Physics Project

Topic – Electromagnetic
Induction

By – Daksh Singh
XII - D
 INDEX
Sr . No . Topic Remark

1. Acknowledgement

2. Introduction

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
 Acknowledgement
In the accomplishment of this project, I have been supported by many people and
without them backing me up I would not have been able to submitting this project on
time, thus I would like to show my deepest gratitude to all of them by giving them my
sincerest thanks.

Most importantly I would like to thank my school’s senior principal Ms. Manjit Batra
and principal Mrs. Sangeeta Banerjee for this wonderful opportunity to make this
project, and Yogander sir for his support as well in the improvement of the project
and valuable guidance.
 Introduction

Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive

force (emf) across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.
Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831,
and James Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it as Faraday's law of
induction. Lenz's law describes the direction of the induced field. Faraday's
law was later generalized to become the Maxwell–Faraday equation, one of
the four Maxwell equations in his theory of electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic induction has found many applications, including electrical
components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric
motors and generators.
Important Terms (used in introduction) :
• Electromotive force - Defined as the electric potential produced by
either electrochemical cell or by changing the magnetic field. EMF is
the commonly used acronym for electromotive force.

• Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is a basic law of

electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with
an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf).

• Lenz's law states that the direction of the electric current induced in a
conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field
created by the induced current opposes changes in the initial magnetic
field. It is named after physicist Emil Lenz, who formulated it in 1834.
• Maxwell's equations, or Maxwell–Heaviside equations, are a set
of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the
Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical
electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits. The
equations provide a mathematical model for electric, optical, and
radio technologies, such as power generation, electric motors,
wireless communication, lenses, radar etc.
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction :
1. Faraday’s first law/Neumann’s law :
Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf)—a phenomenon known as
electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and
solenoids.

2. Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that. The

induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage. The flux
linkage is the product of the number of turns in the coil and the flux
associated with the coil. The formula of Faraday's law is given below: ε = −
N Δ ϕ Δ t.
• The Maxwell–Faraday equation (listed as one of Maxwell's
equations) describes the fact that a spatially varying (and
also possibly time-varying, depending on how a magnetic field
varies in time) electric field always accompanies a time-varying
magnetic field, while Faraday's law states that there is emf
(electromotive force, defined as electromagnetic work done on a
unit charge when it has traveled one round of a conductive loop)
on the conductive loop when the magnetic flux through the
surface enclosed by the loop varies in time.
• Faraday's law had been discovered and one aspect of it
(transformer emf) was formulated as the Maxwell–Faraday
equation later. The equation of Faraday's law can be derived
by the Maxwell–Faraday equation (describing transformer
emf) and the Lorentz force (describing motional emf). The
integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation describes
only the transformer emf, while the equation of Faraday's
law describes both the transformer emf and the motional
emf.
• History :- Electromagnetic induction was discovered
independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph Henry
in 1832.Faraday was the first to publish the results of his
experiments . In Faraday's first experimental demonstration of
electromagnetic induction (August 29, 1831),he wrapped two
wires around opposite sides of an iron ring (torus) (an
arrangement like a modern toroidal transformer). Based on
his assessment of recently discovered properties of
electromagnets, he expected that when current started to
flow in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring
and cause some electrical effect on the opposite side.
He plugged one wire into a galvanometer and watched it as
he connected the other wire to a battery. Indeed, he saw a
transient current (which he called a "wave of electricity")
when he connected the wire to the battery, and another
when he disconnected it. This induction was due to the
change in magnetic flux that occurred when the battery was
connected and disconnected . Within two months, Faraday
had found several other manifestations of electromagnetic
induction. For example, he saw transient currents when he
quickly slid a bar magnet in and out of a coil of wires, and he
generated a steady (DC) current by rotating a copper disk
near the bar magnet with a sliding electrical lead ("Faraday's
disk").
• Mathematical Statement :
For a loop of wire in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux ΦB is defined for
any surface Σ whose boundary is the given loop. Since the wire loop may be
moving, we write Σ(t) for the surface. The magnetic flux is the surface
integral:
ΦB =∫ B(t).d(A)
where d(A) is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ(t), B is the
magnetic field, and B · d(A) is a vector dot product representing the
element of flux through d(A) . In more visual terms, the magnetic flux
through the wire loop is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines
that pass through the loop.
When the flux changes—because B changes, or because the wire loop is
moved or deformed, or both—Faraday's law of induction says that the wire
loop acquires an emf, defined as the energy available from a unit charge
that has traveled once around the wire loop
. (Although some sources state the definition differently, this expression
was chosen for compatibility with the equations of special relativity.)
Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by cutting the wire to
create an open circuit and attaching a voltmeter to the leads.

Faraday's law states that the emf is also given by the rate of change of the
magnetic flux:
ϵ= - dΦB / dt
Where ϵ is the electromotive force (emf) and ΦB is the magnetic flux.

The direction of the electromotive force is given by Lenz's law.

The laws of induction of electric currents in mathematical form was established by Franz Ernst

Neumann in 1845.
Terms of Electromagnetic Induction :
• Magnetic flux : - Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total
magnetic field which passes through a given area. It is a useful tool
for helping describe the effects of the magnetic force on something
occupying a given area.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb). A flux density of one
Wb/m2  (one Weber per square meter) is
one Tesla (T).
Example - Magnetic flux is defined as the total number of magnetic
field lines through a given coil or area. It is the common component of
the magnetic field which passes through the coil. Magnetic flux is
denoted by ΦB where B is a magnetic field, and its unit is Weber (Wb).

Φ = (Bcosθ)A = BAcosθ
• Induced EMF : -It can be defined as the generation of a potential difference in a coil due to the
changes in the magnetic flux through it. In simpler words, electromotive force or EMF is said
to be induced when the flux linking with a conductor or coil changes.

Electromotive forces can be induced in two different ways

1.The first way involves the placement of an electric conductor in a magnetic field that is
varying.
2.The second way involves the placement of a constantly moving conductor in a
magnetic field that is static in nature.

The applications of induced emf are,

3.It is used in generators
4.It is used in galvanometers
5.It is used in transformers

The induced emf is ε = - d(BA cos θ)/dt

• Induced Current and Induced Charge : - When the North-pole of a bar
magnet is moved towards a closed loop like a coil connected to a
galvanometer, the magnetic flux through the coil increases. Hence
according to Lenz's law, current is induced in the coil in such a direction
that it opposes the increase in flux . This is possible only if the current in
the coil is in a counter-clockwise direction with respect to an observer
situated on the side of the magnet . Note that magnetic moment associated
with this current has North polarity towards the North-pole of the
approaching magnet. Similarly, if the North pole of the magnet is being
withdrawn from the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil will decrease.
To counter this decrease in magnetic flux , the induced current in the coil
flows in clockwise direction and its South pole faces the receding North-
pole of the bar magnet. This would result in an attractive force which
opposes the motion of the magnet and the corresponding decrease in flux.
• Formula of Induced EMF :
E.M.F. = − (N/R)(ΔΦ/t)

• Formula of Induced Charge :

q = (N/R) ΔΦ

Thus, from the above two equations it is concluded that

the induced charge in an electromagnetic induction is
independent of time.
 • There are three ways to change the magnetic flux through a
loop:
Method of •Change the magnetic field strength (increase, decrease) over
the surface area
changing the •Change the area of the loop (increase by expanding the
loop, decrease by shrinking the loop)
magnetic flux •Change the angle between the surface defined by the loop
: and the magnetic field vector. Remember that flux is the
integral of the dot product between B and dA.
•                                            
•Therefore, changing the angle either increases or decreases
the flux because the dot product depends on the sine of the
angle between the vectors B and dA. This is how a generator
works. A generator rotates a loop (multiple loops) of wire
through a fixed magnetic field and induces a voltage around
the loop by rapidly changing the flux through the loop as it
rotates. That induced voltage around the loops causes a
current to flow through the wire and that is the output
current of the generator.
•The negative sign indicates that the induced voltage is in a
direction that creates a current that opposes the change in
flux in the loop. This relationship is stated in Lenz’s Law.
Motion of a straight conductor in a uniform magnetics field
( Motional EMF ) :
•Consider a straight conductor PQ as shown in the figure, moving in the rectangular loop PQRS in
a uniform and time-independent magnetic field B, perpendicular to the plane of the system.
•Let us suppose the motion of rod to be uniform at a constant velocity of v m/sec and the surface
to be frictionless.
•Thus, the rectangle PQRS forms a closed circuit enclosing a varying area due to the motion of the
rod PQ.
•The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop PQRS can be given as

ΦB = Blx

Where, RQ = x and RS = l, Since the

conductor is moving, x is changing with
time. Thus, the rate of change of flux ΦB
will induce an emf, which is given by:

ε = Blv
Where, the speed of conductor (PQ), v = -dx/dt and is the formula of induced emf. This
induced emf due to the motion of an electric conductor in the presence of the
magnetic field is called motional emf. Thus, emf can be induced in two major ways:

•Due to the motion of a conductor in the presence of a magnetic field.

•Due to the change in the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.

This concept of motional emf can be explained with the help of the 
concept of Lorentz force acting on free charge carriers of the conductor. Let us
consider any arbitrary charge q in the conductor PQ. As the rod moves with a constant
speed v, the charge is also moving with a speed v in the presence of magnetic field B.
The Lorentz force on this charge is given by:
F = qvB
The work done in moving the charge from P to Q can be given by,
W = QBvl
Since, emf is defined as the work done per unit charge,
∈ = W x q = - Bvl
Now, let R be the resistance of the conducting rod PQ. The resistance of the U-shape stationary
conductor PQRS is negligible compared to R and the resistance of rod PQ, that is, R does not change
as it moved. So, the current I in the loop
MNRS is,
I = ε /R = Blv /R

Further, due to presence of magnetic field, force on the conductor PQ (opposite to v(vector)) will be
F = I(lB) = B²l²v /R

Now, for pushing this conductor in the magnetic field with constant velocity v , the power required
P = Fv = B²l²v²/R

The work done by the external agent to move the rod with uniform velocity v in the magnetic field is
mechanical in nature , part of the work is dissipated as Joule’s heat and remaining part is converted
into the electrical energy. Power loss due to Joule’s heating,
= = x R = B²l²v²/R