AFFIXATION: PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

INTRODUCTION

PREFIXATION:

- Negative prefixes
- Privative prefixes
- Pejorative prefixes
- Prefixes of degree or size
- Prefixes of attitude
- Locative prefixes
- Prefixes of time and order
- Number prefixes

SUFFIXATION

- Noun suffixes:
- Occupational suffixes
- Diminutive and feminine suffixes
- Suffixes of status, domain, etc
- Other noun suffixes
- Noun/adjective suffixes
- De-verbal suffixes
- De-adjectival suffixes
- Verb suffixes
- Adjective suffixes
- Adverb suffixes

INTRODUCTION
Some morphemes like “boy”, “desire”, “gentle” and “man” can constitute words by
themselves. Other morphemes like “-ish”, “-able”, “-ness”, “-ly”, “dis-“, “trans-“ and “un-“
are never words but always parts of words.

The basic part of any word is the stem; to it, you can add a prefix at the beginning
and/or a suffix at the end to change the meaning. For example, in the word
"unflattering," the root is simply "flatter," while the prefix "un-" makes the word negative,
and the suffix "-ing" changes it from a verb into an adjective (specifically, a participle).

English itself does not use prefixes as heavily as it once did, but many English words
come from Latin, which uses prefixes and suffixes (you can use the word affix to refer
either to a prefix or a suffix) quite extensively. For example, the words "prefix," "suffix,"
and "affix" themselves are all formed from "fix" by the use of prefixes:
 "ad" (to) + "fix" (attached) = "affix"
 "pre" (before) + "fix" = "prefix"
 "sub" (under) + "fix" = "suffix"

Note that both the "-d" of "ad" and the "-b" of "sub" change the last letter.

PREFIXATION
A prefix is a verbal element placed before and joined to a word to stem to add or qualify
its meaning. The foreign and neoclassical influences have been so great on the English
language that the majority of the prefixes in the language are of Latin, Greek or French
origin (that is, of non-Germanic origin), with the exception of “a-“, “be-“, “fore-“, “mis-“
and “un-“.

English prefixes do not generally alter the word class of the base. Prefixes normally
have a light stress on their first (or only) syllable, the main stress of the word falling on
the base.

PREFIXES

A prefix is a word, or letter(s) placed at the beginning of another word (a base word) to
adjust or qualify its usage or meaning. The opposite of prefix is suffix. Most prefixes
come from Latin or Greek, but not all.

Different types of prefixes in English:

- Negative prefixes:

a) Un- (the opposite of, not): it is the commonest negative prefix in English. It is used with native English
words, especially adjectives, adverbs and –ed and –ing participles: UNWISE, UNKIND, UNHAPPY,
UNEXPECTED, UNWILLING

b) Non- (not): normally considered as derivable from clause-negations: NON-SMOKER. It is prefixed to

adjectives (NON-CONFORMIST, NON-EXISTENT), nouns of action (NON-POLITICIAN, NON-
AGGRESSION, NON-COMMITMENT), a verb-stem (NON-STOP)

c) In-, Il- (before /l/), Im- (before labials), Ir- (before /r/) (same as for un-). They are normally preferred to
un- in learned words of Latin or French origin, although their use has declined. They are added to
adjectives (INSANE, INAUDIBLE, INCREDIBLE, ILLEGAL, ILLOGICAL, ILLEGIBLE, IMPROPER,
IMPOLITE, IRRELEVANT, IRREAL, IRRELIGIOUS).

d) Dis- (same as for un-). This prefix negates the word to which it is prefixed. This word may be an
adjective (DISLOYAL, DISOBEDIENT), a verb (DISAGREE, DISOBEY), an abstract noun (DISFAVOUR,
DISHONOUR).
e) A(n)- (lacking in, lack of) denotes the mere absence of a quality and is mostly found in borrowed or
neoclassical words. It may be added to an adjective (AMORAL, ASEXUAL, AMORPHOUS) or to a noun
(ASYMMETRY, ATHEIST, ANARCHY)

- Privative prefixes:

a) Un-: when it is prefixed to a verb it denotes an “action contrary to or annulling that of the simple verb”. It
may be added to a verb (meaning “to reverse the action”), such as UNDO, UNBEND, UNDRESS; a noun
(meaning “to deprive of” or “to release from”), such as: UNHORSE, UNEARTH.

b) De- (/di:/, /di/) means “to remove”, “to get rid of”, “to undo”. It forms verbs from nouns: DECODE,
DEFROST… and from other verbs. DEHUMANIZE…

c) Dis- (as for un-) may also express deprivation or the reverse of an action when added to verbs
(DISCONNECT, DISINFECT), participles (DISHEARTEN, DISCOLOURED), nouns (DISCONTENT).

- Pejorative prefixes:

a) Mis- (badly, wrongly). Normally unstressed if next is stressed. It may be added to verbs
(MISCALCULATE, MISHEAR, MISFIRE), abstract nouns (MISCONDUCT, MISFORTUNE), participles
(MISLEADING)

b) Mal- (badly, bad). The second element is always a word of non-Germanic origin. It is chiefly added to
verbs (MALTREAT), adjectives (MALODOROUS), abstract nouns (MALFUNCTION, MALPRACTICE),
participles (MALFORMED).

c) Pseudo- (false, imitation). Added to nouns (PSEUDO-CHRISTIANITY, PSEUDO-CLASSICISM),

adjectives/nouns (PSEUDO-INTELLECTUAL, PSEUDO-SCIENTIFIC/PSEUDO-SCIENTIST)

- Prefixes of degree or size:

a) Arch- (supreme, highest, worst) is only combined with nouns with favourable or unfavourable meaning.
The addition of the prefix “arch-“ sometimes gives the word a certain pejorative shade of meaning, but not
always. It is added to mainly human nouns: ARCHDUKE, ARCHBISHOP, ARCH-ENEMY, ARCH-LIAR.

b) Super- (above, more than, better). Nouns usually have initial main stress. In adjectives it usually means
“beyond”. It is added to nouns (SUPERMARKET, SUPERMAN), adjectives (SUPERNATURAL,
SUPERSENSITIVE).

c) Out- (to do something better, faster, longer, etc, than). It is added to intransitive verbs to form transitive
verbs (OUTGROW, OUTRUN, OUTLIVE).

d) Sub- (under, lower than, less than). Normally added to adjectives (SUBNORMAL, SUBHUMAN), but
SUBWAY, SUBMARINE…

e) Over- (too much, excess). Added to verbs (OVERDO, OVEREAT, OVERSIMPLIFY, OVERWORK,
OVERSLEEP), adjectives (OVERCONFIDENT), -ed participles (OVERDRESSED, OVERJOYED)

f) Under- (too little), added to verbs (UNDERCOOK, UNDERCHARGE), -ed participles

(UNDERWORKED, UNDERPRIVILEGED), occasionally to nouns (UNDERGROUND)
g) Hyper- (extra, specially, excessively). It is used to form adjectives: HYPERSENSITIVE,
HYPERCRITICAL. It can be used with nouns: HYPERSENSIBILITY.

h) Ultra- (beyond, extremely, excessively). Added to adjectives: ULTRA-MODERN, ULTRA-

CONSERVATIVE, ULTRA-VIOLET. From such adjectives nouns can be derived: ULTRA-
CONSERVATISM.

k) Mini- (Little). Often used in humourous or modern coinages as a contrast to maxi- (large, long) and
midi- (medium). It may be added to nouns (MINI-SKIRT, MINI-CAR, MINI-BUDGET).

- Prefixes of attitude:

a) Co- (accompanying, with, joint, together) can be prefixed to verbs (COOPERATE, COEXIST), nouns
(COOPERATION, CO-EDUCATION, CO-HEIR, CO-DIRECTOR), adjectives (COOPERATIVE). Hypens
are used in unfamiliar words and often arbitrarily: CO-OPERATE / COOPERATE

b) Counter- (against, in opposition to) is prefixed to verbs (COUNTER-ATTACK, COUNTERBALANCE),

abstract nouns (COUNTER-REVOLUTION, COUNTER-ESPIONAGE, COUNTERPOINT). The nouns are
usually stressed on the first element, the verbs on the second. Some nouns have compound stress:
‘counter-a, ttraction.

c) Anti- (against, rival). It suggests simply a state of mind, an attitude of opposition, whereas counter-
suggests action in opposition, an activity. A “counterattack” can take place only if there has already been
an attack. It may be added to nouns (ANTIBODY, ANTICHRIST, ANTI-MISSILE), adjectives (ANTI-
SEMITIC, ANTI-CLERICAL), adverbs (ANTI-CLOCKWISE).

d) Pro- (for, on the side of, opposite of anti-) is combined with adjectives (PRO-COMMUNIST, PRO-
GERMAN), nouns (PRO-COMMON MARKET, PRO-CASTRO, PRO-LIFE).

- Locative prefixes:

a) Super- (over, above) is used to form nouns: SUPERSTRUCTURE. It is uncommon except in borrowed
or neo-Latin words: SUPERNUMERARY.

b) Sub- (under, beneath, lesser in rank) usually forms nouns (SUBWAY, SUBSECTION), adjectives
(SUBCONSCIOUS), verbs (SUBDIVIDE, SUBLET). The nouns frequently have compound stress:
‘sub,way; ‘sub,section.

c) Trans- (across, from one place to another) is used in geographical terms to form denominal adjectives
(TRANSATLANTIC, TRANSALPINE, TRANS-SIBERIAN), verbs (TRANSPLANT). Words such as
TRANSFER, TRANSLATE, TRANSPORT, etc, are not derivative from a grammatical point of view.

d) Inter- (between, among) may be prefixed to adjectives (INTERNATIONAL, INTER-CONTINENTAL),

verbs (INTERMARRY, INTERWAVE), nouns (INTERMARRIAGE, INTERPLAY).

- Prefixes of time and order:

a) Fore- (before) might be thought to form compounds rather than derivatives. It is used with verbs
(FORETELL, FORESEE), abstract nouns (FOREKNOWLEDGE, FOREWORD, FOREGROUND),
concrete nouns (FOREHEAD, FOREARM, FORELEG).
b) Pre- (before) is used a) in the sense of “beforehand”: nouns (PRE-ARRANGEMENT) and verbs (PRE-
ARRANGE), b) in the sense of “existing before the time of”: nouns (PRE-WAR, PRE-REFORMATION)
and adjectives (PRE-MARITAL, PRE-SHAKESPEAREAN).

c) Post- (after) refers to time and order. It is chiefly used to form nouns (POST-WAR, POST-ELECTION),
adjectives (POST-CLASSICAL, POST-DILUVIAN).

d) Ex- (former) may be prefixed to human or personal nouns especially those denoting office or
occupation: EX-PRESIDENT, EX-PRIME MINISTER, EX-HUSBAND).

e) Re- (again, back) is one of the most important prefixes in English, occurring in many words borrowed
from Latin and French. It is prefixed to nouns (REBIRTH, RECONSTRUCTION), verbs (REBUILD,
RECLAIM), and adjectives (RE-ELIGIBLE).

- Number prefixes:

English uses a mixture of Latin and Greek prefixes to express number:

a) Uni- /Mono- (one): UNICYCLE, UNILATERAL, UNISEX, MONOTHEISM, MONOPLANE, MONORAIL

b) Bi-/Di- (two): MONOTHEISM, MONOPLANE, MONORAIL, DICHOTOMY, BIFOCAL, BILINGUAL,

BICEPS, BICYCLE

c) Tri- (three): TRIPARTITE, TRIPOD, TRICYCLE, TRIDENT

d) Multi-/Poly- (many): MULTI-NATIONAL, MULTI-RACIAL, POLYSYLLABIC, POLYGAMY, POLYGLOT

- Conversion prefixes:

In contrast to other prefixes, its function is to convert the base into different grammatical class.

…is added to … …to form… examples

a) be- nouns participal adjectives BESPECTACLED

verbs transitive verbs BEMOAN

adjectives transitive verbs BELITTLE

nouns transitive verbs BEWITCH

b) en- nouns verbs ENDANGER, ENSLAVE

c) a- verbs predicative adjectives AWAKE, ASLEEP,

- Other prefixes:

a) Dead or unproductive prefixes: for- (FORGET, FORGIVE), with- (WITHDRAW, WITHHOLD)

b) Auto- (self): AUTOBIOGRAPHY, AUTOMATIC

c) Neo- (new, revived): NEO-CLASSICISM, NEO-GOTHIC

d) Pan- (all, worldwide): PAN-AMERICAN, PAN-AFRICAN

e) Proto- (first, original): PROTO-GERMANIC, PROTOTYPE

SUFFIXATION
Unlike prefixes, suffixes frequently alter the word class of the base. Prefixes,
though not used as separate words, mostly have a distinct meaning of their own,
suffixes rarely have, but as a rule only serve to modify the meaning of the main element
(“red”-“reddish”).

Definition of suffix: a term for fixing one or more letters or syllables to the end of words
to modify their meaning.

Suffixes in English can be classified as:

NOUN SUFFIXES

- Occupational:

a) –eer (person concerned with or engaged in an occupation or activity): AUCTIONEER,

MOUNTAINEER, ENGINEER. They are stressed on the last syllable. (Words such as PIONEER or
VOLUNTEER have the same suffix but are not derived from English words.)

b) –ster (person engaged in an occupation or activity or given to the practice of) is often a pejorative
suffix. Added to non-personal nouns to form personal nouns: GANGSTER, GAMESTER, TRICKSTER. In
YOUNGSTER the pejorative meaning does not exist.

c) –er (maker of, inhabitant of, person engaged in a trade or profession). It is added to form personal and
inanimate nouns: GLOVER, LONDONER, BANKER, HATTER

- Diminutive/affective and feminine:

English is poor in feminine or diminutive suffixes. Even those usually called diminutive suffixes are often
affective. Smallness may also be denoted by the adjectives “small” or “little”: “a small glass of wine” (“un
vasito de vino”).

a) -let (small, unimportant) is added to countable nouns to form new countables: BOOKLET, PIGLET,
STARLET, OWLET

b) -ette is added to nouns to form pure diminutive denoting things: CIGARETTE, KITCHENETTE. Applied
to names of persons, the suffix expresses feminity: USHERETTE.

c) -ling (diminutive): added to other word classes as well as nouns to denote youth. It is usually added to
names of animals or plants: DUCKLING, SAPLING, SUCKLING.
d) -ess (female persons): COUNTESS, HOSTESS, STEWARDESS, WAITRESS, ACTRESS,
AUTHORESS, POETESS (sometimes with a shade of indelicateness: JEWESS, NEGRESS). It is used
for animals too: LIONESS, TIGRESS.

e) -y/-ie (restricted to familiar contexts to imply affection or familiarity): JOHNNY, GRANNY, DADDY,
PUSSY, NIGHTY, FATTY, ANNIE, PIGGIE, DOGGIE, AUNTIE.

- Status/domain, condition, etc:

a) -hood (status): added to nouns to form abstract nouns: BOYHOOD, CHILDHOOD,

NEIGHBOURHOOD, WIDOWHOOD, BROTHERHOOD.

b) -ship (status, condition) may be added to nouns (persons) to form abstract nouns: FRIENDSHIP,
MEMBERSHIP, DICTATORSHIP. (In HARDSHIP the suffix is added to an adjective.)

c) -dom (domain, realm, condition, etc) is added to (usually personal) nouns to form abstract nouns
expressing domain or realm (KINGDOM, CHRISTENDOM), rank or condition (EARLDOM, DUKEDOM,
MARTYRDOM), a group of persons collectively (HEATHENDOM, CHRISTENDOM), a pejorative shade of
meaning (OFFICIALDOM, BOREDOM)

d) -ocracy (system of government). It may be added to nouns to form abstract nouns: DEMOCRACY,
MERITOCRACY. They alternate with personal nouns in –crat: DEMOCRAT.

e) -ery/-ry: they are added to words of one syllable or more than one syllable respectively. They are used
to express behaviour, action or condition in abstract nouns (FOOLERY, SLAVERY), place of activity in
concrete countable nouns (NUNNERY, NURSERY, REFINERY), collectivity of persons or things
(CROOKERY, MACHINERY), science, occupation or trade (CHEMISTRY, DENTISTRY).

- Other noun suffixes:

a) -ing is added to countable nouns to form mass nouns. These words are either collective in meaning
(SHIPPING, IRONING)

b) -ful is added to countable nouns to form new countable nouns that indicate amount: MOUTHFUL,
SPOONFUL, HANDFUL

- Noun/adjective suffixes:

These are suffixes that are added to nouns or adjectives to form new nouns or adjectives.

a) –ite may be added to proper nouns denoting places or persons in the sense of “member of a tribe or a
community, faction or sect”: ISRAELITE, STALINITE, PRE-RAPHAELITE

b) -(i)an means “belonging to”: it is chiefly added to proper nouns to form personal and non-gradable
adjectives (ELIZABETHAN, SHAKESPEAREAN, REPUBLICAN, LUTHERAN, AMERICAN, DARWINIAN)
or to geographical names: INDONESIAN, PARISIAN, CANADIAN.

c) –ese means “nationality”. It is used to form personal nouns and adjectives from names of foreign
countries and towns: CHINESE, PORTUGUESE, JAPANESE. It is also used for languages and dialects:
CANTONESE.
d) –ist is used to denote personal nouns or adjectives, meaning “member of a party, occupation, etc”. It is
added to nouns: NOVELIST, VIOLINIST, BUDHIST; to a small number of verbs (TYPIST, COPYIST) and
to adjectives in –al: SOCIALIST, ROYALIST. Nouns in –ist may be divided into: a) persons practicing a
science or an art: PHILOLOGIST, VIOLINIST; b) persons exercising a trade or profession:
TOBACCONIST, DENTIST; c) adherents of a system or principle denoted by a noun in –ism: IDEALIST,
CALVINIST, SOCIALIST; d) other persons: EGOIST, ANTAGONIST, COLONIST.

e) –ism means “doctrine, point of view, political or artistic movement, etc”. it is added to nouns and
adjectives to form abstract nouns expressing: a) a typical conduct or condition (FANATICISM,
DESPOTISM, ALCOHOLISM); b) a system or principle (COMMUNISM, IMPERIALISM,
IMPRESSIONISM); c) a peculiarity of language (ANGLICISM, AMERICANISM, ARCHAISM,
NEOLOGISM).

- Deverbal suffixes:

They may be added to verbs to form nouns (personal, impersonal, abstract, concrete and collective
nouns):

a) –er/-or is an extremely productive suffix that is potentially affixable to any verb in English. It is used to
form personal or agent-nouns from mainly dynamic verbs: SINGER, WRITER, WORKER, DRINKER,
EMPLOYER, THRILLER, RECEIVER, ONLOOKER. The spelling of the affix is often –or in borrowed and
non-classical words: INSPECTOR, ACTOR, SAILOR. Special cases: BEGGAR, LIAR.

b) –ant. It forms personal or impersonal nouns from verbs: INHABITANT, LUBRICANT, DISINFECTANT

c) –ee is a passive suffix: it is added to verb-stems to denote the person affected by the action: PAYEE,
EMPLOYEE, TRAINEE, NOMINEE, REFUGEE, ABSENTEE.

d) –ation. It forms abstract nouns meaning “state”, “action”, etc (OPERATION, FIXATION,
EXPLORATION) or collective nouns (ORGANIZATION, FOUNDATION)

e) –ment is added to verbs to form chiefly abstract nouns expressing “action”, “state”, etc: ARGUMENT,
AMAZEMENT, EMBODIMENT, and sometimes to form concrete nouns: EQUIPMENT, SEDIMENT,
EMBARKMENT.

f) –al forms nouns (mainly countable abstract nouns) from verbs, mostly of French origin, expressing
“action”, etc: REFUSAL, REVIVAL, APPROVAL, TRIAL.

g) –ing is combined with verbs to form: a) abstract nouns expressing “activity”, “state”: BATHING,
DRIVING, BETTING; b) concrete nouns expressing “that which results from the activity of the verb”:
PAINTING, BUILDING, OPENING.

h) –age forms mass abstract nouns expressing a) amount or collectivity (PACKAGE, LUGGAGE); b)
function or condition (BONDAGE, SHORTAGE); c) action (STOPPAGE, DRAINAGE); d) fee or charge
(POSTAGE); e) residence (HERMITAGE, VICARAGE, ORPHANAGE)

- De-adjectival suffixes:

These are suffixes which may be added to adjectives to form abstract nouns expressing “state”, “quality”,
etc

a) –ness is a very productive suffix in Modern English: GOODNESS, HAPPINESS, SELFISHNESS,

DARKNESS.
b) –ity is added to many adjectives of classical or French origin, and regularly to those with the suffixes –
able, -ible, -al and -ic(al): READABLE-READABILITY; VISIBLE-VISIBILITY; SENTIMENTAL-
SENTIMENTALITY; HISTORIC-HISTORICITY; COMICAL-COMICALITY.

VERB SUFFIXES

Verb-forming suffixes are very few in English:

a) –fy: added to nouns, adjectives, etc, to form chiefly transitive verbs. It is used normally in borrowed and
neo-classical formations: CERTIFY, IDENTIFY, SIGNIFY, BEAUTIFY, INTENSIFY.

b) –ize/-ise. It is added to nouns and adjectives to form chiefly transitive verbs usually in borrowed and
neo-classical formations: ORGANIZE, SCANDALIZE… (Look out: SURPRISE, ADVERTISE, DESPISE
do not contain this suffix.)

c) –en is added to monosyllabic adjectives form transitive verbs with the sense “become”: BLACKEN,
RIPEN, SHORTEN, SADDEN... The suffix is never added to adjectives ending in vocalic sound. These
are either converted into verbs without any suffixes (TO FREE) or give rise to different formations: TO
RENEW, TO IMPOVERISH, TO ENTHREATEN…

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES

a) –able/-ible is added to transitive verbs to form adjectives with a passive meaning: “able to be V-ed”,
“worthy of being V-ed”: ACCEPTABLE, READABLE, DRINKABLE. A number of these derivatives have an
active sense: AGREEABLE, COMFORTABLE, SUITABLE, KNOWLEDGEABLE. A few are derived from
nouns: IMPRESSIONABLE. In words of Latin origin the suffix is often spelt –ible: CONVERTIBLE,
AUDIBLE, (IN)VISIBLE.

b) –al/-ical/-ial are used to form non-gradable adjectives: CRIMINAL, CULTURAL, MUSICAL,

PHILOSOPHICAL…

c) –fold is added to cardinal numerals higher than one with the sense of “multiplied by”: TWOFOLD,
THREEFOLD… Also to “many”: MANIFOLD. They are chiefly literary.

d) –ful is added to abstract nouns. It means “full of”: USEFUL, COLOURFUL, DELIGHTFUL,
SUCCESSFUL, HELPFUL. It is also used with verb bases: FORGETFUL.

e) –ed is added to nouns or noun phrases to form adjectives meaning “having”, “provided with”: BLUE-
EYES, ODD-SHAPED, WELL-MANNERED, HIGHLY-PRICED, THREE-LEGGED (-ed suffix is often
given a syllabic pronunciation: /id/).

f) –en is used as a suffix in a few adjectives derived from names of material: WOODEN, LEADEN,
EARTHEN, GOLDEN, SILKEN…

g) –esque is added to proper nouns meaning “in the style of”, “after the manner of”: DANTESQUE,
PICTURESQUE, PICARESQUE.

h) –ic is added to proper gradable or non-gradable adjectives: ATOMIC, EMPHATIC, HEROIC,

SPECIFIC. It is often used for language names: CELTIC, ARABIC.

i) –ish is added to proper and countable nouns in the sense: a) “belonging to”: SWEDISH, TURKISH…b)
“having the character of”: FOOLISH, CHILDISH, SNOBBISH (often pejorative); c) “rather, somewhat”:
REDDISH, BLUISH, OLDISH. (With ages it has the meaning of “approximately”: SEVENTYISH.
j) –ive is used to form gradable or non-gradable adjectives: ATTRACTIVE, EXPENSIVE, PRODUCTIVE,
SENSITIVE. (The corresponding noun suffix is in most cases –ion.)

k) –less may be added to nouns meaning “without”: SPEECHLESS, PENNILESS, CHILDLESS. There are
some antonym pairs with –ful: CAREFUL-CARELESS, HARMFUL-HARMLESS, USEFUL-USELESS.

l) –like is added to concrete nouns meaning “having the qualities of”: CHILDLIKE, GODLIKE, LADYLIKE.

m) –ly is added to personal nouns with the meaning “having the qualities of”: MANLY, BEASTLY,
COWARDLY… and to non-personal nouns: EARTHLY, HEAVENLY. It is also used with adjectives:
DEADLY. A special group of –ly adjectives consists of those derived from nouns of time: DAILY,
MONTHLY, YEARLY.

n) –ous forms gradable adjectives: AMBITIOUS, COURTEOUS, VIRTUOUS, DANGEROUS.

o) –y is added to concrete mass nouns meaning “like”, “full of”, “covered with”: HAIRY, SILKY, SANDY,
CREAMY, NOISY. Sometimes they are applied to verbs to form adjectives: CRUNCHY, STITCHY.

p) Other less important suffixes that are used to form adjectives from noun bases or adverbs: -some
(FEARSOME, TROUBLESOME), -ward (BACKWARD, DOWNWARD, UPWARD), -worthy
(PRAISEWORTY), -arian (AUTHORITARIAN, PARLAMENTARIAN). The suffix –arian is also used to
form nouns: VEGETARIAN, OCTOGENARIAN.

ADVERB SUFFIXES

a) –ly is a very productive suffix. It forms adverbs of manner, viewpoint, etc from many adjectives
(including participles and ordinal numbers), meaning “in a manner”: HAPPILY, GREATLY, STRANGELY,
SECONDLY, LOVINGLY; and from nouns: INSTANTLY, PARTLY. Orthographic variations:

- Adjectives ending in consonant + syllabic /l/ have adverbs in consonant + /li/: NOBLE-NOBLY,
POSSIBLE-POSSIBLY.

- Following –ic, the suffix –ly generally takes the form –ally: SYSTEMATICALLY, EMPHATICALLY.
(Exception: PUBLICLY).

- Adjectives in –ly rarely take the adverbial suffix –ly: *FRIENDLYLY. It is substituted by the phrase “IN A
FRIENDLY MANNER”.

b) –ward(s) is added to prepositional adverbs and nouns to form adverbs of manner or direction:
ONWARD(S), BACKWARD(S). Am. E. without –s.

c) –wise is added to nouns to form adverbs of manner (CLOCKWISE, CRABWISE), viewpoint adverbs
meaning “as far as … is concerned”: WEATHER-WISE.

d) –style / -fashion: AMERICAN-STYLE, CRAB-FASHION, PARROT-FASHION.