LEARNING OUTCOMES

From this lecture, students are able to:

▪ Understand the cropping pattern of crops.
▪ Understand the cropping system.
▪ Understand the plant necessities.

LECTURE 2 : CROP PRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE DESIGNING A
DEFINITION OF CROPPING CROPPING PATTERN:
PATTERN
❑ To have efficient utilization of orchard space and
Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of land other resources.
under cultivation of different crops at different
❑ To have maximum solar radiation interception
points of time.
and distribution within the orchard canopies in
It indicates the time and arrangement of crops in order to achieve maximum fruit quality and yield.
a particular land area.
❑ To minimize competition between trees for
nutrients and moisture by having proper tree
spacing.
❑ To have compatibility with various management
practices such as pruning, thinning, harvesting,
pest control etc.
 Examples of cropping pattern
Square pattern
❖ It is the most commonly used method and easy to layout
in the field.
❖ In this system, the plants are at the right angle to each
other, every unit of four plants forming a square.
Triangular pattern
❖ In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the
plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th and such other alternate rows are
planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other
alternative rows.
❖ This system provides more open space for the trees and for
intercrop
Most easy and popular one.
In this row to row and plant to plant distance is kept
similar.
Interculture operations can be done in both the directions.
Hexagonal pattern
❖ In hexagonal pattern, the trees are planted in the corners of
equilateral triangles.
❖ Six trees thus form a hexagon with another tree at its centre.
❖ This this system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system.
❖ The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the
cultivation is not so easily done as in the square system.
 Rectangular pattern CROPPING SYSTEM
❖ In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead Agriculture crops are planted and managed in one or a
of squares and trees are planted at the four corners of
the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles.
combination of the following systems:
❖ Like square system, this system also facilitates the
interculture in two directions. Mixed Rotational /
Mono-croppin
cropping relay cropping
g (penanaman
(penanaman (penanaman
tunggal)
campuran) giliran)

Cash cropping
(penanaman
kontan)

MONO-CROPPING
❖In mono-cropping, a single species of crop are planted
in an area at a time, without intercropping with another
species.
❖The single crop species are managed until their products Paddy plantation Peanut plantation

are harvested, felled and then re-planted.

❖For short-term crops (annuals):
❖ Paddy, maize, peanut, soybean or tapioca are
planted as a sole crop on a moderate scale. The
products are harvested after 3-6 months
depending on crop species and the same species of Maize plantation Tapioca plantation
crop are re-planted as a single crop in the following
season.
 OIL PALM (ON PLANTATION SCALE), OFTEN
GROWN ON MONO-CROPPING SYSTEM
❖For plantation crops (perennials):

❖ Rubber, oil palm, cocoa or coffee, they are

planted on a large scale, often thousands of
ha, and managed as a sole crop on a
commercial basis.

Perennial crops grown using

mono cropping system……

❖ The mono-crops are maintained for 25-30 years or

until their economic yields decline.
❖ The trees are then felled (zero burning) and the
lands are re-planted with the same crop species but
newly-developed clones or varieties are often
Coffee
Rubber
included.
❖ Many private companies (e.g: IOI, Sime Darby,
Sawit Kinabalu, SLDB, FELDA, Sabah Tea) prefer to
grow the major industrial crops (oil palm, rubber,
cocoa or tea) as a mono-crop for easier
management, operation and processing.
Tea
Cocoa plantation
 MIXED CROPPING
❖ In this system, two or more
crop species are planted
in an area at a time or
season. The species are
arranged either in
alternate rows or in a
haphazard fashion Examples of mixed cropping:
(orchard style).
1. Maize are planted with hill or dry-land paddy
❖ The crop species have a
similar or differing 2. Peanut planted in the inter-rows of tapioca crop
maturation period i.e. 3. Different fruit species + spices + vegetables.
perennial and annual
species are planted 4. Coconut + fruit trees + wet paddy (in low-lying areas).
together.

Mixed cropping is practiced by smallholders or private

companies who use the various products either for their ROTATIONAL CROPPING SYSTEM
own consumption, for sale at local markets, for cottage (TANAMAN GILIRAN)
industry or even for export.

▪ One crop species is planted on a piece of land in

one season and a different species of crop is
planted in the next season.

▪ This cropping system is practiced by smallholders,

farmers, agricultural research stations in tropical
and temperate countries.

▪ Normally short-terms crops are planted using

rotational system.
 SEQUENCE OF ROTATION SEQUENCE OF ROTATION
1st cycle - Shallow Rooted Crop (Maize)
2nd cycle - Lagume spp (Groundnut)
(to enrich the soil)
3rd cycle - Vegetables Crop (Okra/Chilies) 1st cycle 2nd cycle
maize groundnut
4th cycle - Deep Rooted Crop (Tapioca)

▪ Repeat the cycle in the following seasons.

▪ A legume crop is included in the sequence because the
vegetative parts which are high in nutrient contents are
chopped and ploughed in as green manure.
▪ Crops chosen in the sequence should have 4th cycle 3rd cycle
different depth of root systems. tapioca Vegetables

The advantages of adopting this crop rotation

system are :
• Reduce the outbreak of pests and diseases.
• Weed control: Some crops, like potatoes and
squashes, with dense foliage or large leaves, suppress
weeds, thus reducing maintenance and weed
problems in following crops
• Enable nutrients from various soil levels to be
absorbed by successive crops which have different
depth of root systems.
CROP ROTATION IN PADDY FIELDS (WET
PADDY)
✔Wet paddy are normally planted in the rainy season
(main season), in areas without irrigation facilities.
✔Tobacco, roselle or vegetables (long bean, sawi or
chilies) are planted in the off-season (when the
paddy fields are dry).
✔Cattles are also allowed to graze any vegetation in
the dry paddy field if crops are not planted in the
off-season.
CROP ROTATION IN PADDY FIELDS (WET PADDY)
❖ In cash cropping, a short-term crop (an annual or
❖ The short-term crops produce yields within 3-5 months
❖ The cash crop is planted only during the first 2-3
years after the main crop is planted.
❖ After this period, the inter-rows are shaded by the
canopy of the main crop and the cash crop can no
longer produce viable yields.
CASH CROPPING
biennial) is planted in between the rows of a
perennial/main crop (e.g. oil palm, rubber) while
waiting for the main crop to produce yield or income,
which may take 3 years after planting.
after planting and this is a source of ready cash for
the farmers/smallholders.
The importance of cash cropping:
To enable the smallholders to get cash/quick income
in a short period while waiting for the main crop to
produce yields.
Helps in generating income for the country through
the exports of cash crops.
Cash crop helps to offset the price of vegetables.
Examples: Chili, cucumber, ginger, maize
•The perennial / main crops often used in this cropping
system are: OTHER AGRICULTURE
•oil palm, rubber, coconut, cocoa, fruit spp. which have a
long juvenile period.
PRACTICES
•The common cash crops grown in between are: Integrated farming
•maize, pineapple, groundnut, banana, ginger, Organic farming
vegetables (okra, chili, long bean).
Agro - forestry
•The planting pattern:
♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ - perennial crop
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ] cash crops
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ] cash crops
♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ - perennial crop

CROP-LIVESTOCK INTEGRATED FARMING

INTEGRATED FARMING
In integrated farming, crop species, animals/poultry and fish
rearing are combined in an integrated manner for a more
sustainable agriculture. Often, the following commodities are
included:
i) crop species
ii) livestock
iii) aquaculture (fresh water fish), for hobby fishing
iv) factories/house to process the produce
v) mushroom cultivation
vi) agro-tourism and family-day facilities
Commercial crops such as oil palm, rubber, cocoa, fruit
trees are often planted as the main source of revenue to
the company.
The livestock section may include, cattle (reared on
feed-lot system), deer, goats and poultry.
Resort facilities (chalet, hostels, meeting rooms,
restaurants, out-door games etc) are often included.
Balung River Eco-Resort is also a good example of
integrated farming done on a commercial scale.
Poultry and Aquaculture

Factory for processing Noni or mengkudu juice

Medicinal plants
Dragon fruits
Sugar palm
Inflorescence

Container to
Collect the juice

Processing of nira from

sugar palms
 ORGANIC FARMING
A form of agriculture that relies on non-chemical
techniques such as crop rotation, green manure,
compost, and biological pest control.
Benefit of Organic Farming:
• Reduce exposure to pesticides and chemicals
• Pesticides allow disease resistance to build up in
plants, weeds, plant-eating-insects, fungi, and
bacteria.
• Pesticides and chemicals sprayed on plants
contaminate the soil, water supply, and air.
Sometimes these harmful pesticides stick around for
decades (maybe longer).
Discouraging Algal Blooms
▪ Algae Blooms is runoff from the
petroleum-based fertilizers often used in
conventional farming.
▪ By using a biological fertilizer such as
green manure and compost in organic
farming, it can discourage the production
of Algal Blooms.
Organic Farming Encourages Biodiversity
Organic Farming Builds Healthy Soil
▪ Organic farming builds up organic soil
matter better than conventional farming.
Combatting Soil Erosion
▪ A major study comparing adjoining
organic and chemically treated wheat
fields showed that the organic field
featured eight more inches of topsoil
than the chemically treated field and
also had only one-third the erosion loss.
AGRO-FORESTRY
❖ In agro-forestry, industrial crops, food crops, fruit
trees, landscape plants, medicinal plants etc. are
inter-planted with the forest spp. (e.g. sentang, jati,
kapur baji, urat mata beludu etc.) which is the main
crop planted by the farmers or private sectors.
❖ At times, livestock are also integrated in the
agro-forestry system.
 Coffee bushes are grown with forest spp in
Ecuador.
The forest spp. and the agricultural crops are normally
inter-planted or at times planted at a different section
of the plantation under the same management.
The crops, livestock and fish spp. used in
agro-forestry:
❖Fruit trees: salak, durian, mangosteen, jackfruit,
cempedak, dokong, durian spp.
❖Landscape plants: palms, ixora, helicornia, wild
ginger, bougainvillea, Arachis pintoi and figs
❖Livestock: goats, sheep (free grazing) or dairy and
beef cattle in feed-lot system
❖Freshwater fish: tilapia, Japanese carps, grass carps
etc.

Growing media

▪ A substance through which roots grow and

extract water and nutrients.

▪ In native plant nurseries, a growing medium can

consist of native soil but is more commonly an
Forest spp trees are Forest spp are planted "artificial soil" composed of materials such as
planted with cocoa in the rice field in peat moss or compost.
Indonesia

Example of growing media
Coco peat Perlite
Peat moss Sand
Phosphorus (P) is
needed by plants to
promote:
▪ photosynthesis
▪ protein formation
▪ seed germination
▪ bloom stimulation
▪ budding
▪ hasten maturity
Nutrient Deficiency in Plant
▪ Nutrient deficiency occurs when a plant lacks sufficient quantity
of an essential nutrient required for growth.
▪ Without sufficient essential nutrients, plants will not grow well
and show various symptoms to express the deficiency.
Common nutrient deficiency :
Nitrogen (N)
▪ promote rapid growth
especially for fruit and seed
development.
▪ It increases leaf size and
quality.
▪ hastens plant maturity.
Potassium (K) is
needed by the plants
to:
▪ promote formation
of sugars for protein
synthesis.
▪ root development.
▪ increases the plant’s Browning or yellowing on
resistance to leaf edges of newly matured
diseases. leaves.
 What is fertilizer? FERTILISER

Any organic or inorganic materials

of natural or synthetic origin that is ORGANIC CHEMICAL
added to the soil to supply one or FERTILISER FERTILISER
more plant nutrient that essential
for the growth of plants.
Granules Powder Liquid

Straight Mixture Compound

Fertilizer Straight fertilizer (Granules)

Granules Fertilizer that contribute single nutrient to the
Granular or dry fertilizer is crops.
a type of fertilizer which Examples are urea, rock phosphate, ammonia,
comes in a dry pelleted ammonium sulfate and muriate of potash.
form.
It can be blended with
the soil to provide
plants with nutrients

Granules mix with soil

 Mixed fertilizer (Granules)
A mixture of more than one straight fertilizer which
can supply more than one plant nutrient element.
Compound fertilizer (Granules)
Compound fertilizers contain multiple nutrients in
each individual granule.
The multiple-nutrient granules of compound
fertilizers also allow the farmer to achieve uniform
distribution of micronutrients throughout the root
zone.
More expensive than the other fertilizer.

Examples of compound fertilizer

Top Dressing
Broadcasting
Basal
Application Application
of solid
fertilizer Plough sole
placement
Placement
Deep
placement
Application of Solid Fertilizer
(A) Broadcasting
It is a process where the fertilizer is spread over
the entire soil area evenly and uniformly.
This may be done before the land is ploughed,
before planting or while the crop standing.
It may be of two types: Top Dressing & Basal
Application
Top Dressing
Application
(i) Top Dressing
- It is the spreading of fertilizer on closely
sown standing crops.
- Ensure that the fertilizer does not come into
direct contact with any part of the plant to
avoid burning or scorching.
- Avoid top dressing during heavy rains as
the fertilizer will be leached from the soil
or washed away.
(ii) Basal Application (Broadcasting at
sowing or planting)
- During sowing time, fertilizers are uniformly
spread over the soil and mixed properly.
(B) Placement
Fertilizers are placed in the soils irrespective of the
position of seed, seedling or growing plants before
sowing or after sowing the crops.
Placement of fertilizer is normally recommended
when quantity of fertilizers to apply is small and
development of the root system is poor.
The most common methods are Plough Sole
placement and Deep placement.
(ii) Deep placement
(i) Plough Sole placement
In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of
the plough furrow in a continuous band during the
process of ploughing.
Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
This method has been recommended in areas
where the soil becomes quite dry up to a few
inches below the soil surface during the growing
season
Deep placement fertilizer involves point placement of a
large fertilizer pallet (also known as briquette) near the
root zone of the plant.
Briquettes are centered between 4 plants at a depth of
7-10 centimeters within 7 days after transplanting.
Placement is done either by hand or with a mechanical
applicator
The briquette releases nitrogen (N) gradually, coinciding
with the crop’s requirements during the growing season
This reduces fertilizer nitrogen losses, increase crops uptake
efficiency and environmentally friendly technology.
 1) Urea is poured into 2) Briquetter produce 4) Placement of briquettes by
briquetter briquettes using mechanical applicator

3) Briquettes
5) Placement of
briquettes by using hand

Foliar Aerial
Application Application
Application of Liquid Fertilizers
❑ Foliar Application
- Application of a small amount of fertilizer or mineral through direct
spraying onto the leaves.
❑ Injection into soil
- Place liquid or gaseous fertilizer below the soil near plant roots.
❑ Fertigation
Fertigation Injection into soil
- Distribution with water-soluble fertilizers and chemicals through an
irrigation system
❑ Aerial Application
- Involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an
agricultural aircraft.
 PESTICIDES
PESTICIDES

❖Any substance or mixture of substances intended

for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating ORGANIC CHEMICAL
any pest. PESTICIDES PESTICIDES
❖Every pesticides contain:
❖ Active ingredient
❖ Inert ingredient Fungicides Insecticides Herbicides Bactericides Rodenticides

❖ Contaminants and impurities

PESTICIDES CLASSIFICATION
HAZARD Plant Disease And Pest
BAND Management
CLASS STATEME SYMBOL
COLOUR
NT
VERY Exclusion
Ia BLACK - Consists of practices designed to keep pathogens
TOXIC
(things that cause disease), vectors (things that
spread disease) and infected plants out of
Ib TOXIC RED disease-free areas.
HARMFU - The goal of this method of management is to
II
L
YELLOW prevent the disease from entering the area where
the plants are growing. For example, never plant
diseased or infested plants.
III CAUTION BLUE

IV WHITE
 Eradication
▪ Eradication consists of eliminating, destroying or
inactivating a disease organism after it has
become established.
▪ This includes:
• Destruction of infected plants.
• Disinfection of storage bins, containers
and equipment.
▪ It also involves cultural practices such as
rotating crops and weeding.
Resistance
- This method of control focuses on planting
resistant varieties.
- Resistance is achieved by altering the genetic
system of the host to make it less susceptible to
the disease organism.
Protection
▪ Protection establishes a chemical or physical barrier between the host
and the cause of the disease.
▪ For example, there are chemical applications available to prevent a
disease from becoming established, such as fungicides, insecticides,
herbicides etc.
▪ Row covers that exclude insects that carry disease, fences and other
physical barriers also provide protection from pests.
Rows covers
protecting crops
Common
Plant
Diseases
❖ Blackspot
❖ Black spot is one of the most common diseases
found on roses, but it can also occur on other
ornamental and garden plants.
❖ Symptoms : Black, round spots that form on the
upper sides of leaves. Lower leaves are usually
infected first. Severe infestations cause infected
leaves to turn yellow and fall off the plant.
❖ Cause: Fungal
❖ Powdery Mildew ❖ Canker
❖ Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects ❖ Canker occurs primarily on woody
many of our landscape plants, flowers, landscape plants.
vegetables and fruits.
❖ Symptom: Powdery mildew is an easy one to
❖ Symptoms: Sunken, swollen, cracked or
identify. Infected plants will display a white dead areas found on stems, limbs or trunk.
powdery substance that is most visible on upper ❖ Cause: fungal or bacterial pathogens.
leaf surfaces, but it can appear anywhere on the
plant including stems, flower buds, and even the
fruit of the plant.
❖ Cause: Fungal