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TOPIC:The Social And Political Changes In Europe After The "Dark Age"
Name: Mohor Chatterjee
Designation: Pursuing masters at JNU
Subject: History
Address:19/1/1b, Dr.Nagen Ghosh Lane, Dhakuria, Kolkata-70031
Email-chatterjeemohorpresi@gmail.com
Mon. No.- 7980789144

Abstract:

In this paper my research aims at the social and political changes that were brought by renaissance
after the dark ages in Europe ,specially in Italian city states.

Key words: ‘renaissance’, ‘ humanism’ ‘ Florence’, ‘Francesco Patrarch’ , Italy

Historians refer ‘middle ages’ as the ‘dark age’ which was a slow process of three hundred year
long . It claimed that a demographic,cultural and economic decay occurred in Western Europe
following the decline of ‘Western Roman Empire’(476-1453 A.D) . The term ‘dark ages’ is used in
modern times because of absence of written records and advancement in the modern sense of the
word . The term ‘dark age’ was fabricated by Italian scholar ‘Francesco Patrarch’. But was it really
dark age ?.There are still debates over this topic. According to popular belief is that there was no
science or learning during this period . But according to some historians the medieval period laid
down the foundations of modern science and created universities all though run by and for the
Roman catholic church . Much of the foundations lay on the idea of preserving knowledge through
the written records via books.i
In general terms, ‘renaissance’ means ‘re-birth’.Historically it means rebirth of interests in the
classical age of the Romans and Greeks. According to German historian Otto of Freising recognized
“that a new remarkable form of social and political organization had arisen in northern Italy”. One
characteristics that he noted was that Italian society had evidently ended the feudal character and
cities were coming up. Between 1300-1600 AD. Crucial effort were made through a series of
movements in many parts of Europe, majorly in Italian cities,to reshape and revive old social
values. It became a period of exceptional creativity in the arenas of thought,literature, arts,
architecture, politics and practical sciences.The concept of Renaissance and it’s historical place has
faced many changes because of diversity of interpretations. The origins of the term ‘Renaissance’
dates back to the writings of Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), an Italian art theorists, who applied the term
‘rinascita’ to describe the previous two centuries. At the same time, the French naturalist Pierre
Belon (1518-64) used the term ‘renaissance’, to suggest classical antiquity in a new spirit. The
Italians called the movement ‘ Rinascimento’. The idea of rebirth or revival began to gain ground in
Italy from the period of Giotto. The writers of renaissance shunned the cultures of the middle ages
by describing it as the ‘dark ages’ or ‘barbaric darkness’. Renaissance has been seen as the line
dividing modern Europe and medieval Europe. The Italians had the knowledge that in ancient times
Roman civilization was the epitome of glory but it was ruined by invasions of barbaric German
tribes, such as - Goths and Vandals. They evaluated that Middle ages as the time of total darkness,
religious dogmas,economic stagnation and persistent wars. It was a time they believed art, literature
and high culture had fled from Europe. It was through renaissance only that brought about new
social,intellectual, cultural aspects.ii
The beginning of renaissance can be detected to the time of ‘black death’ or even earlier in
fourteenth century C.E and it ended in early sixteenth century C.E. iiiThis long period of nearly two
centuries were a period of great political disorders, destruction from endless war and natural
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calamities.Yet in Italian history as well as in some European states, it was a paramount period for
culture.
According to different scholars of different periods there are a lot of interpretation. According to
Voltaire, a famous enlightenment scholar, focused on intellectual content of the renaissance and
believed that it encouraged the spirit of independence, and brought about the revival of painting was
because of the existence of civil liberty in Venice, Genoa and Florence. This idea of liberty was also
supported by Sismondi. He emphasized that the blossoming of renaissance attributed in the
importance of prosperity and freedom of Italian towns.The enlightenment scholars believed that
liberty encouraged commerce that in turn influenced culture.
This concept of emphasizing utter importance to the renaissance in the development of modern
civilization was in the historical studies for a long time.The book ‘Die Kultur Des Renaissance in
Italien’ (1860) by Jacob Burckhardt is still respected as the best study of the Renaissance in spite of
some criticism. Burckhardt studied the societies in terms of mutual interaction of three ‘powers’ -
the state, culture and religion. To him renaissance began in attitudes that initially altered Italy then
the whole world; it introduced the ‘modern’ world with fresh approach to natural phenomena, moral
and religious questions etc. Along with it brought the new era of individualism. On the other hand
modern research shows that the high middle ages was not the ‘death’ of classical learning, it was the
age from where attraction towards the study of Greek grammar,culture and works of Aristotle.There
were many humanists such as Trebizond, Cicero, Theodore Gaza etc.
Karl Marx and Engels viewed the renaissance as a relation between the arts and economy that
means between cultural production and material production. According to them the economic ‘base’
shaped the cultural ‘superstructure’.
Some scholars reject the idea of importance given to renaissance or the event called renaissance in
Europe.For example Etienne Gilson focused on the point that formation of modern world was based
on physical science but the humanists did not displayed any enthusiasm in it and hence the theory
that renaissance helped to create a modern world cannot be approved.
The important writers who give a social interpretation of renaissance are: E.Garin, Hans Baron,
Paul Oscar Kristeller etc. According to Friedrich Antal the industry and international trade gave
Florence remarkably developed bourgeoisie. There are many writers who represent the Renaissance
in a socio-economic context. The meaning and significance of renaissance are subject to several
interpretation.
The term humanism derives from the Latin word ‘ Humanitas’ used by Cicero and others in
classical times. Humanism was the city-state’s major intellectual experience.It was a refinement of
values that derived largely from urban ruling groups.It was the collaborative study of classical
Roman and Greek literature; it embraced the whole field of knowledge from poetry and geography
to natural science but it focused on the ‘humanities’ and it’s philosophy, stress was mainly on man
in society.Florence, Milan and Venice, Padua, Verona, the Angevin court of Naples etc were main
centers of humanism.The humanists believed that they were reviving glory of classical age.The
most well known intellectual figure who is also known as ‘Father of humanism’ was Francisco
Petrach’(1304-1374). He was a great admirer of ‘Dante Alighiri’(1265-1321). Humanists valued
Dante for his great work ‘divine comedy’, where he criticized the existing society with full of wit.
Petrach’s ideas influenced his friend and disciple Giovanni Boccaccio who is known for his work
‘De Cameron’, a collection of more than hundred stories.
The main hallmarks of Italian humanism included- 1) Individualism and dignity of man 2)
Secularism 3) Revival of Latin and Greek language 4) Promotion of vernacular literature 5) Study
of history 6) New approach to philosophy.
Dictamen(the art of letter writing) was one of the main roots of humanism, reaching deep into the
past. It included private and political discourse, scholarly and philosophical enquiry, and all manner
of literary enterprises.Another important root of humanism developed in Italy in thirteenth century
Italy was the study of Roman law in it’s philological and practical aspects.From at least twelfth
century onwards, and mainly at the university of Bologna, there had been a revival of education.
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Italian humanism seems to emphasize on dignity of man. This was represented not only in writings
and literary sources but even in works of arts. Many of them emphasized the relationship of
harmony which they observed between man and universe.Man was seen as the best creation of God
and focus was on uniqueness of man and his potentiality.
According to some scholars the status of upper-class women declined during renaissance, study
reveals that women in age of renaissance enjoyed lesser rights than they did in the prior periods.It is
very painful to note that the preachers of reform and human dignity showed slight concern for
women.Their attitude towards women and their education remained contradictory, although they
did not clearly opposed the advantage of good education for women. But as a whole they criticized
the same education and virtues of men should be given to women because it will push them away
from domestic responsibilities.Throughout Europe very few women got an opportunity to
contribute to the humanist movement and they generally belonged to the ruling families- Princess
Mary Tudor and Elizabeth of England, Marguerite of Navarre and Catherine de Medici of
France.The Italian humanists barred women, including the emperors to study rhetoric and other
humanist subjects. Their belief was that studies should stop as soon the girl is married off.
Nevertheless if the women still had a desire to continue she should join a convent or lead a life of
seclusion.
In fifteenth century Italy ‘Christine de Pizan’, daughter of an Italian physician was a learned
humanist and she lived at the French court where she wrote the famous book ‘the book of the city of
the ladies’(1405) in which she challenges the stereotypical ideas that women are weaker then men.
Another humanist was ‘Isotta Nogarola’ of Verona.
Humanist ideas in England came from Italy and affected a little group of women, mainly from
noble families who began acquiring. In England the daughters of Thomas More, the great humanist
scholar, were considered highly educated and cultured.
Marguerite of Navarre, sister of French ruler Francis 1 was a great humanist and her famous
work is ‘Heptameron’ which contained seventy- three stories, she also influenced other important
humanists such as: Mary ,Anne Boleyn and Catherine de Medici, all these women attained her
humanist court. Important French humanists were: ‘Jeanne d’Albert, Renee de France, Jacqueline
Longway ‘etc.
The role of women in renaissance remained terribly restricted because they did not received
education and were always discouraged to display virtues of civic humanism.The guilds also
discouraged women to earn its membership.But the artists of renaissance as well as literary sources
mention about courtesans and prostitutes who flourished in the Italian court to give service and
pleasure to wealthy , rich men.iv
‘Coluccio Salutati’ , the Florentine Chancellor( 1331-1406), along with group of intellectuals led
to the ideology of civic humanism; These men believed that one must lead and active life for one’s
own state and that everything including wealth, should be considered good if that increased one’s
power of action. An active life in civic matters does not put hurdles in development of intellectual
self but stimulates it.The civic humanists wrote letters, orations to display classical virtues of
life.The civic humanists believed that moral and ethical values were hidden in public life and
therefore participation in public life was seen as exercise in virtue. It first emerged in Florence and
soon spread to other cities of Italy.
The humanism did not remain enclosed only to Italian cities, crossing the Alps it went to
different European cities, but assumed a different character outside Italy. The northern humanism is
often described as Christian humanism, because outside Italy new learning was incorporated with
basic Christian beliefs. It stressed on the spread of Biblical study and criticism of medieval
theology. The origins of Christian humanism in Netherlands spread from the mystical spirit of the
follower who were attached with Christian renaissance, the most prominent one was ‘ devotio
moderna’ , it taught about the Christian ideas in the form of spiritual communion with God through
Christ. The greatest humanist figure was ‘Desiderius Erasmus’(1466-1536). He was called the
‘Prince of Humanists’ , his famous book was ‘The Praise of Folly’(1509). His ideas attracted the
catholics as well as Protestants of that time. Cultural developments began in the late- fifteenth
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century but in reality blossomed after 1510. Humanism in Northern Europe was diverse from Italian
civic humanism, nevertheless the cities were rich but could never enjoy the same kind of autonomy
like Florence or Venice. Italian humanism was much broader in range of humanist activities.
New studies show the darker side of humanism which included belief in magic and perspective
about women. But the achievements of the humanists were introduction of new script and
promotion of civic culture that was more secular and human, no doubt it was less religious.v
The most important new element humanists introduced was a peculiar vision of goals of
political society.Petrarch and his disciple added a paramount emphasis on characterization on
Roman ideas of honour, glory and fame. The pre -humanist thinkers aimed that peace should have
contempt for human glory and temporal goods. Professionally humanists acted as teachers,
diplomats, political propagandists etc. The writings they produced on politics were not cast in form
of professional monographs.Their writings were designed for a general audience of a liberally
educated readers , wealthy merchants, professionals and aristocrats. A stress on individualism rather
than institutional reform may of course be read as strategy of political conservatism, and it would be
unfair to describe humanists intellectuals as defenders of status quovi.
The intellectual movement occurred before renaissance is known as scholasticism- that
influenced consecutive writings.Historian Alister E.Mcgrath stated that scholasticism was probably
one of the most neglected intellectual movements in human history. It was academic movement that
thrived between 1250-1500. It gave great priority on the rational justification of religious belief.The
University of Paris became the foremost centre, although it gained success in many parts of
northern Europe. This led to the formation of theological schools and debates. This movement tried
to provide a theory to religion by developing a philosophical system of its self,based on
‘Aristotelian Presuppositions’.The scholastic writings were normally long and argumentative and
were based on logic, philosophy and theology. Humanism another movement within Renaissance,
made constant attacks on scholasticism.vii
Vernacular literature was already well developed in the middle ages but it was very limited.
The humanists greatly focused on classical Latin that led to its extensive use by
scholars,theologians and lawyers.Humanists also helped to develop Italian and Tuscany language viii.
Rhetoric became very important in universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
Two events are always important for renaissance in Italy- 1) New interest in classical Latin and
Greek literature 2) Dramatic change that happened in visual arts- it was considered a symbolic
language and medium of communication. The architects, sculptors and painters left the Byzantine
Gothic patterns and expressed inner emotions. The arts flourished , and the new realism, secularism,
and individualism all displayed that the middle ages were over and that the modern age had
begun .The first architect who came close to specific imitation of the antique was Leon Battista
Alberti in his facade of the Cempio Malatestiano in Rimini , he was on one hand a painter , sculptor
and architect.The birth of new styles in Italian art can be traced in works of artists like; Giotto Di
Bondone of Florence, he is regarded as ‘father of new art’, his important works were: ‘Massacre of
the innocents’,( pic 3)
‘ The monument of truth’ etc. Other important persons were Filippo Brunelleschi who is
considered as ‘father of perspective’, constructed the dome of ‘Santa Maria Del Fiore’; Lorenzo
Ghiberti, Masaccio and Dantello who constructed the bronze statue of David, Tintoretto , Sandro
Botticelli combined classical symbolism in his excellent works- ‘Birth of Venus and Springtime’. In
architecture the revival of classical forms and in art important development was discovery of the
rules of linear perspective, organization of outdoor space and use of light and shade to create the
illusion of depth (chiaroscuro)ix, human anatomy was another place of interest.
The last period of the fifteenth century marked the birth of extensive developments in the field
of Italian art and that period from 1490-1520 is called ‘high renaissance’. Art and architecture of
that period stressed on visual and theoretical adherence of nature. City planning, garden design were
two architectural forms that matured during high renaissance. Harmony and balance was the main
feature of art of this period. The great artists of these period were : Leonardo da vinci: famous
works were the: ‘ virgin of the rocks’, ‘The last supper’ and ‘ Mona Lisa’(pic2). He invented a new
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technique called ‘sfumato’ meaning softening of sharp outlines. , Michelangelo : his greatest work
was the painting of the fresco on the altar wall of Sistine Chapel and Raphael he is famous for hi
tapestry cartoons and Madonna paintings.
The advancement of music was in Flanders in northern Europe. The method of polyphonic music
was invented by a group of Flemish master and hence ‘Flemish school’. Dufay was one of the
famous composer,others were: Jean Ockeghem, Jacob Obrecht, Josquin des Pres of France is also
known as ‘ The Prince of Music’. William Byrd was a master composer of England.In Italy two
famous hubs of music were Rome and Venice while the former remained conservative the later
group believed in experimentation.

There is general debate about the above issue.The historians like Hans Baron, Paul Oscar Kristeller
argued that industry and international trade gave Italy, specially Florence an unusual developed
bourgeois.There were several other reasons too; the renaissance in Italy sprang from urban
atmosphere that existed in cities of northern and central Italy, where the lifestyle was more
sophisticated than other other parts of Europe. Denys Hay argued that, it was polity of the Italian
states that acted as stimulus for cultural changes. Economic growth lead to the material basis for the
Italian renaissance.The Italian aristocrats unlike those of feudal Europe, preferred to live in urban
cities and engage themselves in civic affairs of towns.Another was in northern Italy there was civic
humanism but in northern Europe there was Christian humanism. According to another explanation,
the presence of large number of ‘princes’ ruling so many Italian cities provided greater possibility
of patronage and employment, ex: Medici of Florence.
Renaissance was a cultural movement that was confined to upper classes of society and was by
no means popular. It’s social base remained limited to ruing elite. For the vast majority of poor,
illiterate and marginalized Italians and as well as for general women there was no renaissance.The
urban atmosphere was an essential condition for emergence of renaissance, it could not have
achieved the magnitude if it did happened in rural or feudal society.

Pic:1 sculpture of virgin Mary carrying Jesus( Micheal Angelo )

Pic:2:Mona Lisa (Leonardo Da Vinci)
Source:https://mymodernmet.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/italian-renaissance-art-
definition-fb-thumbnail.jpg
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Pic 3; The massacre of the innocents by Giotto.Source:/www.wikiart.org/en/giotto/the-massacre-of-

the-innocent

Notes & References

1) Arvind Sinha, ‘ Europe in Transition’, Manohar publishers and distributors, New Delhi, first
edition 2010;pp:1-58
2) ‘The Cambridge companion to renaissance and humanism’ - edited by Jill Kraye, Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996;pp:22-42
3) Quentin Skinner, ‘The foundations of modern Political thought’, volume -1. Cambridge
university press, Cambridge, 1976;pp:1-30
4) Peter Burke- ‘Studies in European History’ , the renaissance- Macmillan Education UK
(1997);pp:42-62
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i
The foundation of Modern Political Thought

ii
Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to Industrialization
iii
Ibid, pp:74-75
iv
Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to Industrialization

v
Opcit;pp:82-84
vi
The Cambridge companion to renaissance and humanism
vii
Opcit,pp:75-76

viii
Ibid;pp:90-92
ix
Europe in Transition: From Feudalism to Industrialization