008). The relatively
high FC and FS of the hazelnut flour obtained in this study suggests
that this flour have the potential to find application in cake baking,
coffee whiteners and confectionery products where foaming
properties are important (Omosulis et al., 2011).
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, RSM technique proved to be a useful tool in
establishing optimum roasting conditions for the desired functional
properties of hazelnut flour which were found to be 140
C and
40 min for color, emulsion and foaming properties. The results
showed that while temperature was the most important factor in
color development, emulsion properties and foaming capacity,
interaction between time and temperature was observed to be
more critical for other properties. Thus, roasting might be a po-
tential way to enhance the use of hazelnut in food formulations as
this may shorten the times required for processing and preparation
while enhancing the nutritional value. Therefore, heat processed
hazelnut flour might be a potential ingredient as functional agents
in food systems such as bakery products and it might be useful to
improve textural and leavening characteristics in, cakes and con-
fectionery products where foaming properties are important. The
optimum conditions obtained from RSM can be used for any given
functional properties separately.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Ebru Firatligil-Durmus for her
comments on the manuscript and for accessing her laboratory
equipment. We thank Damak Kuruyemiş for generously providing
us hazelnut samples.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.061
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