Faraday's law of induction

Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is

a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a
magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to
produce an electromotive force (emf)—a phenomenon
known as electromagnetic induction. It is the
fundamental operating principle of transformers,
inductors, and many types of electrical motors,
generators and solenoids.[2][3]

The Maxwell–Faraday equation (listed as one of

Maxwell's equations) describes the fact that a spatially
varying (and also possibly time-varying, depending on
how a magnetic field varies in time) electric field always Faraday's experiment showing induction between
accompanies a time-varying magnetic field, while coils of wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a
Faraday's law states that there is emf (electromotive current which flows through the small coil (A),
force, defined as electromagnetic work done on a unit creating a magnetic field. When the coils are
charge when it has traveled one round of a conductive stationary, no current is induced. But when the
loop) on the conductive loop when the magnetic flux small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B),
through the surface enclosed by the loop varies in time. the magnetic flux through the large coil changes,
inducing a current which is detected by the
Faraday's law had been discovered and one aspect of it galvanometer (G).[1]
(transformer emf) was formulated as the Maxwell–
Faraday equation later. The equation of Faraday's law
can be derived by the Maxwell–Faraday equation (describing transformer emf) and the Lorentz force
(describing motional emf). The integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation describes only the
transformer emf, while the equation of Faraday's law describes both the transformer emf and the motional
emf.

Contents
History
Faraday's law
Mathematical statement
Maxwell–Faraday equation
Proof
Exceptions
Faraday's law and relativity
Two phenomena
Explanation based on four-dimensional formalism
Einstein's view
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
Electromagnetic induction was discovered
independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph
Henry in 1832.[5] Faraday was the first to publish the
results of his experiments.[6][7] In Faraday's first
experimental demonstration of electromagnetic
[8]
induction (August 29, 1831), he wrapped two wires A diagram of Faraday's iron ring apparatus. The
around opposite sides of an iron ring (torus) (an changing magnetic flux of the left coil induces a
arrangement similar to a modern toroidal transformer). current in the right coil.[4]
Based on his assessment of recently discovered
properties of electromagnets, he expected that when
current started to flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring and cause some electrical
effect on the opposite side. He plugged one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected the
other wire to a battery. Indeed, he saw a transient current (which he called a "wave of electricity") when he
connected the wire to the battery, and another when he disconnected it.[9]: 182–183 This induction was due
to the change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was connected and disconnected.[4] Within
two months, Faraday had found several other manifestations of electromagnetic induction. For example, he
saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wires, and he generated a
steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk near the bar magnet with a sliding electrical lead ("Faraday's
disk").[9]: 191–195

Michael Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a

concept he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time
widely rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they were not
formulated mathematically.[9]: 510 An exception was James Clerk
Maxwell, who in 1861–62 used Faraday's ideas as the basis of his
quantitative electromagnetic theory.[9]: 510 [10][11] In Maxwell's
papers, the time-varying aspect of electromagnetic induction is
expressed as a differential equation which Oliver Heaviside
referred to as Faraday's law even though it is different from the
original version of Faraday's law, and does not describe motional
Faraday's disk, the first electric
emf. Heaviside's version (see Maxwell–Faraday equation below) is
generator, a type of homopolar
generator.
the form recognized today in the group of equations known as
Maxwell's equations.

Lenz's law, formulated by Emil Lenz in 1834,[12] describes "flux

through the circuit", and gives the direction of the induced emf and current resulting from electromagnetic
induction (elaborated upon in the examples below).

Faraday's law
The most widespread version of Faraday's law states:
 The electromotive force around a closed path is equal
to the negative of the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux enclosed by the path.[13][14]

Mathematical statement

For a loop of wire in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux ΦB is

defined for any surface Σ whose boundary is the given loop. Since
the wire loop may be moving, we write Σ(t) for the surface. The
magnetic flux is the surface integral: Alternating electric current flows
through the solenoid on the left,
producing a changing magnetic field.
This field causes, by
electromagnetic induction, an electric
current to flow in the wire loop on the
where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ(t),
right.
B is the magnetic field, and B · dA is a vector dot product
representing the element of flux through dA. In more visual terms,
the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the
number of magnetic field lines that pass through the loop.

When the flux changes—because B changes, or because the wire

loop is moved or deformed, or both—Faraday's law of induction
says that the wire loop acquires an emf, defined as the energy
available from a unit charge that has traveled once around the wire
loop.[15]: ch17 [16][17] (Some sources state the definition differently.
This expression was chosen for compatibility with the equations of The definition of surface integral
Special Relativity.) Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be relies on splitting the surface Σ into
measured by cutting the wire to create an open circuit, and small surface elements. Each
element is associated with a vector
attaching a voltmeter to the leads.
dA of magnitude equal to the area of
Faraday's law states that the emf is also given by the rate of change the element and with direction normal
of the magnetic flux: to the element and pointing "outward"
(with respect to the orientation of the
surface).

where is the electromotive force (emf) and ΦB is the magnetic flux.

The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law.

The laws of induction of electric currents in mathematical form was established by Franz Ernst Neumann in
1845.[18]

Faraday's law contains the information about the relationships between both the magnitudes and the
directions of its variables. However, the relationships between the directions are not explicit; they are
hidden in the mathematical formula.

It is possible to find out the direction of the electromotive force (emf) directly from Faraday’s law, without
invoking Lenz's law. A left hand rule helps doing that, as follows:[19][20]
 Align the curved fingers of the left hand with the loop (yellow line).
Stretch your thumb. The stretched thumb indicates the direction of
n (brown), the normal to the area enclosed by the loop.
Find the sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux. Determine the initial and
final fluxes (whose difference is ΔΦB) with respect to the normal n ,
as indicated by the stretched thumb.
If the change in flux, ΔΦB, is positive, the curved fingers show the
direction of the electromotive force (yellow arrowheads).
If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the electromotive force is
opposite to the direction of the curved fingers (opposite to the
yellow arrowheads).
A Left Hand Rule for
For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical turns, each with the Faraday's Law. The sign
same ΦB, Faraday's law of induction states that[21][22] of ΔΦ B, the change in
flux, is found based on
the relationship between
the magnetic field B ,
the area of the loop A,
where N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the magnetic flux through a and the normal n to that
area, as represented by
single loop.
the fingers of the left
hand. If ΔΦ B is
positive, the direction of
Maxwell–Faraday equation the emf is the same as
that of the curved
fingers (yellow
The Maxwell–Faraday equation states that a time-varying magnetic field arrowheads). If ΔΦ B is
always accompanies a spatially varying (also possibly time-varying), non- negative, the direction of
conservative electric field, and vice versa. The Maxwell–Faraday equation is the emf is against the
arrowheads.[19]

(in SI units) where ∇ × is the curl operator and again E(r, t) is the
electric field and B(r, t) is the magnetic field. These fields can
generally be functions of position r and time t.[23]

The Maxwell–Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell's

equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role in the theory of
classical electromagnetism. It can also be written in an integral
form by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem,[24] thereby reproducing
Faraday's law: An illustration of the Kelvin–Stokes
theorem with surface Σ, its boundary
∂Σ, and orientation n set by the
right-hand rule.
where, as indicated in the figure, Σ is a surface bounded by the closed contour ∂Σ, dl is an infinitesimal
vector element of the contour ∂Σ, and dA is an infinitesimal vector element of surface Σ. Its direction is
orthogonal to that surface patch, the magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface.

Both dl and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in
the article Kelvin–Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a positive path element dl of curve ∂Σ is
defined by the right-hand rule as one that points with the fingers of the right hand when the thumb points in
the direction of the normal n to the surface Σ.

The line integral around ∂Σ is called circulation.[15]: ch3 A nonzero circulation of E is different from the
behavior of the electric field generated by static charges. A charge-generated E-field can be expressed as
the gradient of a scalar field that is a solution to Poisson's equation, and has a zero path integral. See
gradient theorem.

The integral equation is true for any path ∂Σ through space, and any surface Σ for which that path is a
boundary.

If the surface Σ is not changing in time, the equation can be rewritten:

The surface integral at the right-hand side is the explicit expression for the magnetic flux ΦB through Σ.

The electric vector field induced by a changing magnetic flux, the solenoidal component of the overall
electric field, can be approximated in the non-relativistic limit by the volume integral equation[23]: 321

Proof
The four Maxwell's equations (including the Maxwell–Faraday equation), along with Lorentz force law,
are a sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical electromagnetism.[15][16] Therefore, it is
possible to "prove" Faraday's law starting with these equations.[25][26]

The starting point is the time-derivative of flux through an arbitrary surface Σ (that can be moved or
deformed) in space:

(by definition). This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with the help of the Maxwell–
Faraday equation and some vector identities; the details are in the box below:
Consider the time-derivative of magnetic flux through a closed boundary (loop) that can move or be deformed.
The area bounded by the loop is denoted as Σ(t)), then the time-derivative can be expressed as

The integral can change over time for two reasons: The integrand can change, or the
integration region can change. These add linearly, therefore:

where t0 is any given fixed time. We will show that the first term on the right-hand side corresponds to
transformer emf, the second to motional emf (from the magnetic Lorentz force on charge carriers due to the
motion or deformation of the conducting loop in the magnetic field). The first term on the right-hand side can be
rewritten using the integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation:

Next, we analyze the second term on the right-hand side:

The proof of this is a little more difficult than the first term; more
details and alternate approaches for the proof can be found in
the references.[25][26][27] As the loop moves and/or deforms, it
sweeps out a surface (see the right figure). As a small part of
the loop dl moves with velocity vl over a short time dt, it
sweeps out an area whose vector is dA sweep = vl dt × dl (note
that this vector is toward out from the display in the right figure).
Therefore, the change of the magnetic flux through the loop due
to the deformation or movement of the loop over the time dt is
The area swept out by a vector element dl
of a loop ∂Σ in time dt when it has moved
with velocity vl .

Here, identities of triple scalar products are used.

Therefore,

where vl is the velocity of a part of the loop ∂Σ.

Putting these together results in,

The result is:

where ∂Σ is the boundary (loop) of the surface Σ, and v l is the velocity of a part of the boundary.

In the case of a conductive loop, emf (Electromotive Force) is the electromagnetic work done on a unit
charge when it has traveled around the loop once, and this work is done by the Lorentz force. Therefore,
emf is expressed as

where is emf and v is the unit charge velocity.

In a macroscopic view, for charges on a segment of the loop, v consists of two components in average; one
is the velocity of the charge along the segment v t, and the other is the velocity of the segment v l (the loop
is deformed or moved). v t does not contribute to the work done on the charge since the direction of v t is
same to the direction of . Mathematically,

since is perpendicular to as and are along the same direction. Now we can see that, for
the conductive loop, emf is same to the time-derivative of the magnetic flux through the loop except for the
sign on it. Therefore, we now reach the equation of Faraday's law (for the conductive loop) as

where . With breaking this integral, is for the transformer emf (due to a
time-varying magnetic field) and is for the motional emf (due to the
magnetic Lorentz force on charges by the motion or deformation of the loop in the magnetic field).

Exceptions
It is tempting to generalize Faraday's law to state: If ∂Σ is any arbitrary closed loop in space whatsoever,
then the total time derivative of magnetic flux through Σ equals the emf around ∂Σ. This statement,
however, is not always true and the reason is not just from the obvious reason that emf is undefined in
empty space when no conductor is present. As noted in the previous section, Faraday's law is not
guaranteed to work unless the velocity of the abstract curve ∂Σ matches the actual velocity of the material
conducting the electricity.[28] The two examples illustrated below show that one often obtains incorrect
results when the motion of ∂Σ is divorced from the motion of the material.[15]
 Faraday's homopolar generator. The disc
rotates with angular rate ω, sweeping the
conducting radius circularly in the static
magnetic field B (which direction is along the
disk surface normal). The magnetic Lorentz
force v × B drives a current along the
conducting radius to the conducting rim, and
from there the circuit completes through the
lower brush and the axle supporting the disc.
This device generates an emf and a current,
although the shape of the "circuit" is constant
and thus the flux through the circuit does not
change with time.

A wire (solid red lines) connects to two

touching metal plates (silver) to form a circuit.
The whole system sits in a uniform magnetic
field, normal to the page. If the abstract path
∂Σ follows the primary path of current flow
(marked in red), then the magnetic flux
through this path changes dramatically as the
plates are rotated, yet the emf is almost zero.
After Feynman Lectures on Physics[15]: ch17

One can analyze examples like these by taking care that the path ∂Σ moves with the same velocity as the
material.[28] Alternatively, one can always correctly calculate the emf by combining Lorentz force law with
the Maxwell–Faraday equation:[15]: ch17 [29]
where "it is very important to notice that (1) [v m] is the velocity of the conductor ... not the velocity of the
path element dl and (2) in general, the partial derivative with respect to time cannot be moved outside the
integral since the area is a function of time."[29]

Faraday's law and relativity

Two phenomena

Faraday's law is a single equation describing two different phenomena: the motional emf generated by a
magnetic force on a moving wire (see the Lorentz force), and the transformer emf generated by an electric
force due to a changing magnetic field (described by the Maxwell–Faraday equation).

James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to this fact in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force.[30] In the
latter half of Part II of that paper, Maxwell gives a separate physical explanation for each of the two
phenomena.

A reference to these two aspects of electromagnetic induction is made in some modern textbooks.[31] As
Richard Feynman states:

So the "flux rule" that the emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
through the circuit applies whether the flux changes because the field changes or because the
circuit moves (or both) ...

Yet in our explanation of the rule we have used two completely distinct laws for the two cases
– v × B for "circuit moves" and ∇ × E = −∂tB for "field changes".

We know of no other place in physics where such a simple and accurate general principle
requires for its real understanding an analysis in terms of two different phenomena.

— Richard P. Feynman, The Feynman Lectures on Physics[15]: ch17

Explanation based on four-dimensional formalism

In the general case, explanation of the motional emf appearance by action of the magnetic force on the
charges in the moving wire or in the circuit changing its area is unsatisfactory. As a matter of fact, the
charges in the wire or in the circuit could be completely absent, will then the electromagnetic induction
effect disappear in this case? This situation is analyzed in the article, in which, when writing the integral
equations of the electromagnetic field in a four-dimensional covariant form, in the Faraday’s law the total
time derivative of the magnetic flux through the circuit appears instead of the partial time derivative. [32]
Thus, electromagnetic induction appears either when the magnetic field changes over time or when the area
of the circuit changes. From the physical point of view, it is better to speak not about the induction emf, but
about the induced electric field strength , that occurs in the circuit when the magnetic
flux changes. In this case, the contribution to from the change in the magnetic field is made through the
term , where is the vector potential. If the circuit area is changing in case of the constant magnetic
field, then some part of the circuit is inevitably moving, and the electric field emerges in this part of the
circuit in the comoving reference frame K’ as a result of the Lorentz transformation of the magnetic field ,
present in the stationary reference frame K, which passes through the circuit. The presence of the field in
K’ is considered as a result of the induction effect in the moving circuit, regardless of whether the charges
are present in the circuit or not. In the conducting circuit, the field causes motion of the charges. In the
reference frame K, it looks like appearance of emf of the induction , the gradient of which in the form of
, taken along the circuit, seems to generate the field .

Einstein's view

Reflection on this apparent dichotomy was one of the principal paths that led Albert Einstein to develop
special relativity:

It is known that Maxwell's electrodynamics—as usually understood at the present time—when

applied to moving bodies, leads to asymmetries which do not appear to be inherent in the
phenomena. Take, for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a
conductor.

The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor and
the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the two cases in
which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the magnet is in motion
and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field with
a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places where parts of the conductor are
situated.

But if the magnet is stationary and the conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the
neighbourhood of the magnet. In the conductor, however, we find an electromotive force, to
which in itself there is no corresponding energy, but which gives rise—assuming equality of
relative motion in the two cases discussed—to electric currents of the same path and intensity
as those produced by the electric forces in the former case.

Examples of this sort, together with unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth
relative to the "light medium," suggest that the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of
mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of absolute rest.

— Albert Einstein, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies[33]

See also
Eddy current
Inductance
Maxwell's equations
Crosstalk
Faraday paradox

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s://archive.org/details/introductiontoel00grif_0/page/301). ISBN 0-13-805326-X.
Note that the law relating flux to emf, which this article calls "Faraday's law", is referred to in
Griffiths' terminology as the "universal flux rule". Griffiths uses the term "Faraday's law" to
refer to what this article calls the "Maxwell–Faraday equation". So in fact, in the textbook,
Griffiths' statement is about the "universal flux rule".
32. Fedosin, Sergey G. (2019). "On the Covariant Representation of Integral Equations of the
Electromagnetic Field" (https://rdcu.be/ccV9o). Progress in Electromagnetics Research C.
96: 109–122. arXiv:1911.11138 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.11138).
Bibcode:2019arXiv191111138F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019arXiv191111138F).
doi:10.2528/PIERC19062902 (https://doi.org/10.2528%2FPIERC19062902).
S2CID 208095922 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208095922).
33. Einstein, Albert. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/
einstein/specrel/specrel.pdf) (PDF).

Further reading
Clerk Maxwell, James (1881). A treatise on electricity and magnetism, Vol. II (https://archive.
org/details/atreatiseonelec04maxwgoog). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ch. III, sec. 530, p. 178.
ISBN 0-486-60637-6. "a treatise on electricity and magnetism."

External links
Media related to Faraday's law of induction at Wikimedia Commons
A simple interactive tutorial on electromagnetic induction (https://nationalmaglab.org/educati
on/magnet-academy/watch-play/interactive/electromagnetic-induction) (click and drag
magnet back and forth) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Roberto Vega. Induction: Faraday's law and Lenz's law – Highly animated lecture, with
sound effects (https://web.archive.org/web/20080530092914/http://www.physics.smu.edu/~v
ega/em1304/lectures/lect13/lect13_f03.ppt), Electricity and Magnetism course page (https://
web.archive.org/web/20081228092644/http://www.physics.smu.edu/vega/em1304/p1304.ht
ml)
Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University (http://hyperph
ysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/emcon.html)
Tankersley and Mosca: Introducing Faraday's law (https://web.archive.org/web/2012061702
0014/http://usna.edu/Users/physics/tank/Public/FaradaysLaw.pdf)
A free simulation on motional emf (http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Induction.htm)

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