Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Assessment of parameters governing the steel fiber alignment in fresh

cement-based composites q
Víctor Pérez Villar a,⇑, Nelson Flores Medina c,d, M.M. Alonso b, Sara Gismera Diez b, Francisca Puertas b
a
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid (ETSAM) – Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Avenida de Juan de Herrera, 4, 28040 Madrid, Spain
b
Instituto de Ciencias de la Construcción Eduardo Torroja (IETcc), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) (IETcc-CSIC), Calle de Serrano Galvache, 4, 28033 Madrid, Spain
c
Escuela de Arquitectura, Ingeniería y Diseño, Universidad Europea de Canarias, c/ Inocencio García 1, La Orotova, 38300 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
d
Departamento de Construcción Arquitectónica, Escuela de Arquitectura, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Campus Universitario de Tafira, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s

The torque to rotate a steel fiber immersed into cement-based composites has been determined.

Induced torque can explain fiber alignment successful in fresh cementitious materials.

The influence of mixture parameters of cementitious composites has been analyzed.

Fiber geometry parameters, like shape and aspect ratio, affect the induced torque needed to rotate fibers.

Particle size distribution and packing density affects the induced torque exerted on fiber.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The main aim of this paper is to measure the induced torque needed to rotate a steel fiber, hence an
Received 14 August 2018 experimental and parametrical analysis of factors governing steel fiber alignment in cement pastes
Received in revised form 4 February 2019 and mortar, rotating from static position and rotating in a dynamic fluid is here presented. To aim this
Accepted 5 February 2019
objective, a set of rheological tests has been conducted to assess the torque necessary to rotate steel fibers
immersed into different fresh cement paste and mortar mixes with Bingham fluid behaviour. Fibers of
different aspect ratios (length/width) and different geometry, straight and hooked-end, have been eval-
Keywords:
uated as they are the more commonly used. On the other hand, different parameters (type of mixture,
Concrete rheology
Steel fiber
size of aggregates, volume fraction of aggregates) affecting cement mixtures are also analysed and their
Fiber suspensions influence in fiber orientation discussed.
Fibre orientation Fiber alignment depends on external torques applied to fibers, immersed into a cement-water-
Fiber alignment aggregate viscous system, that can be produced during or after casting. The flowability of the fresh sus-
Bingham fluid pension with fibers produces a load/pressure that generates a torque that can align them. Fiber alignment
SFRC is a main goal to pump the fresh material. Hence, the factors that govern fiber alignment are studied
Yield stress which increase the post-cracking strength of cement-based composites under load along its life service
Plastic viscosity
due to casting or pumping. To that end, a set of tests has been conducted to assess the torque necessary
Self-compacting concrete
to rotate steel fibers immersed into different fresh cement paste and mortar mixes with Bingham fluid
behaviour. Fibers of different aspect ratios(length/width) and different geometry (straight and hooked-
end) have been evaluated. On the other hand, different parameters (type of mixture, size of aggregates,
volume fraction of aggregates) affecting cement mixtures are also analysed and their influence on fiber
orientation is discussed. The values obtained here are between 1 and 14 N  mm of dynamic yield torque
and 0.1 and 0.5 N  mm min for viscoplastic torque per fiber, depending on fiber geometry, are helpful to
improve the fiber alignment in cement-based composites reinforced with fibers through a design and
production based on these parameters.
Ó 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

q
This document is a collaborative effort.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: victor.perez.villar@alumnos.upm.es (V.P. Villar), nelson.flores@universidadeuropea.es (N.F. Medina), mmalonso@ietcc.csic.es (M.M. Alonso),
sgismera@ietcc.csic.es (S.G. Diez), puertasf@ietcc.csic.es (F. Puertas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.02.036
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
Nomenclature
List of symbols
c_ shear rate
l1 plastic viscosity
sðodÞ dynamic yield stress
sðosÞ static yield stress
s0 yield stress
s shear stress
vf volume fraction
x rotation speed
1. Introduction
Steel fibers are used increasingly as a discrete reinforcement in
composites with a brittle cement matrix, to enhance their tensile
strength or flexural strength, ductility, toughness, fatigue and
impact resistance [45,21,51,3],2. Fibers reduce also shrinkage and
cracking due to hardening of concrete in service. However, they
must be aligned or orientated respect to a tensile principal stress
trajectories, which produces a final strength on the material reach-
ing a better mechanical targeted behaviour. On the other hand, also
steel fibers randomly orientated in cement-based composites
enhance the mechanical properties, like tensile strength and
toughness [41].
The mechanical efficiency of a Fiber Reinforced Cementitious
Composite (FRCC) depends not only on the volume fraction (vf )
but mainly on the percent of them aligned with the reduced stress
supported [5]. Furthermore, the fiber design depends on anchorage
necessary to develop the required bond when the composite is
stressed under load: straight, hooked, crimped, double dueform,
paddled, etc . . .[7]. However, straight and hooked are the most
common shapes used [32]. Moreover, induced fiber orientation
also results in a higher effectiveness of crack-width control, which
depends on the individual performance of all fibers crossing a crack
[54]. Therefore, fiber alignment has become a research issue in the
last decades in order to increase the performance of the FRCC, Edg-
ington and Hannant [17,44] such as Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(FCR), Self-Compacting Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SCFRC), Ultra
High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Composites
(UHPFRCC) [45,21,51,54,1]. Nevertheless there are still more field
to research linking the rheology to the fiber dynamics in order to
define the fiber alignment processes.
Several researchers studied methods to predict the fiber align-
ment [27,18] based on anisotropic physical properties of hardened
concrete. These methods are based on how to determine the main
fiber orientation direction after hardening. Some of these methods
are based on electrical conductivity [33,46], on measuring ultra-
sonic waves velocity [8], on X-ray tomography [23], and also
destructive testing based on slicing hardened samples [37,14].
The relation between fiber alignment and the mechanical beha-
viour has also been analysed through test, [48,50,42,5] meso-
mechanical models [53], through modeling the pull-out behaviour
[45], modeling the split tensile strength [21].
Different mechanisms can induce torque-fiber alignment in
fresh concrete. The procedure of concrete placement into a mould
has been recognized to have a major impact on fiber orientation,
both due to the casting direction and due to preferential fiber
alignment induced by the casting element itself [47]. Moreover,
vibration during compaction can rotate and align fibers into planar
orientations, some experiences have been reported in literature
[37,52]. The flow has also been identified to play a major role on
fiber alignment, as for example self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
549
DMax max. aggregate size
d fiber deflection
T(x) induced torque
S viscoplastic torque
T ðosÞ static yield torque
T ðodÞ dynamic yield torque
Tf torque due one fiber
T Ref torque due probe
Tb homogenized torque
b
S homogenized visc. torque
[27]. In some cases prediction of rheological parameters in SCC
with fiber geometry, such as plastic viscosity from experimental
values in cementitius pastes have been researched to be included
in software simulations [20]. Under this line of research, to know
the predicted rheological parameters of fiber inclusions, helps to
simulate the fiber alignment during flow introducing them into
the governing equations. Some research has been done to predict
fiber orientation in slump flow and L-Box test using Lagrangian
Smooth particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) [15,16]. Much of the
research found in the literature regards to the composite rein-
forced with fibers as a whole, but the behaviour of a fiber itself
has not been described yet within the cementitious composite.
The effect of flowability of FRCC has been also studied, because
it is one of the parameters that can increase the volume fraction vf
of aligned fibers [10]. Moreover, the higher the vf of fibers aligned
the better the workability of the fresh FRCC, which helps to
increase the amount of fibers added as reinforcement or the suc-
cess of placing and pumping the composite. Therefore, flowability
is also studied to pump FRCC as it also concerns to the construction
industry [19]. Nowadays, pumping is a common way to place con-
crete, and the risks associated with concrete pumping increase
when fibers are added to a composite which has to pass a pipe.
Under these conditions, concrete flow depends on slip-layer forma-
tion and occurrence of dynamic segregation. Pumping can generate
segregation, bleeding of concrete, but concrete can cause also
blockage in the pump pipe. This situation will be more pronounced
in FRCC, because stiff steel fibers increase the viscosity and also can
cause balling-up [30] & 26. Moreover, the settlement of aggregates
and fibers is also a major concern [34].
Fiber alignment in FRCC depends on many factors, like fiber
properties (shape, material, aspect ratio) and on the fresh proper-
ties of the cementitious fresh material (shear stress (s), yield stress
(s0 ), plastic viscosity (l1 ) and on the placing and casting method,
as it will modify the velocity of the fluid and hence the shear rate of
the material (c_ ) defined also as @u/@y. Orientation of rigid fibers
can be externally induced only when the cement-based composite
is still a fluid. This early stage, after mixing, by assessment of the
rheological properties of such cementitious composites, fibers
can be rotated through an external torque T, that must to overcome
the initial static yield shear stress of the fresh cementitious mate-
rials [39].
The constitutive equation of Bingham shear rate (c_ ) is com-
monly expressed as a two parameter model (so and l1 ). To model
the stress-deformation behaviour of viscoplastic fluids:


@u 0; s < s0
c_ ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
@y ðs  s0 Þ=l1 ; s P s0
The steel fiber considered, rotates in a fresh cementitious com-
posites which is a non-newtonian fluid. On the other hand, fresh
cement-based composites can be considered as suspensions
550 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
behaving as Bigham fluid Banfill and Tattersall [6]. The rotation
dynamics of ellipsoidal bodies, immersed in newtonian fluids,
was first described theoretically by [24]. Subsequently, Brenner
addressed the dynamics in case of general body shape [11]. If a
steel fiber is considered equivalent of a small cylinder (rod), with
similar aspect ratio: ‘/d (length divided by section diameter),
immersed in a non-newtonian fluid with yield stress, it is neces-
sary define all these rheological parameters to asses the overall vis-
cous torque T. Lack of empirical tests, or numerical modeling, has
been observed in the literature by the authors. Nevertheless to
asses experimentally this torque value T, rheometer measurements
provide useful information to explain the fiber dynamics in fresh
cementitious materials.
Some experimental procedures based on torsional pendulum
have been applied by [52] to measure the torque induced due a
magnetic field in short-fiber-reinforced composites. However, the
use of rheometers is becoming more common and they increases
the knowledge about the rheological behaviour of fresh cementi-
tious composites, thanks to their high precision and ease of calibra-
tion. Applying a rotational rheometer with modified probe, [49]
have been studied the alignment of hooked-end fibres in matrices
with similar rheological behaviour to cementitious composites due
to homogeneous magnetic fields, using different concentrations of
CarbopolÒ 940 as a fluid with yield stress similar to the pastes and
mortars presented here.
Attention should be drawn to the fact that the fresh cement
pastes and mortars is often characterized by thixotropic behaviour
Roussel [38]. Applying shear stress, over time, the plastic viscosity
l1 begins to decrease due to progressive breakdown of the inter-
nal structure of particle-particle network through shear thinning.
However, after shearing the structure begins to rebuild. The result
is shear rate can form hysteresis loop, increasing and decreasing
the value of shear stress (See Fig. 1).
The variation of yield stress under thixotropic conditions can be
measured at two points. Initially the structure is able to admit a
certain amount of stress before it is broken down and starts to
ðsÞ
flow, this amount is usually called the static yield stress so (also
refered to as shear-growth shear stress). Under shear flow, the
structure and bonding network is broken down, resulting in lower
ðdÞ
yield stress: dynamic yield stress s [39,36].
o
This research work aims at assessing the rheological parameters
governing the effect of external induced torque on fiber rotation, to
understand the factors governing the phenomenon of fiber align-
ment. This assessment was performed as follows: industrial fibers
with different aspect ratios and geometries (hooked-end and
straight) were fixed to a probe of a commercial rheometer
(Fig. 6). Fibres were immersed in a set of plain mortars and cement
Fig. 1. The flow curve of paste/mortars determination of the hysteresis loop due
thixotropy.
paste, which had different mix designs and different rheological
parameters. The work of a single fiber was analysed, as fibers in
a volume fraction around a 2% are considered in a dilute solution,
with low possibility of interaction between fibers [30]. From the
results obtained, the behaviour of fibers in FRCC was analysed
and parameters for future design of FCC were set. The rheometer
tests applied provide the viscous torque value T and factors affect-
ing the fiber torque, and hence design parameters are obtained to
increase the fiber alignment in fiber reinforced cementitious con-
crete (FRCC).
2. Experimental program
The main aim of this study was to measure the induced torque
on a steel fiber immersed into a controlled rotating fresh cement-
water-aggregate system. This section contains the description of
the experiments conducted.
2.1. Materials
An ordinary Portland cement type CEM I 52.5R, according to
UNE-EN 197-1:2011-Part 1: Composition, specifications and con-
formity criteria for common cements, has been used. The cement
had a specific weight of 3.077 g=cm3 , a specific Blaine fineness of
3552 m2 =kg; its chemical composition is presented in Table 1.
The particle distribution of the cement has been obtained through
a sample suspended in ethanol with a Mastersizer S, Malvern par-
ticle size analyser (Fig. 2). The initial and final setting times were
118 and 178 min respectively.
A quartz CEN-standard sand, complying with DIN EN 196-1 and
DIN EN ISO 679, was used to mix the all the mortars considered in
rheological tests. The moisture content was tested around to 0.07
wt% in all the cases. Chemical composition and mineralogical
phase analysis of this sand (determined on a Bruker AXS D8 Advance
X-ray diffractometer and Rietveld refinement method) values are pre-
sented in Tables 1 and 2.
The characteristic of CEN-Standard Sand is their own specific
grain size distribution. It ranges between 0.08 and 2.00 mm and
the different sand fractions are blended in defined portions to be
compliant with DIN EN 196-1. The maximum aggregate size DMax
was established sieving with square mesh widths, obtaining three
samples with 2 mm, 1 mm and 0.5 mm maximum aggregate size.
The particle size distribution of the different series of sand samples
through differential sieving procedure is presented in Fig. 3 (see
Table 3).
In order to understand the influence of sand with different max-
imum diameters of the particle suspension affecting the fiber rota-
tion, a reference cement paste with a maximum particle size (Dmax )
of 0.063 mm and three mortars with same concentrations of sand
but different maximum aggregate size (Dmax ), of 0.5 mm, 1 mm,
2 mm, were tested. On the other hand, the role of aggregate con-
centration on the fiber due rotation was also studied. Hence, one
reference cement paste (0% aggregate concentration), and three
mortars with 2 mm maximum aggregate diameter and 0%, 50%
66% and 75% aggregate volume where also tested. Five different
mortars and one reference cement paste were designed in order
to obtain similar rheological parameters and their proportions
are presented in Table 4 all of them with the same CEM I 52.5R
Portland cement.
On the other hand, seven different steel fibers were used for
experiments. The two main geometric parameters considered in
steel fibers are: aspect ratio (‘/d) and type (straight and hooked-
end).
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562 551

Table 1
Chemical composition of CEM I 52.5R used. (%-weight percent). LOI*: Loss on ignition IR*: Insoluble residue.

SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO SO3 Na2 O K2O TiO2 P 2 O5 Cl SrO ZrO LOI* IR*

% 19.65 5.24 2.78 0.06 0.85 63.52 3.44 0.12 1.04 0.23 0.06 0.009 0.07 0.02 2.90 0.007

37 and 67 approximately (See Table 5). In Table 5 a code to distin-

guish the fibers during the tests was applied, by indicating first the
length of the fiber, its aspect ratio and the shape of the fiber:
Straight (S) or Hooked (H). Fig. 4 shows the fiber types tested in
this research.

2.2. Tests methods

The mortar mixer used for every mortar/paste probe was a

Fig. 2. Particle Size distribution of CEM I 52.5R used.
Ibertest IB32-040 C2000, the mixing steps for every test follows
the standard procedure defined on UNE 196-1. All mixes were pre-
pared following the same shear-history procedures, previous to be
incorporated into the rheometer vessel.
To measure the induced torque T ðxÞ a rotational rheometer
suitable for fine-grained building materials (Model: ViskomatTM
NT) was used. This rheometer can realize operative measurements
on mortars up to a maximum particle size (Dmax ) of 2 mm. Every
test was executed filling the 370 ml rheometer vessel volume with
fresh mortar/paste to introduce the system fiber-rheometer probe
inside. The rotational rheometer has an accuracy able to resolve an

Table 2
angle of 104 degrees, it allows also ramping from 0.001 rpm to
Chemical composition (wt%) of sand. maximum 400 rpm in a speed-controlled mode. The measurement
of torque induced over the rheometer probe can range between
Oxide wt%
250 to +250 Nmm, measured by a transducer. The torque resolu-
SiO2 96.80 tion measurement is 0.05 Nmm, the accuracy is 2 Nmm.
Al2 O3 1.51
The rheometer probe (Probe model-V0011) was modified dril-
K2O 0.56
Fe2 O3 0.43 ling a hole of 1 mm diameter to attach a steel fiber perpendicular
CaO 0.10 oriented to the rotation axis (See Fig. 6), the fiber was perpendicu-
LOI* 0.61 lar to the probe. Every experiment was executed using first the ref-
erence probe (values obtained are shown in Table 4) and after with
each fiber mechanically fixed to the rheometer probe. The fibers
used are shown by Table 5. Every fiber type is used to conduct a
sequence of rheological tests immersed into the fresh mortar/-
paste. The mixed mortars and paste was filled into the rheometer
vessel resting for five minutes prior to execute the two rheometer
tests (as indicated by Fig. 5).
Two different tests were sequentially conducted with the
rheometer for every mortar/paste and steel fiber aspect ratio (See
Fig. 5). Every test was repeated at least three times set up, the com-
puted mean are taken to be the representative value. The standard
deviation was taken, in every executed test as a value of experi-
mental uncertainty. The sampling rate to measure the induced tor-
que, by the rheometer probe, was set to 0.1 s. The first test is called
a stress growth test (SGT) and the second one a flow control test
(FCT). Five minutes of rest after mixing and two minutes between
Fig. 3. Particle size distribution (PSD) of sand aggregates used (cumulative finer the two rheological tests were always applied (Fig. 5 shows the
fraction). sequence).
The rheometer in the SGT mode operates with an angular speed
control, measuring the torque induced by the fresh mortar/paste
Table 3 (T ðxÞ) on the probe/fiber system from rest. Induced torque over
Quantitative mineralogical compo-
a defined angular speed profile is measured starting with a con-
sition of sand (wt%).
trolled signal of rotation speed of 1.5 rpm (0.025 rps) during 70 s
Mineralogical phase wt% (short period), measuring the change of the induced torque. Plot-
Quarz 98.3 ting the recorded torques from the SGT test vs time submitted to
Microcline 1.7 a rotational value, the maximum torque value can be taken as a
T ðosÞ (static yield torque), one of the three rheological parameters
Four fiber types were straight with aspect ratios ranging assessed in the present study. This yield torque is associated to a
between 40 to 65 and three fibers were hookend-end (DRAMIXÓ state before the fresh cementitious structure is broken down, so
3D series from BekaertTMCompany) with aspect ratios between T ðosÞ is the torque necessary to initiate flow, corresponding to a pre-
552 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562

Table 4
Table with mortar compositions used during rheological experiments. Three parameters considered here: cement/aggregates (c/a), w/c ratio and maximum aggregate size (Dmax ).
The rheological parameters T ðodÞ ; T ðodÞ and S are considered as reference values of the paste and mortars without fibers.

Composite Code c/a (%) w/c Dmax (mm) T ðodÞ Ref (Nmm) T ðosÞ Ref (Nmm) SRef (Nmmmin)
Paste 0 (0%) 0.45 0.063 7.990 8.778 0.139
MOR-12-2MM-050 1/2 (66%) 0.50 2.0 10.878 21.171 0.298
MOR-13-2MM-060 1/3 (75%) 0.60 2.0 11.730 22.320 0.268
MOR-12-1MM-050 1/2 (66%) 0.50 1.0 14.360 35.457 0.351
MOR-11-2MM-050 1/1 (50%) 0.50 2.0 5.170 10.220 0.110
MOR-12-05MM-070 1/2 (66%) 0.70 0.5 2.020 11.138 0.062

Table 5
Table with different steel fiber geometries used for the experiments (S - Straight and
H Hooked-End). d – Diameter of steel fiber in mm and ‘ is the length of steel fiber in
mm.

Fibers (Cod.) ‘ (mm) d (mm) ‘/d

1F50-09S 59.00 0.90 65.56
1F40-09S 35.21 0.70 50.30
1F30-09S 40.98 0.90 45.53
1F40-11S 37.26 0.90 41.40
1F60-09H 60.00 0.90 66.67
1F35-07H 51.38 0.90 57.09
1F50-11H 40.98 1.10 37.25

Fig. 6. Rheometer probe with a steel fiber mechanically fixed to the main axis.

vious well-connected undisturbed internal micro-structure [36]. In

Fig. 4. Seven steel fibers used in the tests. Codes are related with Table 5.
case of initially static fibers, this viscous torque T ðosÞ represents the
threshold to be overcome by an external torque to initiate rotation,
which is of interest to understand the fiber dynamics in aligning
processes.
The FCT test is also a angular speed-controlled test with a speed
profile defined as a sequence of constant angular speeds during a
fixed time interval, called patches: starting at 100 rpm during a
30 s interval, 90 rpm during five seconds, 80, 70 and so forth
decreasing until the test is stopped. A total of ten patches using
the same set of rotation speeds (xi ), per test. At every patch of con-
trolled speed the FCT test it takes the mean torque measurement
during an interval of five seconds, a set of T ðxi Þ values are
obtained. The FCT test give us a set of tuples is recorded

Fig. 5. Sequence of rheological tests executed per fiber and paste/mortar.

 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
(xi ; T ðxi Þ) as result, these values are represented as straight line
(following the Bingham law) using a previous least square approx-
imation, following Eq. (2) (One example can be seen in Fig. 7). All
the results from FCT experiments have a coefficient of determina-
tion R2 value with an average value of 0.97 and standard deviation
of 0.05, which is acceptable for a linear relationship, such as:
T ðxÞ ¼ T ðodÞ þ S x if T > T o
The relationship between the torque and angular velocity is
plotted and the intercept at zero-torque rate considered is the
dynamic yield torque T ðodÞ (Nmm), while the slope S (Nmmmin)
is the viscoplastic torque. Both are parameters corresponding to
Bingham’s yield stress and plastic viscosity. The yield torque mea-
sured through flow curve is regarded as the dynamic yield shear
stress T ðodÞ when shear rate is zero, so this is the minimum stress
to sustain or terminate the flow of the material. The established
relationship 2 quite is similar to expresión 1 (Bingham formula),
what other researchers already previously presented [6] & 31.
The torque needed to rotate the fiber is considered from its
edges to its center of gravity (CG), so the CG is the pivot point. Sta-
tic yield torque T ðosÞ is the macroscopic result of momentum of
inter-granular friction with the steel fiber during initial paste/mor-
tar shear, and must not be the value for the SGT and FCT tests.
Regarding viscoplastic torque S, this rheological value is considered
as the macroscopic effect of dynamic resistive torque caused onto
steel fiber by flow around, like water, passing through the contour
of the fiber [13].
A laminar flow regime around the steel fiber is considered,
because the computed Reynolds number is still low even at greater
angular velocities (100 rpm) in the rheological experiments [6]
§7.1. This situation permits to consider the drag proportional to
the velocity without turbulence around the system probe-fiber.
The cross-section geometry of blades are also streamlined enough
to avoid flow separation during the fluid rotation around the blade.
The insertion of fibers is orthogonal to the plane that contains the
blades, minimizing the possible interference between fiber and
blades.
2.3. Torque assessment for a single fiber
The dynamical yield torque (T ðodÞ ) and the viscoplastic torque of
a fiber from its center of gravity were determined for every batch
Fig. 7. Comparison between torque flow curves measured from reference probe,
and (taken as example) three fibers in MOR-11-2MM-050 mortar.
553
with the probe alone and with the probe and a fiber. As explained
before, T is related to the shear stress, s and S with the plastic vis-
cosity [6] as expressed in Bingham Eq. (2). The viscosity and the
dynamic yield stress are obtained for each mix with the ViskomatTM
NT probe. Considering these initial ideas, it is possible to affirm in
every rheological test that the viscous torque T can be breakdown
depending on their dynamical state in:
ð2Þ

A single fiber starting from a static position, or zero angular
velocity (x ¼ 0 rpm), immersed in pastes and mortars, must
overcome first the static yield torque given by T ðosÞ (Nmm), mea-
sured by the SGT rheological test.

A single fiber in rotation, from 0-100 r.p.m and immersed in
cementitious composites (paste and/or mortars) within
rheometer vessel has a viscous torque following Eq. (2). The
parameters values are given by: the viscoplastic torque S
(Nmmmin) and dynamic yield torque T ðodÞ (Nmm).
The values obtained of dynamical yield torque T ðodÞ , and the vis-
coplastic torque S contributions, due to only the fiber are the differ-
ence between T ðodÞ Ref and the SRef of the reference probe (without
fiber as included into Table 4) in each suspension and those
obtained with the reference probe with each fiber. The equation
obtained from the tests of a suspension with the is rheometer
probe as follows, according to Eq. (2) is:
T Ref ¼ T ðodÞ Ref þ SRef x if T Ref > T ðodÞ Ref ð3Þ
The values obtained from the FCT experiments, according to Eq.
2 consider the rheometer measurements with the probe and a fiber
together. The corresponding viscous torque due only the fiber (T f )
can be obtained as the difference between Eqs. (2) and (3). This dif-
ference can depicted algebraically as:
   
T f ¼ T ðodÞ  T ðodÞ Ref þ S  SRef x ð4Þ
where T f is the viscous torque contribution of one fiber due rotation
in alignment process. In Fig. 7 the aforementioned process can be
observed. Once the dynamical yield torque due a single fiber T ðodÞf
is understood as a difference between dynamical yield torques:
T ðodÞ  T ðodÞ Ref measured, and the viscoplastic S f as: S  SRef for each
fiber in the different suspensions are determined, dynamics of
rotation to align fiber can be formulated accordingly. Similarly,
using the differences between values obtained in the SGT rheologi-
cal test, in such way that contribution of fiber to static yield torque
ðsÞ
is just the difference between observed values of T Ref (probe with-
ðsÞ
out fiber attached) and T k (probe with fiber innmersed in a specific
mortar k).
As the different suspensions present a different viscosity and
dynamical and static yield stress, the effort of the same fiber in dif-
ferent suspensions can not be directly compared. Therefore, a lin-
eal factor is applied for every batch as the suspensions follow the
Bingham model, which attends to a lineal equation. To compare
the results recorded in FCT rheological experiments, a procedure
for data homogenization was established. Taking the FCT rheolog-
ical value of cement paste (without fiber) as a reference for T ðdÞ Paste
equals to 7.990 Nmm) and for SPaste the value of 0.139 Nmm min.
On the other hand, the five mortars has a dynamic yield torque rep-
resented as T ðodÞ k and a viscoplastic torque Sk , where k is an index
number from 1 to 5. A five adjustment constants fkT has been
defined for dynamic yield torques as a ratio T ðodÞ k =T ðdÞ Paste , and sim-
ilarly the adjustment ratio for viscoplastic fkS defined as a ratio
554 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
Sk =SPaste , where k is equal to 1,2,3,4,5 mortars included in Table 4.
The homogenized torques can be defined as:
Tb k ¼ fkT T k  T kref ð5Þ
bk
S ¼ fkS Sk  Skref ð6Þ
where T kref and Skref are the measured FCT torques without fiber per
every five mortars (k = 1,2,3,4,5) indicated in Table 4. Eqs. (5) and
(6) are used to homogenize the FCT recorded data from torques to
compare sand concentration and maximum particle size (Dmax )
effects. Therefore, the results obtained of induced fiber torques have
been analyzed and compared with mixtures with same viscosity
and shear stress.
3. Results
Three rheological factors were considered to be measured by
the experiments, two of them affecting the Bingham Eq. (2):
dynamical yield (T ðodÞ ) and viscoplastic torque (S), and the third is
the static yield torque T ðosÞ . The following figures show the torque
needed to rotate a steel fiber surrounded by the fresh cement
suspensions.
3.1. Static results
The stress growth test (SGT) is commonly implemented to mea-
sure static yield torques T ðesÞ [36], where a linearly increasing shear
stress due a rotating vessel at constant speed (x ¼ 1:5 rpm) was
applied, and the induced torque T ðxÞ on fiber is recorded. The dif-
ference between recorded torques, with and without attached fiber
to rheometer probe can be shown in Fig. 8, taken as an illustrative
example for a cement paste.
Two series of experiments using fibers types (straight and
hooked-end) attached to the rheometer probe were made using
the mortars and paste described in Table 4. Same experiments
without fiber, taken as reference value for static yield torque were
recorded in the Table 4 as a reference values for dynamic yield tor-
que T ðodÞ Ref (4th column), static yield torque T ðosÞ Ref (5th column) and
viscoplastic SRef the last one. The uncertainty due the experimental
SGT test procedure shows a dispersion greater in mortars than
paste, the signal obtained from probe was noisy, and an a suitable
Fig. 8. Plot of samples to compare the results recorded from SGT rheological test
between measurements with fiber (1F40-11S) and without.
data processing algorithm was used to filter the noise in measured
torque signals prior to take the maximum value. The algorithm
called Tikhonov-Phillips regularization was applied to SGT recorded
torques with a standard prior deviation of 0.1 Nmm for pastes and
0.16 Nmm for mortars.
The Fig. 9a shows the recorded static yield torque versus the
fiber aspect ratio for the straight fibers. It is possible to observe a
transition of static yield torque up to 42 fiber aspect ratio. The
Fig. 9b shows the static yield torque versus the fiber aspect ratio
for the hooked-end fibers. The straight fibers have greater values
of T ðosÞ than hooked-end reaching a difference mean value of 5
Nmm approximately between both.
3.2. Dynamic: viscoplastic results
Viscoplastic torques S (Nmmmin) for steel fibers within a
range of angular rotations x between 0 and 100 rpm are depicted
considering all the tested paste/mortar and can be seen as a set of
plots in Fig. 10a (straight fibers) and b (hooked-end). These results
are given by fiber aspect ratio and the viscoplastic in rheometer
units (Nmm min) for both type of fibers. Measured mean error
due dispersion of experimental data falls in 0:01 Nmm min in
case of straight fibers, while the measured dispersion in case of
hooked-end fibers give a 0:016 Nmm min.
Viscoplastic torque values are increasing aspect ratio from 37 to
47 fiber as pointed [28], but up to that point the values remain con-
stant. Therefore, it can be observed that viscoplastic torque S
needed to rotate a steel fiber, has approximately the same value
when the aspect ratio ‘=d is 37 or 57, at both extremes of the curve
here shown. Using the difference between measured torques with-
out fiber and the same with fiber in rheometer probe can be seen:
all the values of viscoplastic torque for one fiber are in the domain
range of 0.02–0.15 Nmmmin. The curves plotted in Fig. 10a, about
the viscoplastic torque S studied with straight fibers, shown com-
parable trends when the aspect ratios were higher than 50, but not
lower than it.
In Fig. 11, the effect caused by the concentration of sand aggre-
gates, for straight fiber is shown. Curves in this Fig. 11 represent
the homogenized viscoplastic torque for every straight fiber type
considered in Table 5. The curves in this figure present seems to
show an initial plateau at low sand concentrations (0.0–0.4), and
a progressive decrease of the viscoplastic torque needed for rotat-
ing the fiber at the increasing aggregate concentration. However,
although fiber 1F40-09S(50.3) shows a decrease of S as the other
fibers, the trend is different as it is more continuous. Nevertheless
the range between 0% and 50% can be object of further experimen-
tation to determine the fiber behavior more precisely. It should be
mentioned that the lower the aspect ratio of fiber the lower the
viscoplastic torque necessary for the fiber to initiate rotation
(Fig. 11). Comparing 1F40-11S(41.4) and 1F40-09S(50.3) in
Fig. 11 (both with 40 mm length), it can be noticed that the first
with 1.1 mm diameter can rotate more easily than the latter with
0.9 mm diameter.
The set of plots presented in Fig. 11 seems to have constant
slope in all the fibers aspect ratios at low sand concentration, but
it is necessary to determine values near to the 0.2 sand ratio in
future experiments. It can be observed that viscoplastic torque
decreases when the fine aggregate concentration is more than
0.5 ratio. Fiber rotates more easily in concentrated cementitious
composites when aggregates are 50% of the volume fraction.
Regarding to Fig. 12, the evaluation of S for hooked-end fibers in
relation with the aggregate concentration has been studied. As in
Fig. 11, hooked-end fibers seems also to have a similar plateau
response in the viscoplastic torque diagram (See Fig. 12) consider-
ing constant value at low aggregate concentration below to 0.5
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562 555

Fig. 9. Measured static yield torques T ðosÞ from the SGT rheological test according with two different type of fibers.

Fig. 10. Measured viscoplastic torque S versus steel fiber aspect ratio, from the FCT rheological test according with two different type of fibers.

Fig. 11. Homogenized viscoplastic torque b

S versus sand concentration. Considering Fig. 12. Homogenized viscoplastic torque b
S versus sand concentration. Considering
only straight fibers. only hooked-end fibers.
556 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
ratio cement/aggregate. Similar viscoplastic torque behaviour with
hooked-end fibers can be noticed showing a general tendency to
decrease the viscoplastic torque over the 0.5 ratio cement/aggre-
gate. It can be observed a different trend in the homogenized vis-
coplastic torque when 1F50-11H fiber is tested. At sand ratios
over 0.6, the values are quite similar for all hooked-end fibers
studied.
On other hand, the variation of viscoplastic torque S for straight
fibers depending on the maximum aggregate size is shown in
Fig. 13. The lower values obtained can be observed when the max-
imum aggregate size is 0.5 mm. However, higher values are pre-
sented with lower and higher grain sizes than 0.5 mm. The
higher viscoplastic torques were observed in straight fibers
immersed in mixtures with lower grain size than 0.5 mm, except
for 1F40-11S(41.4), which presents a different trend. When aggre-
gate diameter increased up to 0.5 mm the viscoplatic torque to
rotate a straight fiber increased also, except for 1F40-11S(41.4).
Considering the maximum size aggregate of the cement-based
composite mixture with hooked-end fibers Fig. 14 is plotted. Sim-
ilar increasing tendency of viscoplastic torque is observed in vis-
coplastic torque Figs. (13 and 14) for both types of fibers.
However, the hooked-end fibers show higher S maximum values
to rotate at 0.12 Nmmmin.
3.3. Dynamic: yield results
Considering dynamic yield torque (T ðodÞ ) values, obtained
through FCT tests, a set of plots is presented. Computed mean error
due dispersion measurement of experimental data falls in 0.2
Nmm considering the case of straight fibers, while the computed
dispersion in case of hooked-end fibers give a 0.3 Nmm.
The static yield torque T ðosÞ is expected to be higher than
dynamic yield stress T ðodÞ considering the corresponding internal
structural states of fresh paste/mortars [39]. The values T ðodÞ versus
fiber aspect ratio (‘=d) for straight fibers is represented in the
Fig. 15a. This figure reveals a peak value close to an aspect ratio
of 50. Viscoplastic torque S shown in Fig. 10a seems to have a sim-
ilar qualitative behaviour than dynamic yield torque (T ðodÞ ) at this
aspect ratio of 50, showing a change of tendency close to this value.
Values of dynamic yield torque T ðodÞ for a hooked-end fibers
shown in Fig. 10b are in the domain range of 1 to 15 Nmm, except
Fig. 13. Homogenized viscoplastic torque b
S versus maximum particle size (Dmax ).
Considering only straight fibers.
Fig. 14. Homogenized viscoplastic torque b
S versus maximum particle size (Dmax ).
Considering only hooked-end fibers.
for mortar 1/2 and maximum aggregate diameter 1 mm. The trends
are similar also for every mixture studied, although mortar1/2D 1
mm presents different behaviour depending of the aspect ratio of
the fiber studied.
The dynamic yield torque measurements obtained for straight
fibers versus the aggregate concentration are represented in
Fig. 16. All straight fibers seems to have same shape (inverted
bathtub), with exception for fiber code 1F40-09S (aspect ratio
50.3).
The dynamic yield torque (T ðodÞ ) needed to stop turning a single
fibre seems to be constant for aggregate concentrations within a
range 0.2 to 0.5 ratios, as shown before for cementitious pastes
under dynamic conditions (viscoplastic torque). Fig. 16 shows also
a descent of dynamic yield torque value at values larger than 0.5
ratio of sand concentration where a maximum T o is observed.
It has been also observed that the fiber with higher diameter
start rotating easily, confirming the asseveration commented
before: the lower the aspect ratio the lower the torque required
for stop rotating a single straight fiber. For a given aspect ratio
and fiber volume concentration, an increase in diameter means
the increase in fiber length and hence subsequent the increase in
effective mechanical interlocking. Some authors, like Laskar and
Talukdar [29] point a range between 50 and 100 of aspect ratio
to be affected the rheological behaviour of mortars and pastes.
Using dynamic yield torque measurements obtained for
hooked-end fiber at different sand concentrations, the Fig. 17 is
plotted. This Figure shows different behaviours of dynamical yield
torque T ðodÞ have been observed. However, yield torque what seems
to increase when the aggregate concentration is increased. At 0.7
ratio of sand concentration seems to decrease quickly. The fiber
with the lower aspect ratio present the lower yield torque values.
Nowadays in Fig. 18 the T ðodÞ variation for straight fibers with the
maximum grain size of the cementitious composites has been
shown. Yield torque of straight fibers has a maximum value
between 0.3 and 0.35 ratio of sand concentration, this effect does
not appears in Fig. 17 for hooked-end fibers. In both cases, the yield
torque T ðodÞ necessary to stop rotating the hooked-end, and straight
fibers, seems to increase more pronounced with sand concentra-
tion, but this increase is greater with long fibers (up to 50 aspect
ratio) than with shorter ones.
The dynamic yield torque increases with the maximum size of
the aggregates (Dmax ). However, the value of T ðodÞ is nearly constant
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
Fig. 15. Measured dynamic yield torque T ðodÞ versus fiber aspect ratio from the FCT rheological test according with two different type of fibers.
Fig. 16. Homogenized dynamic yield torque T b ðodÞ versus sand concentration.
Considering only the straight fibers. Viscoplastic torque S can be seen in Fig. 11.
for mixtures with an aggregate maximum size under 0.5 mm. The
increase of maximum aggregate size from 1 mm to 2 mm in
cement-based composites also increased T ðodÞ ,
but pronounced than
from 0.5 mm to 1 mm.
Fig. 19 considers the maximum grain size (Dmax ) for hooked-end
fibers. This figure is quite similar to the equivalent for straight
fibers (See Fig. 18).
4. Analysis & discussion
The static yield torque is expected to be higher than dynamic
yield torque, as other authors pointed [36]. Hence the results
shown agree on this inequality:T ðosÞ > T ðodÞ , in the case of paste and
mortars analyzed here. The values per fiber type are always higher
in Fig. 9a for static yield stresses compared with the dynamic tor-
ques represented in Fig. 15a, same result can be observed in
Figs. 9b and 15b. In terms of fiber alignment, that means one fiber
need more external torque to overcome the static yield torque than
to maintain rotating a certain speed. It can be also observed this
557
b ðodÞ versus sand concentration.
Fig. 17. Homogenized dynamic yield torque T
Considering only hooked-end fibers.
inequality in the 5th and 6th columns of Table 4 measurements of
reference probe without fiber.
Regarding the different values found of static/dynamic yield
torque in Fig. 9a and b (static yield torque) and Fig. 15a and b
(dynamic yield torque), can be seen the influence of particle size
distribution (PSD) of aggregates (showed in Fig. 3) on rheological
properties, pointed also by other authors like Bentz et al. [9].
The fiber geometry has a strong effect on the viscoplastic torque
response as expected [7]. Straight fibers (cylindrical geometry)
have a more linear behaviour against sand concentration than
hooked-end. However, when the maximum size particle is consid-
ered the geometry seems to be not so relevant because the beha-
viour to rotate is similar attending Figs. 13 and 14.
It has been also noticed that hooked fibers increase dynamical
yield torque values when the aspect ratio is reduced (ranging
between 40 and 45). This behaviour differs from that pointed out
for straight fibers, because of the differences in fiber geometry.
Hooked-end geometry of fibers can increase the area or volume
of fluid that the fiber has to slice when it rotates. This fact is
558 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
b ðodÞ versus maximum grain size in mm.
Fig. 18. Homogenized dynamic yield torque T
Considering only straight fibers.
Fig. 19. Homogenized dynamic yield torque T b o versus maximum grain size
ðdÞ
expressed in mm. Considering only hooked-end fibers.
interesting because the amount of oriented fibers can be lower
when hooked-end fibers are used instead of straight ones. To avoid
this, FRCC with lower shear stress and lower viscosity must be
designed when hooked-end fibers are used [34,26].
It can be concluded that the geometry clearly modifies the flow
around the fiber in the fresh cement mass. This fact requires a dif-
ferent model of stress distribution in the fiber depending on the
geometry. A research considering different geometries immersed
into viscoplastic fluids is reported [4]. It is known from the litera-
ture that yield stress of a mixture is increased with the increase of
the solid concentration [9] or when the sand is finer [6], although
the fibers have presented a lower torque to rotate or the values
were quite similar. If we observe from the results those mortars
with bigger Dmax of aggregate, the yield torque both static and
dynamic, and S are lower according to literature. For instance,
MOR-12-2MM-050 and MOR-12-1MM-0.50 with same w/c ratio,
present a 25% reduction of T ðosÞ , a 41% reduction in T ðdÞo and a 15%
of S when the Dmax passes from 1 mm to 2 mm. Although the
amount of mixtures here studied is wide and their behaviours cor-
responded to others from the literature, a study with different
cements or type of aggregates can be also developed to increase
the knowledge of the design parameters of a cementitious compos-
ite reinforced with fibers to be align.
However, it has been observed in other research, that plastic
viscosity of cement based suspension increases with the volume
fraction of inclusions [30]. In the present case, the fiber torque val-
ues were obtained in mixtures with same viscosity and shear
stress, indicating that higher inclusion of rigid aggregates facili-
tates the alignment. In other words, the cement paste volume hin-
ders the fiber alignment.
Moreover, the volume of cement paste in a mixture must be
studied as a parameter in terms of mixture design, to increase fiber
alignment. Concrete with a higher cementitious paste content,
such SCC, may need a lower viscosity to achieve same fiber orien-
tation than other with higher aggregate volume fraction. In the
Fig. 13 it can be also observed that the torque necessary to rotate
dynamically the fiber S in cementitious composites is lower in
those batches containing larger aggregates than cement pastes
[22]. The S and T ðodÞ values are modified with the Dmax of cement-
based composite. However, the results are promising for fiber ori-
entation through magnetic fields or casting methods for concrete,
as the maximum aggregate size (Dmax ) is around 8 mm even in
SCC with a low T ðosÞ , although more test must be done. On the other
hand, conventional concrete with higher Dmax , but also higher vis-
cosity will decrease the possibilities of fiber alignment.
Viscoplastic torque can be considered as a macroscopic drag
causing on fiber rotation due to the friction between small particles
assembling in cement-based suspension that contains more inter-
particle contacts than a large particle packing. Thus, the friction
generated is higher, for a given maximum packing fraction (MPF)
[30]. In order to predict the viscoplastic torque of fresh concrete,
it’s necessary to add the contributions of the various grain frac-
tions, which depend on their partial compaction index, weighed
by a coefficient [30,13]. This drag torque increases when the parti-
cle size decreases as in Figs. 13 and 14.
The behaviour shown in paste, with the lowest Dmax in Fig. 13
can be considered as a granular suspension in which small sand
grains assemblies result in more inter-particle contacts than large
particles packing. This situation can increase the opposite torque
needed to rotate the fiber, as can be contrasted also in Fig. 14.
Taking into account the results shown in the Figs. 13 and 14, it
can observed that incorporated sand to the composite reduces the
torque in a first moment with Dmax 0.5 mm. However, this beha-
viour varies with other volumetric fractions as can be observed.
The packing fraction obtained with several sizes is higher than
with two sizes of aggregate, and the S also increases again [43].
The mortar with cement and sand, up to Dmax 0.5 mm which are
besides of very different are mixtures where there is clearly a
domaining fraction [6,34].
The parameters regarding cementitious mixture rheology, like
yield torque seems to correlate with packing density. The packing
density is increased with the maximum size of the aggregate and
with the concentration or volume fraction of aggregates [12]. The
cementitious mixtures studied, pastes and mortars, can be viewed
as a dry packing of aggregate particles, filled up with cement paste.
Increasing the packing density reduces the ability to move initially
the fiber, which leaves more initial resistance torque needed to
rotate the fiber.
The increase of the packing density of the mixtures increase the
torque necessary to align the fibers, as the strength of flocculated
network is increased with the number of particles in contact
[25,35]. As packing fraction is increased, when finer fractions are
used, the yield torque and the viscoplastic are also increased, and
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
hence it is also higher the torque necessary to align successfully
the fiber. The finer aggregates also are able to pack densely the
fiber whereas the larger aggregates disturb this packing. We can
observe from the results, that MOR-12-2MM-050 and MOR-12-
1MM-050 with same w/c ratio and sand concentration but lower
Dmax . Shows this behavior, in Table 4 yield torque and viscoplastic
of the mixture from Fig. 15a and b, where it can observed the plot
of MOR-12-2MM-050 located under of MOR-12-1MM-050 with
lower T ðodÞ f and Sf . The volume of fibers reduces the packing density
of a fiber reinforced composite [35,25] as it disturbs the granular
skeleton, although this could not be studied in this work it could
be a topic for further research of fiber alignment.
Dynamic yield torque (T ðodÞ ) needed to rotate a fiber is decreased
with aggregate concentration, as shown with the same fibers under
dynamic load (Fig. 11). This Figure shows how an increment of the
torque happens from 0 to 0.5 mm of Dmax .
Although an increase of fiber aspect ratio increases the torque
necessary for fiber rotation, a change it has been observed in trend
when ‘=d ratio was higher than 45. This behaviour can be
explained because some elastic deformation causes a flexion of
the fiber. The fiber inserted perpendicular to the probe could
absorb some strain energy due to elastic bending deformation. This
effect can be seen amplified into yield torque figures (like Fig. 15a)
because this elastic deformation could be performed firstly during
the initial yield stages and increasing later the torque to initiate the
induced rotation.
Fiber alignment in FRC can be obtained in different ways, and to
reach it each fiber must shear the fresh mass where it is immersed.
This shear generates also a load causing the fiber to bend. From the
STG and FCT tests, the torque necessary to rotate a fiber have been
obtained, which is the total momentum of the load caused during
shearing. To understand the load chart along the fiber several facts
have to be considered, and discussed as follows.
A steel fiber during rotation x has a different linear speed v(x)
along its own length ‘ according to equation v ðxÞ ¼ x  x. Where x
is the rotational speed, v is the linear speed from x = 0 to ‘/2, the
fiber outermost extreme. This rotation generates a different shear
load in each section of the fiber, from the V = 0 in the rotation axis
(in the center of mass or centroid of the fiber) to maximum speed
in its edge.
Moreover, this stress chart along the fiber can be modified
depending on thixotropy. During a FCT test with a rotational
rheometer, the microstructure of particle-particle network is
affected [36]. When this happens T ðosÞ is reduced, coming into what
Fig. 20. Angular speed vs. linear speed in a fiber during alignment.
559
is known as T ðodÞ [36], hence is also the stress of the fiber during
rotation, as shown in the Fig. 21.
This rheological behaviour of the fresh mass can show several
load patterns that can be different depending on the angular veloc-
ity of the fiber during rotation, which are drawn in Fig. 21. When a
static fiber initiates the rotation, it must overcome the T ðosÞ consid-
ering velocities near to zero, and as its velocity is increased from
the axis to the outermost edge (plot 1 in the Fig. 21)). Viscosity
increases the load due to shearing with the velocity, and according
to this the stress of the fiber will be increased along its length, from
its centroid to the edge.
On the other hand, when the fiber is rotating, is possible
observe in plot 2 in Fig. 21, that in the axis the torque is T ðodÞ due
to thixotropy and is increased with rotation velocity due to S along
its length. At very low velocity, the fresh cementitious composite
can recover the initial network and the values can be next to T ðosÞ
[36]. Along the fiber the linear speed is increased, and the values
can be reduced near T ðodÞ . When the speed is even fastest,
approaching to the edge, the mass presents a stress to overcome
T ðodÞ þ Sðv =xÞ. (plot 3 in the figure) Therefore, when a fiber rotates
from static (for instance: magnetic torque) the load due to shearing
is the highest as the fiber has to overcome T ðosÞ and S  x in each sec-
tion of the fiber. On the other, the torque necessary to rotate a fiber
has been obtained in this study with the rheometer. This is the
maximum moment according to the situations of load during rota-
tion. The fibers here used have circular sections, and the diameter
have been measured. Using the torque obtained from the tests we
can determine the deflection distance d of the fiber as it can be con-
sidered as a cantilever beam according to the Euler-Bernoulli beam
theory:
Z ‘=2
Tf
d¼  x dx ð7Þ
0 E Iz
Where T f is the torque obtained in the rheological test, E is the elas-
tic modulus of the fiber, Iz is the moment of inertia of the steel fiber.
The expression T f x dx can be obtained from the moment diagram
(Fig. 22), although the centroid of the load plotted in the diagram
can be displaced as shown in the figure, depending on the speed
and thixotropy of the mixture.
Fig. 21. Load diagram in a fiber depending on rheological properties of the mixture.
560 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562

Fig. 22. Moment diagram (first grade) and deflection of the fiber.

In order to discuss the behavior of the fiber during rotation, the

deflections (mm) of the fibers from the axis to the edge during
rotation in cement mixture MOR-11-2MM-050 (See Table 4) have
been summarized. This mixture has been selected as it shows
f f
higher values of T and S considering the load of a fiber from sta-
tic, corresponding to plot 1 from Fig. 21. The calculations have fol-
lowed the previously shown equations considering the fiber as a
beam.
It can be observed from the results shown in Table 6 that some
fibers can have a maximum deflection that can modify also the
load chart estimated. As a high fraction of the span can be
observed, over 1/5 in some cases, this deflection in many cases
can produce second grade efforts and even larger deformations.
All these results shown a higher energy absorption in the fiber
when is deflected. (Fig. 23)) This point is important because it indi-
cates that those fibers, which are able to keep a relation of defor-
mation according to elastic behavior the values, are predictable.
However up to this point, those fibers with lengths that allow them
to deflect extremely, can reduce the torque necessary as shown in
fiber 1F50-09S.
This change of trend can been observed in Fig. 15, where over
the value of aspect ratio 50 the fibers reduce their torque. This
behavior can be only explained according to the aforementioned,
as if we compare the fibers 1F50-09S and 1F40-09S with same
diameter, shape but different length, the shorter has higher deflec-
tion under same load conditions, 4.40 mm and 3.32 mm respec-
tively (Table 6). The deflection for a cantilever beam with
constant load along its length view can be simplified as:
q ‘4
d¼
8 E Iz
Fig. 23. Moment diagram (second grade) and deflection of the fiber.
Where d is the deflection in the edge, q is the load due to shear
according Fig. 20, ‘ is the length of the fiber, E is the elastic modulus,
and Iz is the inertia of steel fibers. Considering fibers mentioned
above, the only factor changing is the length, but according to this
the deflection should increase. If the torque is reduced it can be
caused to a higher deflection that reduce the load on the fiber,
which under high deformations reduces the area of shearing. The
shortest fibers and with highest diameters and indeed highest iner-
tia moment, are more rigid and they are submitted to less deforma-
tion when shearing the fresh suspension. Hence, they rotate more
effectively and the process to align them is easier, especially when
the T ðosÞ and S of the composite is higher. However, longer fibers, if
are flexible,can also reduce their torque to be aligned when they
overdue a certain aspect ratio. Although this geometric ratio has
not been determined here it can be studied.
The elastic deformation of steel fibers, and their effect into the
yield torque and viscoplastic torque will be developed in further
studies and tests. The study be can also be extended to other steel
fiber geometries like crimped fibers [40]. Moreover, statistical
studies of fiber alignment of reinforcing concrete and mortar with
fibers should be developed. Fiber elastic deformation facilitates the
alignment, even thought the fibers here tested are made of steel
and considered rigid. As the fiber is deformed during the yield
stage, the friction load is not perpendicular to the fiber axis and
the fiber rotates with less resistance. Moreover, the area or volume
ð8Þ of fresh cement-based composite to move is lower. This means that

Table 6
Table of computed fiber deflections d (mm).

Deflection d (mm) Fiber x ¼ 0 rpm x ¼ 20 rpm x ¼ 40 rpm x ¼ 60 rpm x ¼ 80 rpm x ¼ 100 rpm
1F50-09S 1.32 1.72 2.12 2.52 2.92 3.32
1F40-09S 2.00 2.48 2.96 3.44 3.92 4.40
1F30-09S 0.74 0.94 1.14 1.34 1.54 1.74
1F40-11S 0.58 0.73 0.87 1.02 1.17 1.31
1F60-09H 1.48 1.86 2.24 2.61 2.99 3.37
1F35-07H 1.08 1.38 1.67 1.97 2.26 2.56
1F50-11H 0.42 0.50 0.58 0.67 0.75 0.83
 V.P. Villar et al. / Construction and Building Materials 207 (2019) 548–562
longer and more deformable fibres need a smaller torque to rotate,
even when the shear area is larger.
5. Conclusion
The induced torque applied to a steel fiber immersed into a con-
trolled rotating fresh cement-water-aggregate system was mea-
sured. The Bingham equivalence parameter: yield torque T ðodÞ and
viscoplastic torque S together with the static yiel torque T so were
determined in this study, some conclusions were stated according
to bilinear Bingham expression when a single steel fiber is used
attached to the rotational rheometer. Significant variations and
parameters into the torque needed to rotate a steel fiber have been
assessed considering only the geometry of the steel fiber: aspect
ratio and shape (hooked-end and straight). The following conclu-
sions can be drawn:
The geometry of a fiber has a strong effect on the rotational vis-
coplastic torque response, and straight fibers (cylindrical geome-
try) have a more lineal behaviour against sand concentration
than hooked-end fibers and they rotate more easily. Hooked-end
fibers need up two times to obtain a higher torque to rotate than
straight fibers. The values depend on the cement-based mixture.
This fact highlights the different rheology parameters and align-
ment of FRCC.
A range of steel fiber aspect ratios (30–70) reveals different
behaviours in the torque response considering different ratios
aggregate/cement. Some exposed results reveals a steel fiber elas-
tic deformation over 45 aspect ratio for some aggregate concentra-
tion. This elastic deformation facilitates the alignment of the fibers,
with a reduction of torque value needed to rotate them. The use of
this rheological parameters exposed here as results, considering
one fiber alignment, will address the future uses of precise studies
of concrete simulation flows using the complete Bingham constitu-
tive model considering both parameters (T ðodÞ and S) as input.
Moreover, the cement-based design parameters also affect the
fiber alignment process. Both the Dmax and the aggregate volume
fraction modify the fiber torque and hence the fiber alignment.
The S and T ðodÞ are modified with the Dmax . of the cement-based
composite for the same rheological parameters. Particles under
0.063 mm can reduce fiber alignment. Dmax over 2 mm also
increases the torque to rotate a fiber. On the other hand, higher
aggregate volume fractions decrease the torque necessary for fiber
rotation because the fraction of cement paste and fine particles
under 0.063 mm is decreased. The cement paste volume hinders
the fiber alignment.
Mixtures with higher packing fraction increase the torque nec-
essary to align successfully the fiber, as fine aggregates increase the
area of contact with the fiber.
Future research and considerations can be include focusing on
steel fiber geometry and yield and viscoplastic behaviour associate
with this characteristic. Regarding the elastic deformation of steel
fibers under a induced torque gradient considering fresh concrete,
some additional research can also consider larger fiber aspect
ratios to the already studied interval to be compared.
Special acknowledgment, appreciation and recognition to the
IETcc-CSIC collaboration using the ViskomatTM NT rheometer within
the framework of the Excellence Project MINECO BIA2013-47876-C2-
1P. The authors want also acknowledge the laboratory of Materials
of Architecture, Universidad Poiltécnica de Madrid.
Conflic of interest
None.
561
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