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CHAPTER –I Chapter Outline

Instrumentation and Measurement Measurement Units
Introduction Measurement System Applications

Elements of a Measurement System

3rd year Degree Program faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Aksum institute of technology

Choosing Appropriate Measurement Instruments
Department of Mechanical Engineering

August, 2023
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Cont’d
Measurement Units Measuring instrument is used commonly to describe a

What is Measurement ? measurement system

Measurement is defined as the quantification of a physical variable Meter: Instrument used to indicate or record measured value.
using a measuring instrument. Measurand : Variable under measurement.
Or An instrument is a device in which we can determine the
Metrology: Science dealing with precise and accurate
magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured. The measuring
measurements.
quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Magnitudes of measurements are typically given in terms of a
During the process of measurement, a specific value is assigned to
specific unit.
the unknown quantity after due comparison with a predefined
standard.
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Cont’d Cont’d
The two systems used for specifying units of measure are the Method of Measurement:

English and metric systems.
Units in the English system are historical units of measurement
used in medieval England which evolved from the Anglo-Saxon and
Roman systems.
The metric system is a decimalized system of measurement
developed in France in late 18th century.
Since the metric system is almost universally used, it is often
i. Direct Method - In this method, the quantity to be measured is
directly compared with the primary or secondary standard. Scales,
vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are used in
the direct method.
ii. Indirect Method - In this method, the value of a quantity is
obtained by measuring other quantities that are functionally
related to the required value. Measurement of the quantity is
carried out directly and then the value is determined by using a

referred to as the International System of Units and abbreviated SI mathematical relationship.

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Units.

Cont’d Cont’d
The seven SI base units, which are comprised of: Basic Requirements of Measurement:
• Length - meter (m)
• Time - second (s) a. The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
• Amount of substance - mole (mole) defined and should be commonly accepted.
• Electric current - ampere (A)
• Temperature - kelvin (K) b. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
• Luminous intensity - candela (cd)
Measurement System Applications
Examples of derived quantities and units Every Application of measurement can be put into one of these three

Name Symbol Expression on terms SI base categories or some combination of them:

joule second
joule per kilogram
joule per cubic meter
newton per meter
units
. . . Monitoring of Processes and Operations
⁄ . Control of Processes and Operations
⁄ . .
Experimental Engineering Analysis
⁄ = ⁄ .
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Cont’d
Monitoring of Processes and Operations
The measuring device is being used to keep track of some
quantity.
Certain applications of measuring instruments may be
characterized as having essentially a monitoring function.
Their readings do not perform any control function in the
normal sense. These measurement are made for monitoring
purpose only.
Example: Thermometers, Barometer Water, Gas, and Electric
meters, Automotive speedometer and fuel gage, and Compass.
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Cont’d
Experimental Engineering Analysis
Measurement are also made to
1. Test the validity of predictions from theory.
2. Build empirical models, that is relationships between
parameters and quantities associated with a problem, and
3. Characterize materials devices and components.
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Cont’d
Control of Processes and Operations
The thermostat in the refrigerator determines the temperature of
the relevant environment and accordingly switch of or on the
cooling or heating mechanism to keep the temperature constant,
that is to control the temperature.
A single system may be require many controls. For example, an
aircraft needs controls from altimeter, gyroscopes, angle of attack
sensors, thermocouples, accelerometers, etc.
Cont’d
Calibration
The calibration of all instruments is important, for it affords the
opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and
subsequently to reduce errors in accuracy.
Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
instrument with either
1. A primary standard,
2. A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated, or
3. A known input source.
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Cont’d
Calibration – the act of applying a known input to a
measurement system in order to observe the system output.
The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.
Types of Calibration
a. Static Calibration – value of variable remains constant during
each response observation. By incrementing change in input
variables and recording the output at each level, a calibration
curve can be made.
Cont’d
Calibration Curve – describes the static input-output relationship for a
measurement system and provides a means to interpret the output.
Classification of Standards:
I. International Standards: Defined by international agreement
maintained at International Bureau of Weights and Measures (one
organization for SI unit).
II. Primary or Basic Standards: Maintained by National standard labs of
each country.
III.Secondary standards: basic reference standards for industrial

b. Dynamic Calibration: determines the relationship between an measurement labs. Maintained by particular industry.

input of known dynamic behavior and the measurement IV.Working standard: primary tool of measuring labs.

system output. 13 14

Cont’d
Elements of a Measurement System
Most of the measurement systems contain Five main functional
elements are

I. Primary Sensing Element

II. Variable Conversion Element

III. Variable Manipulation Element

IV.Data Transmission Element

V. Data Presentation Element

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Cont’d
I. Primary Sensing Element
This is the element first receives energy from the measured medium
and produces an output depending in some way on the measured
quantity.
The output is some physical variable, e.g. displacement or voltage.
An instrument always extracts some energy from the measured
medium.
The measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of
measurement, which makes a perfect measurement theoretically
impossible. Good instrument are designed to minimize this loading
effect. 17
Conti..
• The variable manipulation element could be either placed after the
variable conversion element or it may precede the variable
conversion element.
• Signal processing elements exist to improve the quality of the output
of a measurement system in some way.
• A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic
amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary transducer or
variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and
resolution of measurement.
• This element of a measuring system is particularly important where
the primary transducer has a low output. 19
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II. Variable Conversion Element Cont’d
It may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary
sensing element to another more suitable variable while preserving
the information content of the original signal.
Variable conversion elements are needed where the output variable
of a primary transducer is in an inconvenient form and has to be
converted to a more convenient form.
III. Variable-Manipulation element: The function of a variable
manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element
while preserving the original nature of the signal. For example, a voltage
amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a
small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal which is also
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voltage but of greater magnitude.
Cont’d
IV.Data Transmission Elements
When functional elements of an instruments are actually physically
separated, is becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to
another.
Signal transmission is needed when the observation or application
point of the output of a measurement system is some distance away
from the site of the primary transducer.
V.Data- presentation Element
The function of data presentation element is to convey the information
about the quantity under measurement to the personnel handling the
instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
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Cont’d
Choosing Appropriate Measurement Instruments
1. Operating Principle
Factor influencing the choice of Instruments: The Instruments are many times selected on the basis of operating
1. Operating Principle 8. Loading effects principle used by them. The operating principle used may be

2. Sensitivity 9. Environmental compatibility resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

2. Sensitivity
3. Operating Range 10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals
The instrument must be sensitive enough to produce detectable
4. Accuracy 11. Usage and Ruggedness
output.
5. Cross sensitivity 12. Electrical aspects
3. Operating Range
6. Errors 13. Stability and Reliability
The instrument should maintain the range requirement and have a
7. Transient and frequency 14. Static characteristics good resolution over the entire range.
response 21 22

Cont’d Cont’d
4. Accuracy 7. Transient and frequency response

High accuracy is assured. The instrument should meet the desired time domain specification

5. Cross sensitivity like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.

It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical 8. Loading effects

quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is being The instrument should have a high input impedance and low output
measured is in one plane and the instrument is subjected to impedance to avoid loading effect. .
variation in another plan. 9. Environmental compatibility
6. Errors It should be assured that the instrument selected to work under
The instrument should maintain the expected input-output specified environmental condition maintains its input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid relationship and does not break down.
errors. 23 24

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Cont’d Cont’d
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals 13. Stability and Reliability

The instrument should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals The instrument should exhibit a high degree of stability to be operative
and highly sensitive to desired signals. during its operation and storage life.

11. Usage and Ruggedness 14. Static characteristics

The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of Apart from low static error, the instrument should have a low non-
instrument versus its size and weight must be considerable while linearity, low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of readability.
selecting a suitable instrument.

12. Electrical aspects

The electrical aspect that need consideration while selecting an

instrument include the length and type of cable required.
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