Edc - Lab Manual by Madhu

SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTUA & Approved by AICTE)

Rotarypuram Village, B K Samudram Mandal, Ananthapuramu - 515701.
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
PART A: Electronic Workshop Practice
Aim:
1. To identify the different component symbols.

2. To study and operation of multimeter, function generator, and regulated power supply.
3. To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time period and frequency for given
waveform.
Apparatus:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
4. Transformers
5. Diodes
6. Transistors
7. Multimeter
8. Function generator
9. Regulated power supply
10. Cathode ray oscilloscope
Theory:
Resistors:
Opposition to flow of currents is called resistance. The elements having resistance are called resistors.
They are of two types
1. Fixed Resistor
2. Variable Resistor
Specifications:
1. Resistance value: This is the value of the resistance expressed in ohms. Ex: 10O, 1MO
2. Tolerance: This is the variation in the value of the resistance i.e. expected from exact indicated value
usually tolerance is represented in % ex: 1%, 2%, 20%.
3. Power rating: The power rating is very important in the sense that it determines the maximum correct
that a resistor can withstand without being destroyed. The power rating of resistor is specified as so many
watts at a specific temperature such as one or two watts at 70 degree.
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Prepared by Y.MADHUSUDHANA & C. RAVI TEJA
Capacitors:
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction
consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. They are of three types
1. Disk capacitor
2. Fixed capacitor
3. Variable capacitor
Inductors:
An inductor (also choke, coil,or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and
a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat.
Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor wound into
a coil, to increase the magnetic field.
Inductor value:
The inductance is defined as the ability of an inductor which opposes the change in current. It is denoted
by the letter “L” and its unit is Henry (H).Ex:1H.2H…
Mutual inductance:
It is the ability of a varying current in one inductor L1 induced voltage in another inductor L2 nearby. It is
represented by Lm and is measured in Henry.
M = K√ (L1XL2) H
Coefficient if coupling:
It is defined as the ratio of flux linkages between L1 and L2. To total flux produced by L1. It is represented
by K and its typical value is 1.
K = Lm/√ (L1XL2)
Permeability:
It is denoted by micro‟s” and it is return as R = B/H. Where B = flux density, H = Flux intensity
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Transformers:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its winding
circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding. They are
of two types
1. Step up transformer
2. Step down transformer
Diodes
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer characteristic,

with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece
of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube
diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and heated cathode.
In this lab we will find the characteristics of
1. P-N junction diode

2. Zener diode
P N junction diode
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor material, p-type and n-
type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. It is created bydoping, for example by ion
implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant
on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant). If two separate pieces of material were
used, this would introduce a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits its utility
by scattering the electrons and holes.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an
ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value
known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage", "zener voltage" or "avalanche point".
The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. Many diodes
described as "zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types are
used. Common applications include providing a reference voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect
other semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses.
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Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power.
It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another
pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.
The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern
electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s, the transistor revolutionized the field of
electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other
things.
Transistors types
1. Bipolar Transistor Example: Bipolar junction transistor

2. Unipolar Transistor Example: Field effect transistor, Uni junction transistor
Bipolar junction transistor
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the contact of
two types of semiconductor for its operation
Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. These two
kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped semiconductor material
Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two
regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base.
A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region and
the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP transistor,
and n type, p type and n type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal,
appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
Field effect transistor
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the shape and hence
the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material.
FETs can be majority-charge-carrier devices, in which the current is carried predominantly by majority
carriers, or minority-charge-carrier devices, in which the current is mainly due to a flow of minority
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carriers. The device consists of an active channel through which charge carriers, electrons or holes, flow
from the source to the drain. Source and drain terminal conductors are connected to the semiconductor
through ohmic contacts. The conductivity of the channel is a function of the potential applied across the
gate and source terminals.
The FET's three terminals are:
1. Source (S), through which the carriers enter the channel. Conventionally, current entering the
channel at S is designated by IS.
2. Drain (D), through which the carriers leave the channel. Conventionally, current entering the
channel at D is designated by ID. Drain to Source voltage is VDS.
3. Gate (G), the terminal that modulates the channel conductivity. By applying voltage to G, one can
control ID.
Types of FET
1. Junction FET(JFET).
i) N-Channel JFET
ii) P-Channel JFET
2. Metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
MOSFET types
1) Depletion MOSFET
i) N-Channel MOSFET
ii) P-Channel MOSFET
2) Enhancement MOSFET
i) N-Channel MOSFET
ii) P-Channel MOSFET
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Circuit Diagram
Resistor symbols
Capacitor Symbols
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Inductor symbols
Transformer symbols
Switches
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Diodes symbols
Transistors symbols
BJT types
FET types
Breadboard
A breadboard (or protoboard) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics. The term "breadboard"
is commonly used to refer to a solderless breadboard (plugboard).
Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use
for creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. Older breadboard types did not
have this property. A stripboard (veroboard) and similar prototypingprinted circuit boards, which are used
to build permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, cannot easily be reused. A variety of electronic
systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and digital circuits to
complete central processing units(CPUs).
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Series connection
Parallel connection
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Resistor color code
Resistor value calculation
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Capacitor Specifications
When a capacitor is being discussed, it is referred to with certain "specifications" or characteristics.

Capacitors are usually "specified" in the following manner-
 They are specified by type (tantalum, electrolytic, etc.)

 They are specified by package (axial, radial, as discussed above).
 They are specified by how to connect to them, their connection type (such as "snap in" or leaded
or threaded screw holes, or surface mount).
 They are specified by capacitance value, e.g. in microfarads (µF).
 They are specified by voltage rating (i.e., 30 V). This indicates the maximum voltage under which
it is safe to use the referenced capacitor.
 Some types, such as electrolytic capacitors, are specified by operating temperature (usually 80 or
120 °C), which reflects the maximum temperature that the capacitor can reach before failing.
Note- common practice is to use capacitors well below their maximum operating voltage and
temperature in order to ensure longevity.
 They can be specified by other parameters, including ESR or "equivalent series resistance"
(explained above). Also, some capacitors can be specified by UL or other safety rating. A "X" type
capacitor indicates that the capacitor meets certain standards one of which is that it is appropriate
to be used with line-level voltages (such as 117 or 220 V) typically found from the wall outlet, as
well as that it can withstand surges typically found in power distribution systems.
 They are specified in percentage accuracy, i.e., how much they are likely to deviate from their
rated capacitance. Common ratings are + or - 20%.
Regulated power supply
A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit, or stand alone unit, the function of which is to supply a
stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit or device that must be operated within certain power
supply limits. The output from the regulated power supply may be alternating or unidirectional, but is
nearly always DC (Direct Current) .
The type of stabilization used may be restricted to ensuring that the output remains within certain limits
under various load conditions, or it may also include compensation for variations in its own supply source.
The latter is much more common today.
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Function generator
A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different
types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of the most common waveforms
produced by the function generator are the sine, square, triangular and sawtooth shapes. These
waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (which requires an internal or external trigger
source). Integrated circuits used to generate waveforms may also be described as function generator
ICs.
Although function generators cover both audio and RF frequencies, they are usually not suitable for
applications that need low distortion or stable frequency signals. When those traits are required,
other signal generators would be more appropriate.
Some function generators can be phase-locked to an external signal source (which may be a frequency
reference) or another function generator.
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic equipment. For example,
they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to introduce an error signal into a control loop.
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Designation Specification
Waveform Sin, square and triangular
Amplitude 0-20V
Frequency range 0.1Hz to 1MHz
Offset Continuously variable 10V
Output impedance 600ohms,5%
Range selector is used to select the range of frequency
Digital Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring

instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would include
basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use
a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can
be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also
display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters have all but
replaced analog moving coil multimeters in most situations. Analog multimeters are still manufactured but
by few manufacturers.
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Quantities measured
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

 Current, alternating and direct, in amperes.
 The frequency range for which AC measurements are accurate must be specified.
 Resistance in ohms.
Additionally, some multimeters measure:
 Capacitance in Farads.
 Conductance in Siemens.
 Decibels.
 Duty cycle as a percentage.
 Frequency in Hertz.
 Inductance in Henrys.
 Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, with an appropriate temperature test probe, often
a thermocouple.
Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:
 Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts

 Diodes (measuring forward drop of diode junctions), and transistors (measuring current gain and
other parameters)
 Battery checking for simple 1.5 volt and 9 volt batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale
which simulates in-use voltage measurement.
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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally known as a scope,CRO (for cathode-
ray oscilloscope), or DSO (for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope), is a type of electronic test
instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional
graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or y-axis, plotted as a function of
time (horizontal or x-axis). Many signals can be converted to voltages and displayed this way. Signals are
often periodic and repeat constantly, so that multiple samples of a signal which is actually varying with
time are displayed as a steady picture. Many oscilloscopes (storage oscilloscopes) can also capture non-
repeating waveforms for a specified time, and show a steady display of the captured segment.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. Oscilloscopes
are usually calibrated so that voltage and time can be read as well as possible by the eye. This allows the
measurement of peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform, the frequency of periodic signals, the time between
pulses, the time taken for a signal to rise to full amplitude (rise time), and relative timing of several related
signals.
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications industry.
General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory work.
Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing an automotive ignition
system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram. Some computer sound
software allows the sound being listened to be displayed on the screen as by an oscilloscope.
Before the advent of digital electronics oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element
(hence were commonly referred to as CROs) and linear amplifiers for signal processing. More advanced
storage oscilloscopes used special storage CRTs to maintain a steady display of a single brief signal.
CROs were later largely superseded by digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) with thin panel displays,
fast analog-to-digital converters and digital signal processors. DSOs without integrated displays
(sometimes known as digitisers) are available at lower cost, and use a general-purpose digital
computer to process and display waveforms.
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CRO
The main parts are
1. Electron gun: it is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high
velocity.
2. Deflection system: it deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan.
3. Florescent screen: the screen which produces, spot of visible light . when beam of electrons are
incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material.
FRONT PANNEL:
ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.
INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adugestement of focus is done after changing intensity of
trace.
AC-DC: GROUND:
It selects coupling of ACDC ground signal to vertical amplifier.
X-MAG: It expands length of time base from 15 times continuously and to maximum time base to 40
ns/cm.
SQUARE: This provides square wave 2v (pP) amplitude and enables to check y calibration of scope.
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM: This provides saw tooth wave form output coincident to sweep speed with
an output of saw tooth wave (pp)
VERTICAL SECTION: y position:
This enables movement of display along y-axis.
Y-INPUT: It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through ACDC ground coupling switch
CALIBRATION: 15mv – 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to vertical amplifier.
DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be displayed.
VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.
HORIZANTAL SECTION:
X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along xaxis.
TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.
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TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep speeds.
VERNUIS: This control the fine adjustments associated with time base sweep.
SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.
STAB: Present on panel
EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.
HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.
OBSERVATIONS:
Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.
Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.
Frequency = 1/T
Amplitude taken on vertical section (y).
Time period taken on horizontal section(x)
Model waveforms
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Measurement of Phase
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1. P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
Objective:
To study and verify the functionality of PN junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias and to
1. Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode.

2. Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode in XY mode.
3. Find cut-in voltage for P-N Junction diode.
4. Find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Diode (1N4007) 1(One) No.
2 Resistor (1K ) 1(One) No.
3 Bread board 1(One) No.
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 - 30 V) 1(One) No.
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 - 200 mA, 0 - 200 µA) 1(One) No. Each
3 Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 1(One) No.
5 Connecting wires (Single Strand)
Specifications:
List of Parameters SILION DIODE (1N4007)
Maximum Forward Current 1A
Maximum Reverse Current 5.0µA
Maximum Forward Voltage 0.8V
Maximum Reverse Voltage 1000V
Maximum Power Dissipation 30mW
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List of Parameters SILION DIODE (1N4007)
Temperature -65 to 200° C
Operation:
A PN junction diode is formed when a single crystal of semiconductor is doped with acceptors impurities
(Pentavalent) on one side and donor impurities (Trivalent) on the other side. It has two terminals called
electrodes, one each from P-region and N-region. Due to two electrodes it is called (i.e., Di-electrode)
Diode.
Biasing of PN junction Diode
Applying external D.C. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing. There is no current in the
unbiased PN junction at equilibrium.
Depending upon the polarity of the D.C. voltage externally applied to diode ,the biasing is classified as
Forward biasing and Reverse biasing.
Forward bias operation
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to
anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the cathode. Then diode is said to be
forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount
equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the
junction simultaneously and constitute a forward current from n-side cross the junction simultaneously
and constitute a forward current (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and
entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can
be approximated as short- circuited switch.
Reverse bias operation
If negative terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply
is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition an amount
equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the
holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the junction there by increasing the
depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse
saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This current is negligible; the diode can be approximated
as an open circuited switch.
Diode current equation
The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations:
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I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current
V = Voltage applied to the diode
VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)
=1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse
saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig. (1) - Forward Bias Condition:
Fig. (2) - Reverse Bias Condition:
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Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1) using PN Junction diode.

2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 0.1 V. Once the current starts
increasing vary Vs from 1V to 12V in steps of 1V and note down the corresponding
readings Vf and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2) using PN Junction diode.

2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V and note
down the corresponding readings Vrand Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. To get the graph in reverse region (theoretically), remove voltmeter and with reference to the
supply voltage note down the reverse current readings in Ammeter because current always
selects low reactance path.(Diode have infinite resistance in reverse bias ideally).To get the
graph in reverse region (theoretically), replace voltmeter with nano ammeter. Voltmeter has less
load resistance when compared to diode. Current conducts in low resistance path.
Diode Characteristics in XY mode:
1. Adjust CRO TIME/DIV knob in X-Y mode.

2. Give the input as triangular voltage waveform from Function Generator.
3. Connect the CRO CH1 across the input and CH2 across resistor.
4. P-N Junction diode characteristics can be observed.
Observations:
Forward Bias Condition:
RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Forward Voltage across the diode Vf (volts) Forward Current through the diode If (mA)
0 0 0
0.2 0.26 0
0.4 0.41 0
0.7 0.49 0
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RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Forward Voltage across the diode Vf (volts) Forward Current through the diode If (mA)
1 0.53 0
1.2 0.55 0
2 0.58 1.24
2.2 0.59 1.61
2.6 0.60 2.06
2.9 0.62 2.33
Reverse Bias Condition:
RPS Voltage Vs (volts) Reverse Voltage across the diode Vr (volts) Reverse Current through the diode Ir (µA)
0 0 0
1 -1 0
2 -2.15 0
3 -3.04 0
5 -4.95 0
8 -8.00 0
10 -10.76 -1
11 -10.96 -1
15 -14.99 -1.4
Graph:
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as Vr, +ve Y-axis as If and –ve Y-axis as Ir.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.
Fig: V- I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode under Forward & Reverse Bias Conditions
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Calculations from Graph:
Cutin Voltage V
Static forward Resistance
Dynamic Forward Resistance
Static Reverse Resistance
Dynamic Reverse Resistance
Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to damaging
of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
Result: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode are studied.
a) Forward Bias of PN Junction Diode:
1. The Cut in Voltage or Knee Voltage (Vγ) of 1N4007 is __0.58_Volts.
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2. The Dynamic Forward resistance of 1N4007 is __15.15__ .
3. The Static Forward resistance of 1N4007 is _310_ .
b) Reverse Bias of PN Junction Diode:
1. The Dynamic Reverse resistance of 1N4007 is __19M_ .

2. The Static Reverse resistance of 1N4007 is __9M_ .
Outcomes: Students are able to
1. analyze the characteristics of PN diode

2. calculate the dynamic and static resistance in forward bias and reverse bias.
Viva Questions:
1. What are trivalent and penatavalent impurities?
Ans: Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to improve the
conductivity of the semiconductor.
Commonly used doping elements
 Trivalent Impurities to make p-Type: Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron(B) and Indium (In).
 Pentavalent Impurities to make n-type: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).
2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?
Ans: Apply voltage in one direction; it acts like an open circuit. Reverse the polarity of the voltage and it
acts like a short circuit.
3. What is diode current equation?
Ans:
4. What is the value of Vt at room temperature?
Ans: 25mV
5. Dynamic resistance expression?
Ans:
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6. What is a semiconductor?
7. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor?
8. What is the order of energy gap in a pure semiconductor?
9. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
10. What is a doped semiconductor?
11. What is doping?
12. What are two different types of impurities?
13. To which group does a (i) p-type, (ii) n type impurity belong?
14. What are the charge carriers in a pure semiconductor?
15. What are the charge carriers in n-type semiconductor?
16. What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of a semiconductor?
17. What is junction diode?
18. What is meant by forward bias?
19. What is meant by reverse bias?
20. What is knee voltage?
21. What is reverse breakdown?
22. What are the semiconductor materials in use?
23. Why is Silicon used popularly compared to Germanium?
24. How many valence electrons are there in each atom of a semiconductor?
25. What are the p type doping materials and n type doping materials?
26. How many valence electrons are there in P type doping materials and in n type doping materials?
27. Draw the ideal, practical and piecewise linear characteristics of a PN junction diode.
28. What is the static resistance of a diode?
29. What is the dynamic resistance of a diode?
30. How PN junction diode does act as a switch?
31. What is cut-in voltage? What are its values for Si and Ge diodes?
32. Write the Diode current Equation.
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2. Zener Diode Characteristics
Objective: To study and verify the functionalityof Zener diode in forward bias and reverse bias and to
1. Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Zener Diode.

2. Find Zener Breakdown Voltage in Reverse Biased conditions.
3. Calculate static and dynamic resistance of the Zener diode in both forward and reverse biased
conditions (before, after break down voltages).
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Zener Diodes (1N4735A) 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (1K , 3.3 ) 1(One) No. Each
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Dual DC Regulated power supply (0 - 30V) 1(One) No.
2 Digital Ammeter (0 - 200 mA) 2(Two) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 1(One) No.
4 Decade Resistance Box (DRB) 1(One) No.
Specificationsof 1N 4735A Zener diode:
 Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V

 Power dissipation = 0.75W
 Max Forward Current = 1A
Operation:
Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction. What
makes them different from other diodes is that Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is known as the Zener
voltage. In a standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the diode is permanently damaged if a
SRIT, ECE Page 27

reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it. Zener diodes are designed in a way where
the Zener voltage is a much lower value. There is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the
diode when a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode.
The most common values for nominal working voltage are 5.1 V, 5.6 V, 6.2 V, 12 V and 15 V. We also
carry Zener diodes with nominal working voltage up to 1 kV. Forward (drive) current can have a range
from 200 uA to 200 A, with the most common forward (drive) current being 10 mA or 200 mA.
In the forward bias direction, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary silicon diode.
In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the breakdown voltage is
reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse current. Varying amount of reverse current
can pass through the diode without damaging it. The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (V Z) across the
diode remains relatively constant. The maximum reverse current is limited, however, by the wattage rating
of the diode.
Avalanche Break down:
When the diode is in the reverse bias condition, the width of the depletion region is more. If both p-side
and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction widens. In reverse bias, the
minority charge carrier current flows through junction. As the applied reverse voltage increases the
minority carriers acquire sufficient energy to collide with the carriers in the covalent bonds inside the
depletion region. As a result, the bond breaks and electron hole pairs are generated. The process
becomes cumulative and leads to the generation of a large number of charge carriers resulting in
Avalanche Breakdown.
Zener Break down:
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction reduces
compared to the width in normal doping. Applying a reverse bias causes a strong electric field get applied
across the device. As the reverse bias is increased, the Electric field becomes strong enough to rupture
covalent bonds and generate large number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of
charge carriers due to rupture of covalent bonds under the influence of strong electric field is termed as
Zener breakdown.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in
spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will
continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum I Z(min) value in the
reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow
it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage
known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a
SRIT, ECE Page 28

specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the
voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as
a shunt voltage regulator.
The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of variations
in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is
shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at V IN(min) and the load
current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least I z(min). Then for all other
combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus
maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load
current is the highest and it conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest.
If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate total power through the series
resistance and the Zener diode. Shunt regulators have an inherent current limiting advantage under load
fault conditions because the series resistor limits excess current.
A Zener diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source Vi across a load
resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break down
voltage VZ for all the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down region.
Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0 = VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input voltage remains
within a minimum and maximum voltage.
Basically there are two type of regulations such as:
a. Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only
input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.
b. Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is
varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.
Circuit Diagram: Fig (1) - Forward Bias Condition:
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Fig (2) - Reverse Bias Condition:
Fig (3) - Circuit Diagram of Zener Diode as Line Regulator:
Fig (4) - Circuit Diagram of Zener Diode as Load Regulator:
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Procedure:
a) Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1).

2. Initially vary Vs in steps of 0.1V. Once the current starts increasing vary V s in steps of 1V up to
12V. Note down the corresponding readings of Vzf and Izf.
b) Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2).

2. Vary Vs gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down the corresponding readings of Vzr and
Izr.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
c) Zener Diode as Line Regulator (for variations in supply voltage):
Connect the circuit for Line regulation as shown in figure (3).

Vary supply voltage (Vs) in in steps of 1volt from 0 - 15 volts and note the corresponding Zener Current
(IZ), Load Current (IL) and Output Voltage (VO).
Plot the graph between VS and VO taking VS on X-axis and VO on Y-axis.
d) Zener Diode as Load Regulator (for variations in load connected):
1. Connect the circuit for Load regulation as shown in figure (4).

2. Now fix the power supply voltage, Vs at 10V.
3. Without connecting the load RL, note down the No-Load Voltage (VNL).
4. Now connect the load (RL) using Decade Resistance Box (DRB) and vary the resistance in steps
1K from 1K to10K / in steps of 10 K from10K to 100K and note the corresponding
Zener Current (IZ), Load Current (IL) and Output Voltage (VO) for 10 readings and calculate the
percentage regulation.
5. Plot the graph between RL and VO taking RL on X-axis and VO on Y-axis.
Zener Diode Characteristics in X-Y mode:
1. Adjust CRO TIME/DIV knob in X-Y mode.

2. Give the input as triangular voltage waveform from Function Generator (both positive and
negative peaks).
3. Connect the CRO CH1 across the input and CH2 across resistor.
4. Zener diode characteristics can be observed.
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Observations:
Table: 1 Forward Bias Condition:
RPS Voltage Vs(volts) Forward Voltage across the diode Vzf (volts) Forward Current through the diode Izf (mA)
Table: 2 Reverse Bias Condition:
RPS Voltage Vs(volts) Reverse Voltage across the diode Vzr (volts) Reverse Current through the diode Izr (mA)
2 -2.12 -0.2
4 -4.17 - 0.4
6 -6.17 -0.6
8 -7.99 -0.6
10 -10.7 -0.6
12 -10.94 -1.60
14 -1.19 -2.92
16 -11.01 -4.46
18 -11.04 -6.40
20 -11.06 -8.20
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Table: 3 Line Regulation:
Load Resistance RL = ___10__ (K )
Unregulated Power Supply Vs (V) Zener Current Iz (mA) Load Current IL (mA) Regulated Output Voltage Vo (V)
2 0.01 0 1.59
4 0.3 0 3.6
6 0.6 0 5.8
8 0.7 0 7.3
10 0.9 0 9.0
12 1.1 0.1 10.4
14 1.1 2.2 10.95
16 1.1 3.9 10.97
18 1.1 6.1 11.02
20 1.1 7.7 11.05
Table: 4 Load Regulation:
Input Supply Voltage VS = ____12_____ Volts
No-load DC Voltage, VNL = __10.93_____ Volts
Load Resistance RL (K Zener Current Load Current Regulated Output Voltage % Voltage
) Iz (mA) IL (mA) Vo (V) Regulation
0 0 11.5 0.68
1 0 1.0 9.95
2 -0.6 0.5 10.92 9.8 %
3 -0.7 0.3 10.92
4 -0.8 0.2 10.92
5 -0.9 0.2 10.93
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6 -1.0 0.2 10.93
7 -1.0 0.2 10.93
8 -1.0 0.1 10.93
9 -1.0 0.1 10.93
10 -1.0 0.1 10.93
Expected Graph:
Fig: V- I Characteristics of Zener Diode under Forward & Reverse Bias Conditions
Line Regulation
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Load Regulation:
Static forward Resistance Rdc = Vf / If
Dynamic Forward Resistance rac = Vf / If
Static Reverse Resistance Rdc = Vr / Ir
Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac = Vr / Ir
For Load regulation,% Voltage Regulation = %
Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to damaging
of the diode.
circuit diagram.
Result: The characteristics and Voltage Regulation of Zener diode are studied.
a) Forward Bias Zener Diode:
1. The Knee voltage or Cut-in Voltage (Vy) is __________________ Volts.

2. The Dynamic Forward resistance is __________________ .
3. The Static Forward resistance is __________________ .
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b) Reverse Bias of Zener Diode:
1. Zener Breakdown Voltage (VZ) is _____10.94___ Volts.

2. The Dynamic Reverse resistance is __________________ .
3. The Static Reverse resistance is __________________ .
1. analyze the forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode.

2. calculate static and dynamic resistance in both forward and reverse bias condition.
3. analyze the working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator for line regulation and load regulation.
Viva Questions:
1. What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?
Ans: A zener is designed to operate stably in reverse breakdown, which is designed to be at a low
voltage, between 3 volts and 200 volts. The breakdown voltage is specified as a voltage with a tolerance,
such as 10 volts ±5%, which means the breakdown voltage (or operating voltage) will be between 9.5
volts and 10.5 volts.
A signal diode or rectifier will have a high reverse breakdown, from 50 to 2000 volts, and is NOT designed
to operate in the breakdown region. So exceeding the reverse voltage may result in the device being
damaged. In addition, the breakdown voltage is specified as a minimum only.
Forward characteristics are similar to both, although the zener's forward characteristics is usually not
specified, as the zener will never be used in that region. A signal diode or rectifier has the forward voltage
specified as a max voltage at one or more current levels.
2. What is break down voltage?
Ans: The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode conduct in
reverse.
3. What are the applications of Zener diode?
Ans: Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage
across small circuits.
4. What is cut-in-voltage ?
Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is called the
knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.6v for a Silicon diode.
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5. What is voltage regulator?
Ans: A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of the load
current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.
6. What is the doping concentration in Zener diodes?

7. Can we use Zener diode as a switch?
8. What is PIV of Zener?
9. What will happen if P-N regions are heavily doped in Zener diode?
10. List the other Zener diodes with different breakdown voltages.
11. Is the breakdown region in Zener really destructible?
12. What is a zener diode ?
13. How the name of the Zener came?
14. What is cause of reverse breakdown ?
15. What is zener voltage ?
16. Write the Symbol for the Zener diode.
17. What are the differences between the PN junction diode and Zener diode fabrication?
18. What are the applications of Zener diode?
19. What are the different types of breakdowns in semiconductor junctions?
20. Compare Zener Breakdown and Avalanche breakdown?
21. What is the max value of voltage of Zener breakdown devices?
22. Zener diode is generally used in ________ biased condition. When Zener diode is forward biased, it
acts as a _________.
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3.Rectifiers (without and with c-filter)
Objective:
To study the operation of Full- Wave Rectifier with and without filter and to find its:
a. Percentage Regulation
b. Ripple Factor
c. Efficiency
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Bread board 1 (One) No.
2 Diodes (1N4007) 2 (Two) No.
3 Resistor (1K ) 1 (One) No.
4 Capacitor (1000 F) 1 (One) No.
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Transformer with Center Tapped Secondary ( 9 - 0 - 9 )V 1 (One) No.
2 Digital Multimeter 1 (One) No.
3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) (0-20MHz) 1 (One) No.
Operation:
The conversion of AC into pulsating DC is called Rectification. Electronic Devices can convert AC power
into DC power with high efficiency.
The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tapped transformer, which results in equal voltages above and
below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased. It results a current
Id1 through the load R.
During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and hence it is forward
biased, resulting a current Id2 through the load. At the same instant a negative voltage appears at the
anode of D1, reverse biasing it and hence it doesn‟t conduct.
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Ripple Factor:
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the average DC value. It is
denoted by the symbol ' '.
Rectification Factor:
The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.
= 81% (if R >> Rf, then Rf can be neglected).
Percentage of Regulation:
It is a measure of the variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC output current (i.e., variation in
load).
Percentage of regulation = %
VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.
VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.
For an ideal Full-wave rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of regulation is
very small for a practical full wave rectifier.
Peak- Inverse - Voltage (PIV):
It is the maximum voltage that the diode has to withstand when it is reverse biased.
PIV = 2Vm
Advantages of Full wave Rectifier:
1. is reduced.
2. is improved.
Disadvantages of Full wave Rectifier:
1. Output voltage is half of the full secondary voltage.

2. Diodes with high PIV rating are to be used.
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3. Manufacturing of the center-tapped transformer is quite expensive and so Full wave rectifier with
center-tapped transformer is costly.
Circuit Diagram:
Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):
Full Wave Rectifier (with filter):
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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the maximum voltage Vm of the AC input voltage of the rectifier and AC
voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage at the load resistance.
5. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load resistance for
a load of 1K .
6. Calculate the ripple factor ( ), percentage of regulation and efficiency ( ) as per the below given
formulae.
Observations:
1. Peak Voltage, Vm = (From CRO for HWR with and without filter)
2. DC Voltage, VDC(full load) = (From Voltmeter/ Multimeter for HWR with and without filter)
3. No Load DC Voltage, VDC(No load) = (From Voltmeter/ Multimeter for HWR with and without filter)
4. Ripple Voltage, Vr = (From CRO for HWR with filter)
Calculations:
Without filter:
Ripple factor (Theoretical) =
Ripple Factor (Practical)
With filter:
Ripple factor (Theoretical)
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Where f = 50Hz, R =1K , C = 1000 F.
Ripple Factor
Percentage Regulation = %
VNL = DC voltage at the load without connecting the load (Minimum current).
VFL = DC voltage at the load with load connected.
Efficiency %u200B
PAC = V rms / RL
2
PDC = Vdc / RL
Expected Waveforms:
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Result:
The operation of Full Wave rectifier is studied and the following are calculated.
Type of Rectifier Ripple factor Efficiency % Regulation
Theoretical Practical
FWR without filter 0.48 0.45 74.18 5.81
FWR with filter
1. analyze the operation of Full Wave rectifier with and without filter.
2. calculate its performance parameters-ripple factor, percentage regulation, efficiency with and
without filter.
Viva Questions:
1. What is filter?
Ans: Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.
2. Give some rectifications technologies?
Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set , Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon gas
electron tube.
3. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?
Ans: %
4. What is the value of PIV of a center tapped FWR?
Ans: 2Vm.
5. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal.in rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor placed in
parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage.If capacitance value increases its capacity
also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier.
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6. What is the purpose of Center Tapped transformer?
7. What is Regulation?
8. What is the location of poles of filter in S-plane?
9. What is the output of FWR with filter? Is it unidirectional?
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of center tapped full-wave rectifiers compared with
Bridge rectifiers?
11. Define Ripple factor „γ‟ and its values for the three types of rectifiers.
12. What is the value of No load voltage for all the three types of the rectifiers?
13. What are the different types of filters used for the rectifiers?
SRIT, ECE Page 44

4.BJT Characteristics(CE Configuration)
Objective:
To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor in Common Emitter configuration.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Transistor BC 107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (1K , 100K ) 1(One) No. Each
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
2 Digital Ammeters (0 - 200 mA, 0-200 A) 1(One) No. Each
3 Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 2(Two) No.
Specifications:
For Transistor BC 107:
 Max Collector Current = 0.1A

 VCEO max = 50V
SRIT, ECE Page 45

Circuit Diagram:
h – Parameter model of CE transistor:
Pin assignment of Transistor:
View from side of pins
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View from top of casing
Operation:
The basic circuit diagram for studying input characteristics is shown in the circuit diagram. The input is
applied between base and emitter, the output is taken between collector and emitter. Here emitter of the
transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name Common Emitter Configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage at constant output voltage.
It is plotted between VBE and IBat constant VCE in CE configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current at constant input
current. It is plotted between VCE andIC at constant IB in CE configuration.
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:

2. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VBB gradually, note down base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE.
4. Step size is not fixed because of non linear curve. Initially vary VBB in steps of 0.1V. Once the
current starts increasing vary VBB in steps of 1V up to 12V.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE = 5V.
Output Characteristics:

2. Keep emitter current IB = 20 A by varying VBB.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector current IC and Collector-
Emitter Voltage(VCE).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB = 60µA, 0µA.
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Observations:
Input CharacteristicsInput Characteristics
VBB (Volts) VCE = 3V VCE = 6V
VBE (Volts) IB (µA) VBE (Volts) IB (µA)
0.2 0.21 0 0.25 0
0.4 0.47 0.1 0.44 0
0.6 0.62 0.2 0.62 3
0.8 0.65 20 0.66 19
1.0 0.67 22 0.68 41
1.2 0.68 31 0.68 55
1.4 0.69 81 0.68 66
1.6 0.70 100 0.69 88
1.8 0.70 104 0.72 144
2.0 0.71 127 0.80 180
Output Characteristics
VCC (Volts) IB = 60 µA IB = 90 µA IB = 40 µA
VCE (Volts) IC (mA) VCE (Volts) IC (mA) VCE (Volts) IC (mA)
0.2 0.02 1.5 0.01 0.5
0.4 0.02 2.2 0.02 1.0
0.6 0.04 3.6 0.03 1.2
0.8 0.05 5.5 0.04 1.5
1.0 0.06 7.5 0.05 2.0
1.2 0.07 7.6 0.05 2.3
1.4 0.07 9.6 0.06 2.6
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1.6 0.07 10.1 0.07 3.0
1.8 0.08 11.3 0.07 3.4
2.0 0.09 13.1 0.08 4.0
Graph:
Input Characteristics
1. Plot the input characteristics by taking VBE on X-axis and IB on Y-axis at a constant VCE as a
constant parameter.
2. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on X-axis and taking IC on Y-axis taking IB as a
constant parameter.
1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB for a constant VCE on one of
the input characteristics.
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Input impedance = hie = Ri = VBE / IB (VCE is constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hre = VEB / VCE (IB = constant)
2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance find IC and VCB at a constant IB.
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC / VCE (IB is constant)
Forward current gain = hfe = IC / IB (VCE = constant)
Inference:
1. Medium input and output resistances.

2. Smaller values if VCE, lower the cut-in-voltage.
3. Increase in the value of IE causes saturation of the transistor of an earlier voltage.
Precautions:
1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to
damage the transistor.
circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
Result:
Input and Output characteristics of a Transistor in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.
The h-parameters for a transistor in CE configuration are:
a. The Input Resistance (hie) _____446______Ohms.

b. The Reverse Voltage Gain (hre) __________0.116_____.
c. The Output Conductance (hoe) _____50_______ Mhos.
d. The Forward Current Gain (hfe) _____106.66m__________.
1. Analyze the characteristics of BJT in Common Emitter and configuration.

2. Calculate h-parameters from the characteristics obtained.
SRIT, ECE Page 50

Viva Questions:
1. Can transistor be replaced by two back to back connected diodes?
Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter(heavily doped), base(lightly doped) and collector(doping
level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and n terminals in diode.
2. For amplification CE is preferred, why?
Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration gives
appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the Common Collector
configuration has very high input resistance(~750K ) & very low output resistance(~25 ) so the voltage
gain is always less than one & its most important application is for impedance matching for driving from
low impedance load to high impedance source.
3. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased. Why?
Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less compared to
reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so voltage at output increases
with reverse bias resistance.
4. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?
Ans: Common emitter configuration.
5. What is the range β of a BJT?
Ans: Beta is usually ranges from 20 - 500.
6. List the current components of BJT in CE configuration
7. What is Early Effect?
8. Why the doping of collector is less compared to emitter?
9. What do you mean by “reverse active”?
10. What is the difference between CE and Emitter follower circuit?
11. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
12. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
13. What is the relation between α, β and γ?
14. Define current gain in CE configuration?
15. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
SRIT, ECE Page 51

16. What is the phase relation between input and output?
17. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
18. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
19. What are the applications of CE configuration?
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5.FET Characteristics(CS Configuration)
Objective:
To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Field Effect Transistor (FET).
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 JFET (BFW11/ BFW10) 1(One) No.
2 Resistor (1K ,100K ) 1(One) No. Each
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 - 200 mA) 1(One) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 2(Two) No.
Specifications:
For FET BFW11:
 Gate Source Voltage VGS = -30V

 Forward Gain Current IGF = 10mA
 Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300mW
SRIT, ECE Page 53

Circuit Diagram:
Pin assignment of FET:
Top View
Bottom View
Operation:
The circuit diagram for studying drain and transfer characteristics is shown in the figure1.
1. Drain characteristics are obtained between the drain to source voltage (VDS) and drain current (ID)
taking gate to source voltage (VGS) as the constant parameter.
2. Transfer characteristics are obtained between the gate to source voltage (VGS) and drain current
(ID) taking drain to source voltage (VDS) as the constant parameter.
Procedure:
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Drain Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure1.

2. Keep VGS = 0V by varying VGG.
3. Varying VDD gradually in steps of 1V up to 10V note down drain current ID and drain to source
voltage (VDS).
4. Repeat above procedure for VGS = -1V.
Transfer Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure1.

2. Set voltage VDS = 2V/5V (BFW10/ BFW11).
3. Varying VDD in steps of 0.5V until the current ID reduces to minimum value.
4. Varying VGG gradually, note down both drain current ID and gate-source voltage(VGS).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VDS = 4V/ 8V (BFW10/ BFW11).
Observations:
Drain Characteristics
VDD (Volts) VGS = -0.5V VGS = -2V
VDS(Volts) ID(mA) VDS(Volts) ID(mA)
0.2 0.4 1.7 0.9 1.3
0.4 0.8 3.2 2.4 1.7
0.6 1.4 4.9 4.0 1.9
0.8 2.4 5.9 5.9 1.9
1.0 3.5 6.3 8.0 2.0
1.2 6.0 6.5 9.7 2.0
1.4 7.2 6.5 14.3 2.0
1.6 9.2 6.5 14.3 2.0
1.8 11.4 6.5 16.0 2.1
2.0 12.7 7.5 17.6 2.1
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Transfer Characteristics
VGG (Volts) VDS = 2V VDS = 4V
VGS(Volts) ID(mA) VGS(Volts) ID(mA)
1 -1.22 4.0 -1.13 4.9
2 -2.17 1.4 -1.87 2.1
3 -3.09 0 -3.07 0
4 -4.10 0 -3.09 0
5 -5.0 0 -4.98 0
6 -6.10 0 -5.89 0
7 -7.18 0 -7.03 0
8 -8.19 0 -8.10 0
9 -9.20 0 -9.16 0
10 -10.36 0 -11.89 0
Graph:
1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
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2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at constant VDS.
1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source voltage( VDS)
to the corresponding change in Drain Current( ID) for a constant gate to source voltage ( VGS),
when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
at a constant VGS (from drain characteristics)
2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current( ID) to the corresponding
change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.
gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics).
The value of gm is expressed in mho‟s ( ) or Siemens (s).
3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage (
VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant drain current
(ID).
Inference:
1. As the gate to source voltage (VGS) is increased above zero, pinch off voltage is increased at a
smaller value of drain current as compared to that when VGS = 0V.
2. The value of drain to source voltage (VDS) is decreased as compared to that when VGS = 0V.
Precautions:
1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead to damage
of FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter with correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless the circuit connections are checked as per the circuit
diagram.
4. Properly identify the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.
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Result:
Drain and Transfer characteristics of a FET are studied.
1. analyze the Drain and transfer characteristics of FET in Common Source configuration.
2. calculate the parameters transconductance (gm), drain resistance (rd) and amplification factor(µ).
Viva Questions:
1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?
Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.
2. What are the advantages of FET?
Ans: The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100 MΩ or more. Thus, it
is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of isolation between input and output. It is a
unipolar device, depending only upon majority current flow. It is less noisy. and is thus found in FM tuners
and in low-noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation. It exhibits
no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal chopper. It typically has
better thermal stability than a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
3. What is transconductance?
Ans: Trasconductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or field-effect transistor

(FET). In general, the larger the transconductance figure for a device, the greater the gain(amplification) it
is capable of delivering, when all other factors are held constant. The symbol for transconductance is gm.
The unit is thesiemens, the same unit that is used for direct-current (DC) conductance.
4. What are the disadvantages of FET?
Ans: It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET has a drawback of
being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during installation.The fragile
insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic
damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a properly
designed circuit.
5. Relation between µ, gm and rd?
Ans: µ = gm * rd
6. Why an input characteristic of FET is not drawn?
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7. What is the importance of high input impedance?
8. Why wedge shaped depletion region is formed in FET under reverse bias gate condition?
9. Why FET is less noisy?
10. What is the difference between n- channel FET and p-channel FET?
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6.BJT-CE Amplifier
Objective:
To study the frequency response of Common Emitter Amplifier and calculate its Bandwidth.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (100K, 10k, 1K) 1(One) No. Each
3 Resistors (2.2 K) 2(Two) No.
4 Capacitors (10µF) 2(Two) No.
5 Capacitors (100µF) 1(One) No.
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 – 30 V) 1(One) No.
2 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) (0-20MHz) 1(One) No.
3 Function Generator (0-1MHz) 1(One) No.
Theory:
The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has both voltage and current
amplification.
Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the base of the transistor. The function of this network
is to provide necessary bias condition and ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper
region.
In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that the operating point is in
the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the load line is bisected. Therefore, in
practical design VCE is always set to VCC/2. This will confirm that the Q-point always swings within the
active region. This limitation can be explained by maximum signal handling capacity. For the maximum
input signal, output is produced without any distortion and clipping.
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The Bypass Capacitor:
The emitter resistor RE is required to obtain the DC quiescent point stability. However the inclusion of
RE in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification at higher frequencies. In order to avoid such a
condition, it is bypassed by a capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for
DC quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance.
The Input/ Output Coupling (or Blocking) Capacitor: An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In
order to have noiseless transmission of a signal (without DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct
current should not enter the amplifier or load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a coupling
capacitor between two stages.
XCC << ( Ri hie )
CC - Output Coupling Capacitor
CB - Input Coupling Capacitor
Frequency response of Common Emitter Amplifier:
Emitter bypass capacitors are used to short circuit the emitter resistor and thus increases the gain at high
frequency. The coupling and bypass capacitors cause the fall of the signal in the low frequency response
of the amplifier because their impedance becomes large at low frequencies. The stray capacitances are
effectively open circuits.
In the mid frequency range large capacitors are effectively short circuits and the stray capacitors are open
circuits, so that no capacitance appears in the mid frequency range. Hence the mid band frequency gain
is maximum.
At the high frequencies, the bypass and coupling capacitors are replaced by short circuits. The stray
capacitors and the transistor determine the response.
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Characteristics of CE Amplifier:
1. Large current gain.

2. Large voltage gain.
3. Large power gain.
4. Current and voltage phase shift of 1800.
5. Moderated output resistance.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Set source voltage VS = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function generator. Observe
the phase difference between input and output by giving these two signals to the dual channels of
CRO.
3. Keeping input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and note
down the corresponding output voltage. Calculate gain in dB as shown in the tabular column.
4. Plot the graph: gain (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
5. Calculate the 3-dB bandwidth from the frequency response.
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Expected waveform:
(a) The Input & Output Waveforms at 1 KHz
(b) Frequency Response Curve
In the usual application, mid band frequency range are defined as those frequencies at which the
response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as f L and fH and are
called as the 3dB frequencies (Lower and Upper Cut-Off Frequencies respectively). The difference
between higher cut-off and lower cut-off frequency is referred to as bandwidth (f H - fL).
Fig: Frequency Response Curve
Calculations from the graph
Bandwidth = fH – fL (in Hz)
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Observation tables:
VS = 40mV
Frequency Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)
70 3.6 90 39.08
150 4.4 110 40.82
4800 5.4 135 42.60
9600 5.4 135 42.60
19.2K 5.4 135 42.60
614.4K 1.2 30 29.54
1M 0.8 10 20
Result:
Common Emitter Amplifier is studied and its Bandwidth is calculated.
1. Maximum Gain ( Amax ) = ____135______ dB

2. 3dB Gain = ____42.60_______ dB
3. 3dB Lower cut-off frequency, fL = _____70______ Hz
4. 3dB Upper cut-off frequency, fH = ____130k_______ Hz
5. 3dB Bandwidth ( fH - fL ) = ________129.930k___ Hz
1. Calculate the Bandwidth of BJT Common Emitter amplifier.
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Discussion/Viva Questions:
1. What is the equation for voltage gain?
Ans:
2. What is cut off frequency? What is lower 3dB and upper 3dB cut off frequency?
Ans: In electronics, cutoff frequency or corner frequency is the frequency either above or below which the
power output of a circuit, such as a line, amplifier, or electronic filter has fallen to a given proportion of the
power in the pass band. Most frequently this proportion is one half the pass band power, also referred to
as the 3 dB point since a fall of 3 dB corresponds approximately to half power. As a voltage ratio this is a
fall to of the pass band voltage
3. What are the applications of CE amplifier?
Ans: Low frequency voltage amplifier, radio frequency circuits and low-noise amplifiers
4. What is active region?
Ans: The active region of a transistor is when the transistor has sufficient base current to turn the
transistor on and for a larger current to flow from emitter to collector. This is the region where the
transistor is on and fully operating. In this region JE in forward bias and JC in reverse bias and transistor
works as an amplifier
5. What is Bandwidth of an amplifier?
Ans: Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous set of
frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and may sometimes refer to passband bandwidth,
sometimes to baseband bandwidth, depending on context. Passband bandwidth is the difference
between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a bandpass filter, a communication
channel, or a signal spectrum. In case of a low-pass filter or baseband signal, the bandwidth is equal to
its upper cutoff frequency.
6. What is the importance of gain bandwidth product?
7. Draw h parameter equivalent circuit of CE amplifier.
8. What is the importance of coupling capacitors in CE amplifier?
9. What is the importance of emitter by pass capacitor?
10. What type of feedback is used in CE amplifier?
11. What are the various types of biasing a Transistor?
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12. What is Q point of operation of the transistor? What is the region of operation of the transistor when it
is working as an amplifier?
13. Why frequency response of the amplifier is drawn on semi-log scale graph?
14. If Q point is not properly selected, then what will be the effect on the output waveform?
15. What are the typical values of the input impedance and output impendence of CE amplifier?
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7.Emitter Follower-CC Amplifier
Aim:
To study the common collector amplifier and find it‟s Bandwidth.
Components:
Name Quantity
Transistor BC107 1
Resistor 33 K , 3.3 K , 2.2K , 1K , 330K Each one
Capacitor 10 F 2
Equipment:
Name Range Quantity
Bread Board 1
Dual power supply 0-30V 1
CRO (0-20)MHz 1
Function Generator (0-1)MHz 1
Connecting Wires
Theory:
In common collector amplifier as the collector resistance is made to zero, the collector is at AC ground
that is the reason for which the circuit is also called as grounded-collector amplifier or this configuration
has voltage gain close to unity and hence a change in base voltage appears as an equal change across
the load at the emitter, hence the name emitter follower is given to this circuit. In other words emitter
follows the input signal.
This circuit performs the function of impedance transformation over a wide range of frequencies with
voltage gain close to unity. In addition to that, the emitter follower increases the output level of the signal.
Since the output voltage across the emitter load can never exceed the input voltage to base as emitter-
base junction would become back biased. Common collector state has a low output resistance, the circuit
suitable to serve as buffer or isolating amplifier or couple to a load with large current demands.
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Characteristics of CC Amplifier:
1. Higher current gain.

2. Voltage gain of approximately unity.
3. No current or voltage phase shift.
4. Large input resistance.
5. Small output resistance.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Set source voltage Vs = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function generator.
3. Keeping input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and note
down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.
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Expected waveform:
response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as fL and fH and are
called as the 3dB frequencies are simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies respectively. The
difference between higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to as bandwidth ( fH - fL ).
Observation tables:
Vs = 1V
Frequency Vo(volts) Gain= Vo/Vs Gain(dB)=20 log(Vo/Vs)
1k 0.8 0.8 -1.93
2k 0.8 0.8 -1.93
3k 0.8 0.8 -1.93
10k 0.8 0.8 -1.93
40k 0.7 0.7 -3.09
60k 0.68 0.68 -3.85
110k 0.6 0.6 -4.42
Result:
Common Collector Amplifier is studied and its Bandwidth is calculated.
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Viva Questions:
1. Why CC amplifier is known as emitter follower?
Ans: The common collector junction transistor amplifier is commonly called an emitter follower. The
voltage gain of an emitter follower is just a little less than one since the emitter voltage is constrained at
the diode drop of about 0.6 volts below the base . Its function is not voltage gain but current or power gain
and impedance matching.
2. Mention the applications of CC amplifier?
Ans: The low output impedance allows a source with a large output impedance to drive a small load
impedance; it functions as a voltage buffer. This configuration is commonly used in the output stages of
class-B and class-AB amplifiers and impedance matching
3. What are the differences between CE,CB and CC amplifier?
Ans:
1. In CC configuration we use to get the low output impedance where as in ce we use to get the
high output impedence.
2. In CC amplifier we use to have the voltage gain equal to unity where as in ce amplifier we use to
have the high voltage gain.
3. In CC amplifier there is high power gain which is used for impedance matching where as in ce
amplifier due to the high voltage gain the impedance matching is less impossible.
4. Mention the characteristics of CC amplifier?
Ans: At low frequencies and using a simplified hybrid-pi model, the following small-signal characteristics
can be derived. (Parameter and the parallel lines indicate components in parallel.)
Approximate
Definition Expression expression Conditions
Current g
ain
Voltage g
ain
Input
resistanc
e
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Approximate
Definition Expression expression Conditions
Output
resistanc
e
5. What is gain BW product?
Ans: The gain–bandwidth product (designated as GBWP, GBW, GBP or GB) for an amplifier is the
product of the amplifier's bandwidth and the gain at which the bandwidth is measured.
For devices such as operational amplifiers that are designed to have a simple one-pole frequency
response, the gain–bandwidth product is nearly independent of the gain at which it is measured; in such
devices the gain–bandwidth product will also be equal to the unity-gain bandwidth of the amplifier
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8.FET-CS Amplifier
Aim:
To study the JFET common source amplifier and find it‟s cut off frequencies and Bandwidth.
Components:
Name Quantity
JFET BFW 11 1
Resistor 6.8K , 8.2K , 1M 2, 1, 1
Capacitor 10µF, 100µF 2,1
Equipment:
Name Range Quantity
Bread Board 1
Dual power supply 0-30V 1
CRO (0-20)MHz 1
Function Generator (0-1)MHz 1
Connecting Wires
Theory:
Of the possible three configurations of JFET amplifiers, common source (CS) configuration is mostly
used. The advantage of using CS configuration is that it has very high input impedance.
Circuit diagram shows the FET amplifier of common source configuration. The biasing input and
couplings are shown in the figure. The mid range voltage gain of the amplifier is given by A = gm(r d || RL)
At the mid-frequency range, there is n effect of input and output coupling capacitors. Therefore, the
voltage gain and phase angle are constant in this frequency range. The amplifier shown in the circuit
diagram has only two RC networks that influence its low-frequency response. One network is formed by
the output coupling capacitors and the output impedance looking at the drain. Just as in the case of BJT
amplifier, the reactance of the input coupling capacitor, reactance increases as the frequency decreases.
The phase angle also changes with change in frequency.
As the frequency is increased beyond mid-frequency range the internal transistor capacitance effect is
predominant. For JFET‟s is the internal capacitance between gate and source. This is also called input
capacitance, . The other internal capacitance, which effects the performance is acts as a feedback
SRIT, ECE Page 72

circuit, which couples both, input and output. The effect of both these capacitances is that it reduced the
gain appreciably as in the case of BJT.
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

2. Set source voltage VS = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function generator.
3. Keeping input voltage constant vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and note
down the corresponding output voltage.
5. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.
6. Calculate all the parameters at mid band frequencies (i.e. at 1 KHz).
7. To calculate voltage gain
Gain AVS = Output Voltage (VO) / Source Voltage (VS)
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Expected waveform:
response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as fLand fH and are
called as the 3dB frequencies are simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies respectively. The
difference between higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to as bandwidth (f H - fL).
Observation tables:
VS = 100mV
Frequency Vo(volts) Gain= Vo/Vs Gain(dB)=20 log(Vo/Vs)
200 0.7 7 16.90
400 0.7 8 18.06
800 0.7 8 18.06
12800 0.7 8 18.06
102000 0.65 7 16.90
204800 0.60 6 15.56
Result:
JFET common source amplifier is studied and it‟s cut off frequencies and Bandwidth is found.
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Viva Questions:
1. Why FET is called as unipolar device?
Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.
2. Why the common-source (CS) amplifier may be viewed as a transconductance amplifier or as a

voltage amplifier?
Ans: As a transconductance amplifier, the input voltage is seen as modulating the current going to the
load. As a voltage amplifier, input voltage modulates the amount of current flowing through the FET,
changing the voltage across the output resistance according to Ohm's law. However, the FET device's
output resistance typically is not high enough for a reasonable transconductance amplifier (ideally
infinite), nor low enough for a decent voltage amplifier (ideally zero).
3. What are the characteristics of JFET source amplifier?
Ans: At low frequencies and using a simplified hybrid-pi model, the following small-signal characteristics
can be derived.
Definition Expression
Current Gain
Voltage Impedance
Input Impedance
Output Impedance
4. What is the impedance of FET?
Ans:
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9.UJT Characteristics
Aim:
To study and plot the Characteristics of UJT.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1. UJT 2N 2646 1(One) No.
2. Resistors (1 K Ohm) 2(Two) No.
3. Bread board 1(One) No.
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1. Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 - 30 V) 1(One) No.
2. Digital Ammeters ( 0 - 200 mA) 1(One) No.
3. Digital Voltmeter (0 - 20V) 2(Two) No.
4. Connecting wires (Single Strand)
Specifications:
For UJT 2N- 2646:
 Peak emitter current (Ip) = 2A

 Continuous emitter current (IE) = 50mA
 Inter Base Voltage (VBB) = 35V
 Emitter Base Reverse Voltage (VEB2) = -30V
 Power dissipation at 25°C = 300mW
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Circuit Diagram:
Pin assignment of UJT:
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Operation:
The UJT- junction is a 3 - terminal solid-state device (emitter and the two bases). The simplified
equivalent circuit is shown below:
The device has only one PN junction and hence it is known as UNI-JUNCTION transistor. The PN emitter
to base junction is shown as diode D1. The inter base resistance RBB of the N-type Si bar appears as two
resistors RB1 and RB2.
Referring to equivalent circuit:
1. When no voltage is applied between B1 and B2 with emitter open, the inter base resistance is
give by RBB = RB1 + RB2.
2. When a voltage VBB is applied between B1 and B2 with emitter open, voltage will divide up across
RB1 and RB2.
VRB1 = VBB where = the intrinsic stand-off ration =
The VBB across RB1 reverse biased diode thereby dropping the emitter current to zero.
3. When supply is connected at the emitter, the diode is forward biased making the input voltage to
exceed by VD
%u200BVp = VBB + Vb
Since the diode is conducting, the resistance between emitter and base (B1) reduces and hence the
internal drop from emitter to B1 decreases.
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The emitter conductivity characteristics are such that as IE increases the emitter to base (B1) voltage
decreases. At a peak point Vp and the valley point Vv, the slope of the emitter characteristics is 0. At
points to the left of VB to E-B1 is forward biased and IE exists. Between Vp and Vv increase in IE is
accompanied by a relation in emitter voltage VE. This is the negative resistance region of UJT. Beyond the
valley point Vvan increase in IE is accomplished by an increase in VE. This region is known as the
saturation region.
Procedure:

2. Set output voltage VBB1 = 5V by varying VBB.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down both emitter current IE and emitter voltage (VE).
4. Step size is not fixed because of non linear curve. Initially Vary VEE in steps of 1V. Current
IE remains zero. As voltage is varied further, current starts increasing while voltage V E drops. Note
down the readings VE and IE.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VBB1 = 10V.
Observations:
VEE (Volts) VBB1 = 3V VBB1 = 6V
VE(V) IE(mA) VE(V) IE(mA)
0.5 0.56 0 0.56 0
1.0 1.05 0 1.01 0
1.5 1.50 0 1.54 0
2 1.00 0.1 2.09 0
2.5 1.0 0.16 2.5 0
3.0 1.0 0.2 3.16 0
3.5 1.02 0.26 1.09 0.26
4.0 1.04 0.3 1.10 0.31
5 1.07 0.44 1.21 0.41
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Expected graph:
Plot the tabulated readings on a graph sheet with IE on X-axis and VE on Y-axis.
Inference:
1. There is a negative resistance region from peak point to valley point.

2. Increase in VBB1 increases the value of peak and valley voltages.
Precautions:
1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the UJT. This may lead to damage
of the UJT.
circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base-1, base-2 terminals of UJT.
Result:
The emitter characteristics of UJT are studied.
a. Peak Voltage, Vp ____1.5_______ Volts.

b. Peak Current, Ip _____0.44______ mA.
c. Valley Voltage, Vv _____1______ Volts.
d. Valley Current, Iv ______0.2_____ mA.
e. Negative Resistance ___________ Ohms.
Outcomes: Students are able to obtain the Emitter characteristics of UJT.
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Viva questions:
1. Write the features of UJT.
Ans: The device has only one junction, so it is called the uni-junction device. The device, because of one
P-N junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an ordinary diode as it has three terminals.
In a uni-junction transistor the emitter is heavily doped while the N-region is lightly doped, so the
resistance between the base terminals is relatively high, typically 4 to 10 kilo Ohm when the emitter is
open.The N-type silicon bar has a high resistance and the resistance between emitter and base-1 is
larger than that between emitter and base-2. It is because emitter is closer to base-2 than base-1.UJT is
operated with emitter junction forward- biased while the JFET is normally operated with the gate junction
reverse-biased.UJT does not have ability to amplify but it has the ability to control a large ac power with a
small signal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an oscillator.
2. What is the difference between UJT and FET?
Ans: The structure of a UJT is quite similar to that of an N-channel JFET.The main difference is that P-
type (gate) material surrounds the N-type (channel) material in case of JFET and the gate surface of the
JFET is much larger than emitter junction of UJT.
3. What is a UJT?
Ans: It is Uni-junction transistor, it has only one junction between emitter and n-slab.
4. What is relaxation oscillator?
Ans: A relaxation oscillator is an oscillator based upon the behavior of a physical system's return to
equilibrium after being disturbed. That is, a dynamical system within the oscillator continuously dissipates
its internal energy. Normally the system would return to its natural equilibrium; however, each time the
system reaches some threshold sufficiently close to its equilibrium, a mechanism disturbs it with
additional energy. Hence, the oscillator's behavior is characterized by long periods of dissipation followed
by short impulses. The period of the oscillations is set by the time it takes for the system to relax from
each disturbed state to the threshold that triggers the next disturbance.
5. What are the applications of UJT?
Ans: Relaxation oscillator, Saw tooth wave form generator
6. What is the importance of intrinsic stand-off ratio?
7. Why does negative resistance region appears in UJT?
8. What is the doping profile of UJT?
9. Is there any break down region in UJT?
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10.SCR Characteristics
Aim: To draw the V-I Characteristics of Silicon controlled rectifier.
Apparatus:
 SCR (TYN616)
 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
 Resistors 10kΩ, 1kΩ
 Ammeter (0-50)mA
 Voltmeter (0-20V)
 Breadboard
 Connecting Wires.
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It consists os 3
junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in reverse direction and
three terminals called anode A, cathode K , and a gate G. The operation of SCR can be studied when the
gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.
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When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J 2 no current
flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cutt off. When anode voltage is increased J 2 tends to breakdown.
When the gate positive,with respect to cathode J 3 junction is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased
.Electrons from N-type material move across junction J 3 towards gate while holes from P-type material
moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing ,anode current increaase is in
extremely small current junction J2 break down and SCR conducts heavily.
When gate is open thee breakover voltage is determined on the minimum forward voltage at which SCR
conducts heavily.Now most of the supply voltage appears across the load resistance.The holfing current
is the maximum anode current gate being open , when break over occurs.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK.
Observation:
VEE (Volts) VGK = 0.5V , IGK = -3.49 VGK = 0.8V , IGK = 7.32
VE(V) IE(mA) VE(V) IE(mA)
12 12 0 12 0
12.5 0.77 11.6 0.72 11.9
13 0.77 12.2 0.73 12.2
13.5 0.77 12.7 0.73 12.8
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VEE (Volts) VGK = 0.5V , IGK = -3.49 VGK = 0.8V , IGK = 7.32
14 0.77 13.2 0.74 13.3
14.5 0.77 13.7 0.74 13.7
15 0.77 14.2 0.74 14.2
15.5 0.77 14.7 0.74 14.8
16 0.77 15.2 0.74 15.3
16.5 0.77 15.7 0.74 15.8
17 0.76 16.2 0.75 16.3
17.5 0.76 16.6 0.75 16.2
18 0.76 17.2 0.75 17.2
Model Wave form:
Result: SCR Characteristics are observed.
SRIT, ECE Page 84

Viva questions:
1. What is an SCR?
Ans: Silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state current
controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's trade name for a
type of thyristor
2. What is the difference between SCR and TRIAC?
Ans: SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed to
TRIACs which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs can be
triggered normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs which can be triggered
normally by either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.
3. What are the applications of SCR?
Ans: SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage AC power
control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motor control.
SCRs and similar devices are used for rectification of high power AC in high-voltage direct current power
transmission. They are also used in the control of welding machines, mainly MTAW and GTAW
processes.
4. Why is Peak Reverse Voltage Important?
Ans: When an SCR is used for rectification, during the negative half cycle of given ac supply, reverse
voltage is applied across the SCR. If Peak Reverse Voltage is exceeded, there may be an avalanche
breakdown and the SCR will be damaged (unless the external circuit limits the current).Commercial SCRs
have a PRV up to 2.5kV.
5. What is asymmetrical SCR?
Ans: SCR incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as asymmetrical SCR, abbreviated ASCR.
They typically have a reverse breakdown rating in the 10's of volts. ASCR are used where either a
reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage source inverters) or where reverse
voltage would never occur (for example, in switching power supplies or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCR can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package. These are
known as RCT, for reverse conducting thyristor.
SRIT, ECE Page 85

11.Transistor Biasing
Objective:
To design and verify a Self Bias circuit for a given operating point.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors According to values calculated
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 – 200 mA) 1(One) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0-20V) 1(One) No.
SRIT, ECE Page 86

Circuit Diagram:
Operation:
A self bias circuit stabilizes the bias point more appropriately than a fixed bias circuit. In this experiment
CE configuration is used and a self bias circuit is designed and verified.
Calculations:
Given VCC = 10V, RE = 220 ohm IC = 4mA VCE = 6V, VBE = 0.6V hfe = 200
Note: VE value should be 1/4th or 1/10th of VCC.
IB = IC/
RE = VE/IE = VE/IC
RC = (VCC - VCE - VE)/IC
10R2 <= RE
VBB=IB*RB+VBE +(IB+IC)RE
R1=(VCC/VBB)*RB
R2=RB/(1-VBB/VCC)
VB = [R2/(R1 + R2) ]VCC
SRIT, ECE Page 87

Procedure:
1. Calculate the values of R1, R2, RC, RE, according to the given specifications and design equations.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram with the designed values.
3. Apply voltage VCC, measure the values of IC, IB, VCE,VBE.
Observations:
Parameter Theoritical Practical
VCE
VBE
IC
IB
Precautions:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Loose connections should be avoided.
Result:
The self bias circuit is designed and verified.
Outcomes:
Students are able to design self bias circuit and test its performance for a given operating point.
Viva Questions:
1. What are the advantages of self bias?

2. What are the various other techniques available for biasing?
3. What is the best biasing technique among all biasing technique?
4. Why biasing circuit is needed for amplifier?
5. What is the effect of input dc signal on Q-point?
6. What is Pc max?
7. What is thermal runaway?
8. What is the reason for thermal runaway?
9. Can DC signal be amplified by CE or CB amplifier?
10. What type of feedback is provided by RE in self biasing technique of CE configuration?
SRIT, ECE Page 88

Aim:
To design a fixed bias circuit and observe stability by changing β of the given transistor in CE
configuration.
Apparatus:
1. Transistors (BC 107) with different β values

2. R.P.S (0-30V) 2 No.s
3. Resistors (from design values)
4. Bread board and connecting wires
Circuit Diagram:
Fixed Bias Circuit:
Calculations:
Fixed Bias Circuit:
1. Given VCC = 10V, IC = 4mA, VCE = 6V, VBE = 0.6V, β = 100

2. IC = IB / β
3. RB = (VCC-VBE)/IB
4. RC = (VCC-VCE)/IC
SRIT, ECE Page 89

Procedure:
1. Assemble the circuit on breadboard with design values of RC, RB and β.

2. Apply VCC and measure VCE and VBE and record the readings in the table.
3. Without changing bias resistors, change the transistors with other β values and repeat the above
step.
4. Repeat the above steps using the collector to base bias circuit and tabulate all the readings.
Observations:
Fixed Bias:
β value VCE VBE IC=(VCC-VCE)/RC
100 6V 0.6V
Precautions:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. What are the applications of fixed bias configuration?

2. What are the applications of collector to base bias configuration?
3. What are the disadvantages of fixed bias configuration?
4. How to overcome the disadvantages of fixed bias configuration.
SRIT, ECE Page 90

12. BJT Characteristics(CC Configuration)
Aim: To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CC (CommonCollector) or
Emitter follower configuration.
Apparatus:
1. Transistor (SL100 or BC107)

2. R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos
3. Voltmeters (0-20V) 2Nos
4. Ammeters (0-200μA)
5. (0-200mA)
6. Resistors 100Kohm
7. Bread board and connecting wires
Theory:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. Inemitter follower
configuration, input voltage is applied between base and ground terminals and out put is taken across the
emitter and collector terminals. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve.
This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased.The output
characteristics are drawn between IE and VCE at constant IB. the emitter current varies with VCE unto
few volts only. After this the emitter current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The
value of VCE up to which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IE is always constant and is approximately
equal to IB.
Circuit Diagram:
SRIT, ECE Page 91

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 2V and note down
values of VCB for each value of IB
3. Change VCE to 10 V and repeat the above step.
4. Disconnect the voltmeter from input circuit.
5. Plot the graph between VCB and IB for constant VCE
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. With IB set at 0μA, vary VCE and note down the corresponding IE value
3. Set IB at 40μA, 80μA and repeat the above step.
4. Plot the output characteristics between VCE and IE for constant IB.
Observations:
S.No VCE = 2V VCE = 4V VCE = 10V
VCB(V) IB(µA) VCB(V) IB(µA) VCB(V) IB(µA)
S.No VCE = 2V VCE = 4V VCE = 10V
VCE(V) IE(µA) VCE(V) IE(µA) VCB(V) IB(µA)
SRIT, ECE Page 92

Model Graphs:
SRIT, ECE Page 93

Precautions:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities
Result: Studied the characteristics of Emitter Follwer circuit.
Viva Questions:
1. What are the input and output impedances of CC configuration?

2. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
3. Why CC configuration is preferred for buffering?
4. What is the phase relation between input and output?
5. Draw diagram of CC configuration for PNP transistor?
6. What are the applications of CC configuration?
SRIT, ECE Page 94

13.BJT Characteristics(CB Configuration)
Objective:
To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor in Common Base Configuration.
Components:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Transistor BC 107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (1K ) 2(Two) No.
Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 – 200 mA) 2(Two) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0-20V) 2(Two) No.
4 Connecting wires (Single Strand) 2
Specifications:
For Transistor BC 107:
 Max Collector Current = 0.1A

 Vceo max = 50V
SRIT, ECE Page 95

Circuit Diagram:
h – Parameter model of CB transistor:
SRIT, ECE Page 96

Pin assignment of Transistor:
View from side of pins
View from top of casing
Operation:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal (emitter, base, collector) semiconductor device.
There are two types of BJTs, namely NPN and PNP. It consists of two PN junctions, namely emitter
junction and collector junction.
The basic circuit diagram for studying input characteristics is shown in the circuit diagram. The input is
applied between emitter and base, the output is taken between collector and base. Here base of the
transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name is Common Base Configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage at constant output voltage.
It is plotted between VEE and IE at constant VCB in CB configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current at constant input
current. It is plotted between VCB and IC at constant IE in CB configuration.
SRIT, ECE Page 97

Procedure:

2. Keep output voltage VCB = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage(VEE).
4. Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VEE in steps of 0.1 V. Once the
current starts increasing vary VEE in steps of 1V up to 12V.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCB = 4V.

2. Keep emitter current IE = 5mA by varying VEE.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector current IC and collector-
base voltage(VCB).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE = 10mA.
Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE = 10mA.
Observations:
Input Characteristics
VEE (Volts) VCB = 0V VCB = 4V
VEB (Volts) IE (mA) VEB (Volts) IE (mA)
SRIT, ECE Page 98

VCC (Volts) IE = 0mA IE = 5V IE = 10mA
VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA)
Graph:
1. Plot the input characteristics for different values of VCB by taking VEE on X-axis and IE on Y-axis
taking VCB as constant parameter.
2. Plot the output characteristics by taking VCB on X-axis and taking IC on Y-axis taking IE as a
constant parameter.
The h-parameters are to be calculated from the following formulae:
1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance, find VEE and IE for a constant VCB on one
of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hib = Ri = VEE / IE (VCB = constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hrb = VEB / VCB (IE = constant)
SRIT, ECE Page 99

2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCB at a constant IE.
Output admitance = hob = 1/Ro = IC / VCB (IE = constant)
Forward current gain = hfb = IC / IE (VCB = constant)
Inference:
1. Input resistance is in the order of tens of ohms since Emitter-Base Junction is forward biased.
2. Output resistance is in order of hundreds of kilo-ohms since Collector-Base Junction is reverse
biased.
3. Higher is the value of VCB, smaller is the cut in voltage.
4. Increase in the value of IB causes saturation of transistor at small voltages.
Precautions:
1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to
damage the transistor.
circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
Result:
Input and Output characteristics of a Transistor in Common Base Configuration are studied.
The h-parameters for a transistor in CB configuration are:
a. The Input resistance (hib) __________________ Ohms.

b. The Reverse Voltage Transfer Ratio (hrb) __________________.
c. The Output Admittance (hob) __________________ Mhos.
d. The Forward Current gain (hfb) __________________.
1. analyze the characteristics of BJT in Common Base Configuration.

2. calculate h-parameters from the characteristics obtained.
SRIT, ECE Page 100

Discussion/Viva Questions:
1. What is transistor?
Ans: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical
power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a portmanteau of the term "transfer
resistor".
2. Write the relation between and ?
Ans:
3. Define (alpha)? What is the range of ?
Ans: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The common-base current gain is
approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually
has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.
4. Why is less than unity?
Ans: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.
5. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?
Ans: hib = VBE / IE, 1 / hoe = VCE / IC
6. What is carrier lifetime?
7. What is the importance of Fermi level?
8. Can the junction less transistors be realized?
9. What is the doping level of E, B and C layers?
10. List the various current components in BJT.
11. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration?
12. Identify various regions in output characteristics?
13. What are the applications of CB configuration?
14. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
15. What is EARLY effect?
16. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor?
SRIT, ECE Page 101


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SRINIVASA RAMANUJAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to JNTUA & Approved by AICTE)

1. To identify the different component symbols.

SRIT, ECE Page 1

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

SRIT, ECE Page 2

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer characteristic,

In this lab we will find the characteristics of

1. P-N junction diode

SRIT, ECE Page 3

1. Bipolar Transistor Example: Bipolar junction transistor

Bipolar junction transistor

Field effect transistor

SRIT, ECE Page 4

The FET's three terminals are:

ii) P-Channel JFET

2. Metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

ii) P-Channel MOSFET

ii) P-Channel MOSFET

SRIT, ECE Page 5

SRIT, ECE Page 6

SRIT, ECE Page 7

SRIT, ECE Page 8

SRIT, ECE Page 9

Resistor value calculation

SRIT, ECE Page 10

When a capacitor is being discussed, it is referred to with certain "specifications" or characteristics.

 They are specified by type (tantalum, electrolytic, etc.)

Regulated power supply

SRIT, ECE Page 11

SRIT, ECE Page 12

Waveform Sin, square and triangular

Frequency range 0.1Hz to 1MHz

Offset Continuously variable 10V

Output impedance 600ohms,5%

Range selector is used to select the range of frequency

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring

SRIT, ECE Page 13

 Voltage, alternating and direct, in volts.

Additionally, some multimeters measure:

Digital multimeters may also include circuits for:

 Continuity tester; sounds when a circuit conducts

SRIT, ECE Page 14

SRIT, ECE Page 15

The main parts are

ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.

INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.

It selects coupling of ACDC ground signal to vertical amplifier.

VERTICAL SECTION: y position:

This enables movement of display along y-axis.

DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be displayed.

VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.

X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along xaxis.

TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.

SRIT, ECE Page 16

SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.

STAB: Present on panel

EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.

HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.

Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.

Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.

Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.

Amplitude taken on vertical section (y).