Theories and politics of devt

1. Basic Concept of development

Development refers to the process of positive change and growth that occurs in various aspects of
human life, societies, and economies over time. It involves improvements in living conditions, well-
being, and opportunities for individuals and communities.

In a broader sense, development encompasses social, economic, political, cultural, and

environmental dimensions. It aims to enhance the quality of life, reduce poverty, promote equality,
and ensure sustainable progress.

Development can be understood from different perspectives:

Economic Development: This focuses on increasing the production and distribution of goods and
services, improving infrastructure, and raising living standards. It involves factors such as economic
growth, industrialization, trade, investment, and employment generation.

Social Development: This emphasizes the well-being and empowerment of individuals and
communities. It includes aspects such as education, healthcare, social justice, gender equality,
human rights, and social inclusion.

Human Development: This approach, popularized by the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), emphasizes the expansion of people’s capabilities and freedoms. It considers factors such as
education, health, income, access to resources, and political participation.

Sustainable Development: This concept recognizes the interdependence of economic, social, and
environmental aspects of development. It aims to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves balancing
economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.

Overall, the concept of development is multifaceted and varies across different contexts and
perspectives. It seeks to improve the well-being and opportunities of individuals and societies, while
also considering long-term sustainability and equity.

1.1 Definition and meaning of development

Development can be defined as a process of positive change and growth that occurs in various
aspects of human life, societies, and economies over time. It involves improvements in living
conditions, well-being, and opportunities for individuals and communities.

The meaning of development goes beyond mere economic growth. It encompasses social, economic,
political, cultural, and environmental dimensions. It aims to enhance the quality of life, reduce
poverty, promote equality, and ensure sustainable progress.

Development can be understood from different perspectives:

Economic Development: This perspective focuses on increasing the production and distribution of
goods and services, improving infrastructure, and raising living standards. It involves factors such as
economic growth, industrialization, trade, investment, and employment generation.
Social Development: This perspective emphasizes the well-being and empowerment of individuals
and communities. It includes aspects such as education, healthcare, social justice, gender equality,
human rights, and social inclusion.

Human Development: This perspective, popularized by the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP), emphasizes the expansion of people's capabilities and freedoms. It considers factors such as
education, health, income, access to resources, and political participation.

Sustainable Development: This perspective recognizes the interdependence of economic, social, and
environmental aspects of development. It aims to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves balancing
economic growth with environmental protection and social equity.

In summary, development refers to a process of positive change and growth that encompasses
various dimensions of human life and society. It seeks to improve living conditions, well-being, and
opportunities while considering long-term sustainability and equity.

1.2 Core values of development

Apologies for the repetition. Here are the core values of development:

Human Dignity: Development should uphold and respect the inherent worth and dignity of every
individual. It recognizes that all people have the right to live a life of dignity, free from poverty,
discrimination, and oppression.Equity and Social Justice: Development should strive for fairness and
equality, ensuring that all individuals have equal opportunities and access to resources, services, and
opportunities. It seeks to address social and economic disparities and promote social justice.

Sustainability: Development should be sustainable, meeting the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves
responsible management of natural resources, environmental protection, and the promotion of
sustainable practices.

Participation and Empowerment: Development should involve the active participation and
empowerment of individuals and communities. It recognizes the importance of inclusive decision-
making processes, meaningful participation, and the empowerment of marginalized groups.

Human Rights: Development should promote and protect human rights, including civil, political,
economic, social, and cultural rights. It recognizes that human rights are essential for the well-being
and dignity of individuals and communities.

Solidarity and Cooperation: Development should foster solidarity and cooperation among nations,
communities, and individuals. It recognizes the interconnectedness of global challenges and the need
for collective action to address them.

Accountability and Transparency: Development should be accountable to its beneficiaries and

stakeholders. It involves transparent governance, responsible use of resources, and mechanisms for
monitoring and evaluation to ensure effectiveness and accountability.

These core values provide a framework for development efforts that prioritize the well-being, rights,
and dignity of individuals and communities, while also considering long-term sustainability and social
justice.
 1.3 Objectives of development

The objectives of development are the specific goals and targets that guide development efforts.
These objectives vary depending on the context, priorities, and challenges faced by different
countries and communities. However, some common objectives of development include:

Poverty Reduction: One of the primary objectives of development is to alleviate poverty and
improve the living conditions of the poor and vulnerable populations. This involves increasing income
levels, providing access to basic services, and creating opportunities for sustainable livelihoods.

Economic Growth and Employment: Development aims to promote economic growth and create
employment opportunities. It involves fostering a conducive business environment, promoting
entrepreneurship, attracting investments, and developing productive sectors of the economy.

Education and Skill Development: Development seeks to ensure access to quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities. It aims to improve literacy rates, enhance educational
infrastructure, and equip individuals with the necessary skills for employment and personal
development.

Health and Well-being: Development aims to improve health outcomes and ensure access to quality
healthcare services. It involves reducing mortality rates, combating diseases, improving sanitation
and hygiene, and promoting healthy lifestyles.

Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment: Development strives to achieve gender equality and
empower women. It involves promoting equal rights and opportunities for women, addressing
gender-based discrimination and violence, and ensuring women's participation in decision-making
processes.

Environmental Sustainability: Development aims to protect and sustainably manage natural

resources and ecosystems. It involves mitigating climate change, promoting renewable energy,
conserving biodiversity, and adopting sustainable practices in agriculture, industry, and urban
development.

Social Inclusion and Equity: Development seeks to promote social inclusion and reduce inequalities.
It involves addressing discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, disability, and other factors,
and ensuring equal access to resources, services, and opportunities for all.

Good Governance and Institutional Development: Development aims to strengthen governance

systems, promote transparency, accountability, and the rule of law. It involves building effective and
inclusive institutions, combating corruption, and ensuring the protection of human rights.

These objectives of development are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. They guide policies,
strategies, and actions to achieve sustainable and inclusive development that improves the well-
being and quality of life for all individuals and communities.

1.4 Measures of development

Measures of development are indicators that are used to assess the progress and level of
development of a country or community. These measures provide a quantitative and qualitative
assessment of various aspects of development, including economic, social, and environmental
dimensions. Some common measures of development include:
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): GDP is a measure of the total value of goods and services produced
within a country's borders over a specific period. It is a widely used measure of economic
development and is often used to compare the economic performance of different countries.

Human Development Index (HDI): HDI is a composite measure of development that takes into
account three dimensions of human development: health (measured by life expectancy at birth),
education (measured by years of schooling), and income (measured by GDP per capita). It provides a
more comprehensive assessment of development than GDP alone.

Poverty Measures: Poverty measures assess the extent and severity of poverty in a country or
community. They include measures such as the poverty rate, which is the percentage of the
population living below a certain income threshold, and the multidimensional poverty index, which
takes into account various dimensions of poverty, including health, education, and living standards.

Gender Development Index (GDI): GDI is a measure of gender-based inequalities in the same three
dimensions as the HDI. It provides a measure of gender disparities in health, education, and income.

Environmental Measures: Environmental measures assess the state of the environment and the
impact of development on natural resources and ecosystems. They include measures such as carbon
emissions, deforestation rates, and access to clean water and sanitation.

Social Development Measures: Social development measures assess the progress and level of
development in social dimensions such as health, education, and social inclusion. They include
measures such as infant mortality rates, literacy rates, and access to basic services such as healthcare
and education.

Governance Measures: Governance measures assess the quality of governance and the effectiveness
of institutions in promoting development. They include measures such as the rule of law, corruption
perception, and political stability.

These measures of development provide a comprehensive assessment of the progress and level of
development of a country or community. They help identify areas of strengths and weaknesses and
guide policies and strategies to promote sustainable and inclusive development.

Chapter two

2. Models and theories of development

There are various models and theories of development that have been proposed by scholars and
practitioners in the field. These models and theories provide frameworks for understanding the
processes, drivers, and challenges of development. Here are a few prominent ones:

Modernization Theory: Modernization theory emerged in the mid-20th century and posits that
societies progress through stages of development, moving from traditional to modern forms. It
emphasizes industrialization, urbanization, and technological advancement as key drivers of
development.

Dependency Theory: Dependency theory emerged as a critique of modernization theory. It argues

that underdeveloped countries are structurally dependent on developed countries, which exploit
their resources and perpetuate their underdevelopment. It emphasizes the need for economic and
political autonomy to achieve development.
Structuralist Theory: Structuralist theory focuses on the structural barriers and constraints that
hinder development. It highlights the importance of addressing issues such as unequal power
relations, economic imbalances, and social inequalities to achieve sustainable development.

Neoliberalism: Neoliberalism is an economic ideology that advocates for free markets, limited
government intervention, and privatization. It emphasizes the role of market forces in driving
economic growth and development.

Human Development Approach: The human development approach, as advocated by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP), emphasizes the centrality of human well-being and
capabilities in development. It focuses on expanding people’s choices, enhancing human capabilities,
and promoting social justice.

Sustainable Development: Sustainable development emphasizes the need to meet present needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It integrates
economic, social, and environmental dimensions of development and seeks to achieve a balance
between them.

Post-development Theory: Post-development theory challenges the dominant paradigms of

development and questions the Western-centric notions of progress and development. It emphasizes
the importance of local knowledge, cultural diversity, and alternative ways of thinking about
development.

These models and theories of development provide different perspectives and insights into the
complex nature of development. They help shape policies, strategies, and interventions aimed at
promoting sustainable and inclusive development. It is important to note that these theories are not
mutually exclusive and often overlap or evolve over time as new challenges and understandings
emerge.

2.1 Classical and Neo Classical theories

Classical and neoclassical theories are two major schools of thought in economics that have
significantly influenced the understanding of economic development. Here’s an overview of these
theories:

Classical Theory: The classical theory of economics emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries and was
primarily associated with economists such as Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Thomas Malthus. Key
features of classical theory include:

Free Market: Classical economists believed in the efficiency of free markets and the role of supply
and demand in determining prices and allocating resources.

Division of Labour: They emphasized the benefits of specialization and division of labor in increasing
productivity and economic growth.

Laissez-faire: Classical economists advocated for minimal government intervention in the economy,
arguing that markets would naturally self-regulate and lead to optimal outcomes.

Labor Theory of Value: They believed that the value of goods and services is determined by the
amount of labor required to produce them.

Say’s Law: Classical economists proposed that supply creates its own demand, suggesting that
production and income generation would automatically lead to sufficient demand in the economy.
Neoclassical Theory: Neoclassical economics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a
response to some perceived limitations of classical theory. Neoclassical economists, such as Alfred
Marshall and Leon Walras, introduced new concepts and methodologies. Key features of neoclassical
theory include:

Marginal Analysis: Neoclassical economists introduced the concept of marginal analysis, which
focuses on the incremental changes in costs and benefits associated with additional units of
production or consumption.

Utility Maximization: They emphasized the role of individual preferences and utility maximization in
decision-making, assuming that individuals seek to maximize their well-being or satisfaction.

Market Equilibrium: Neoclassical theory emphasizes the concept of market equilibrium, where
supply and demand intersect to determine prices and quantities.

Efficiency: Neoclassical economists emphasize the importance of allocative efficiency, where

resources are allocated in a way that maximizes overall social welfare.

Market Failures: While neoclassical theory generally supports free markets, it recognizes the
existence of market failures, such as externalities and imperfect information, which may require
government intervention.

Both classical and neoclassical theories have contributed significantly to the understanding of
economic development. Classical theory laid the foundation for the belief in free markets and limited
government intervention, while neoclassical theory introduced more sophisticated analytical tools
and recognized the need for addressing market failures. These theories continue to shape economic
policies and debates on development.

2.1.1 The modernization theory

The modernization theory is a sociological and economic theory that emerged in the mid-20 th
century. It seeks to explain the process of economic and social development in societies, particularly
in the context of developing countries. Here’s an overview of the modernization theory:

Background: The modernization theory gained prominence during the post-World War II era when
many countries were undergoing decolonization and seeking to achieve economic progress. It was
influenced by scholars such as Walt Rostow, Daniel Lerner, and David McClelland.

Key Assumptions: The modernization theory is based on several key assumptions

Linear Progression: It assumes that societies progress through a series of stages, moving from
traditional or underdeveloped states to modern and developed states. This progression is seen as a
natural and inevitable process.

Western Model: The theory posits that Western societies, particularly the United States, serve as
the model for development. It suggests that societies should adopt Western values, institutions, and
practices to achieve modernization.

Economic Growth: Economic growth is seen as a central goal of development. The theory
emphasizes industrialization, urbanization, and technological advancement as key drivers of
economic growth.
Social Change: Modernization is believed to bring about social change, including shifts in values,
attitudes, and social structures. Traditional norms and customs are expected to give way to modern
values and practices.

Modern Institutions: The theory emphasizes the importance of modern institutions such as
democracy, rule of law, education, and healthcare in facilitating development.

Path to Modernization: According to the modernization theory, societies can achieve modernization
by following a set of prescribed steps:

Capital Investment: The theory suggests that societies need to attract capital investment, both
domestic and foreign, to fund industrialization and infrastructure development.

Technological Transfer: Adopting and adapting advanced technologies from developed countries is
seen as crucial for economic progress.

Education and Human Capital: Developing a skilled and educated workforce is considered essential
for economic growth and social change.

Social and Cultural Change: The theory argues that societies need to undergo social and cultural
changes, including shifts in values, gender roles, and family structures, to align with modernization.

Criticism of the modernization theory has emerged over time. Some argue that it oversimplifies the
complex process of development, neglects the diversity of societies, and fails to account for the
negative consequences of modernization, such as environmental degradation and social inequality.
Nonetheless, the modernization theory has played a significant role in shaping development policies
and strategies in many countries.

2.1.2 international Modernization theory

I apologize for the confusion caused by my previous responses. While there is no specific theory
known as “International Modernization Theory,” there is is often discussed in the context of
international a related concept called “Dependency Theory” that development.

Dependency Theory emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a critical response to the traditional
Modernization Theory. It focuses on the relationship between developed and developing countries
and seeks to explain the persistent economic and social inequalities between them. Here’s an
overview of Dependency Theory:

Core-Periphery Model: Dependency Theory posits that the global economic system is characterized
by a division between the core and the periphery. The core countries, typically the developed
nations, dominate and exploit the periphery countries, which are usually developing nations. The
core countries control and benefit from the periphery’s resources, labor, and markets.

Unequal Exchange: Dependency Theory argues that there is an unequal exchange of resources and
wealth between the core and the periphery. Periphery countries often export primary commodities
at low prices, while importing manufactured goods from the core at higher prices. This perpetuates
the economic dependency of the periphery on the core.

Structural Constraints: The theory suggests that the global economic system imposes structural
constraints on periphery countries, hindering their development. These constraints include limited
access to capital, technology, and markets, as well as unfavorable trade policies and debt burdens
imposed by core countries and international institutions.
Role of Multinational Corporations: Dependency Theory emphasizes the role of multinational
corporations (MNCs) in perpetuating dependency. MNCs often exploit cheap labor and resources in
periphery countries, extracting wealth and contributing to the underdevelopment of these nations.

Self-Reliance and Alternative Development: Dependency Theory advocates for self-reliance and
alternative development strategies for periphery countries. It suggests that these countries should
reduce their dependency on the core by promoting domestic industries, strengthening local
economies, and pursuing policies that prioritize the needs and interests of their own populations.

Dependency Theory has been influential in highlighting the structural inequalities in the global
economic system and the challenges faced by developing countries. However, it has also faced
criticism for its deterministic view of development and its limited focus on other factors such as
governance, institutions, and cultural dynamics. Nonetheless, it has contributed to a more nuanced
understanding of the complexities of global development and the need to address power imbalances
between nations.

I apologize for any confusion caused by my previous responses, and I hope this clarification helps. If
you have any further questions, please let me know.

2.2.1 New growth theories

New growth theories are a set of economic theories that emerged in the 1980s and 1990s as a
response to the limitations of traditional neoclassical growth theory. These theories focus on the role
of innovation, technology, and human capital in driving economic growth.

One of the key insights of new growth theories is that knowledge and technology are not fixed
inputs, but rather endogenous variables that can be influenced by policy and investment. This means
that policies that promote innovation, education, and research and development can have a positive
impact on economic growth.

New growth theories also emphasize the importance of spillovers and externalities in the innovation
process. For example, the knowledge and skills of workers can spill over to other firms and industries,
leading to a virtuous cycle of innovation and growth.

Overall, new growth theories represent a shift away from the traditional focus on capital
accumulation and towards a more dynamic and knowledge-based view of economic growth.

2.2 The under development theories

The underdevelopment theories, also known as dependency theories, emerged in the mid-20 th
century as a critique of traditional development theories that focused on economic growth and
modernization. These theories seek to explain the persistent poverty and underdevelopment
experienced by many countries, particularly in the Global South.

Underdevelopment theories argue that the global economic system is characterized by a structural
imbalance that perpetuates the dependency of less developed countries on more developed ones.
They highlight the historical and ongoing exploitation of resources, labor, and markets by colonial
powers and multinational corporations.
According to underdevelopment theories, the underdevelopment of certain countries is not due to
internal factors or lack of effort, but rather a result of external factors such as unequal trade
relations, debt burdens, and technological dependence. They argue that the global capitalist system
perpetuates a cycle of dependency, where less developed countries are trapped in a state of
economic and political subordination.

These theories emphasize the importance of addressing structural inequalities and promoting
economic self-reliance in order to achieve sustainable development. They advocate for policies that
challenge the dominant economic order, such as import substitution industrialization, land reform,
and regional integration.

It is important to note that underdevelopment theories have been subject to criticism and debate.
Some argue that they oversimplify complex issues and neglect the agency and internal dynamics of
developing countries. Nonetheless, these theories have contributed to a broader understanding of
the challenges faced by underdeveloped nations and the need for more equitable global economic
relations.