Lecture 3

Let’s learn a few definitions that we will frequently stumble upon during this course.

 Eigenvalue equation

For any randomly chosen operator 𝑂̂ there exists a function 𝑓(𝑥) such that

𝑂̂𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥); 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

This is called an eigenvalue equation. 𝑓(𝑥) is called the eigen function of the operator 𝑂̂ and the
̂ 𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓.
constant is called the eigenvalue. TISE is a typical eigenvalue equation, 𝐻

In general an operator may transform a wavefunction into another function, but an eigenfunction
is special in that it is left unchanged under the operation except for being multiplied by a number.
Note that if 𝑓(𝑥) is an eigenfunction with eigenvalue c, then 𝑎𝑓(𝑥) is also an eigenfunction (for
any nonzero a) with the same eigenvalue.

 Properties of Operators

Linear Operators

An operator is called linear if it satisfies the following condition:

𝐴̂{𝑎𝜑1 + 𝑏𝜑2 } = 𝑎𝐴̂𝜑1 + 𝑏𝐴̂𝜑2

Examples:

𝜕
̂=
1. 𝐷 → 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝜑1 𝜕𝜑2
̂ {𝑎𝜑1 + 𝑏𝜑2 } =
𝐷 {𝑎𝜑1 + 𝑏𝜑2 } = 𝑎 +𝑏 ̂ 𝜑1 + 𝑏𝐷
= 𝑎𝐷 ̂ 𝜑2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

2. 𝑃̂𝜑 = 𝜑 3 − 3𝜑 2 − 4 → 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑃̂{𝑎𝜑1 + 𝑏𝜑2 } = 𝑃̂𝑎𝜑1 + 𝑃̂ 𝑏𝜑2 = (𝑎𝜑1 )3 − 3(𝑎𝜑1 )2 − 4 + (𝑏𝜑2 )3 − 3𝑏(𝜑2 )2 − 4

≠ 𝑎𝑃̂𝜑1 + 𝑏𝑃̂𝜑2

Compatible operators
Two operators representing observables are said to be compatible if they commute i.e.
[𝐴̂, 𝐵̂ ]𝑓 = (𝐴̂𝐵̂ − 𝐵̂ 𝐴̂)𝑓 = 0

Physically there exist state functions where both 𝐴̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵̂ can be measured unambiguously in a
simultaneous manner. The order of operation does not really matter in such states i.e. 𝐴̂ can be
measured first and 𝐵̂ later and vice versa. Check the followingoperatorsfor example!

ℏ 𝜕𝑓 ℏ 𝜕 ℏ 𝜕𝑓 ℏ 𝜕𝑓
[𝑥̂, 𝑝̂𝑧 ] = 𝑥̂(𝑝̂𝑧 𝑓) − 𝑝̂𝑧 (𝑥̂𝑓) = 𝑥̂ ( )− (𝑥𝑓) = 𝑥 ( )−𝑥 =0
𝑖 𝜕𝑧 𝑖 𝜕𝑧 𝑖 𝜕𝑧 𝑖 𝜕𝑧
Non-compatible operators

Operators that do not commute are called non-compatible operators.

[𝐶̂ , 𝐷
̂ ]𝑓 = (𝐶̂ 𝐷 ̂ 𝐶̂ )𝑓 ≠ 0
̂−𝐷

Or [𝐶̂ , 𝐷
̂] ≠ 0

Example:

ℏ 𝜕𝑓 ℏ 𝜕 ℏ 𝜕𝑓 ℏ 𝜕𝑓 ℏ
[𝑥̂, 𝑝̂𝑥 ]𝑓 = 𝑥̂(𝑝̂𝑥 𝑓) − 𝑝̂𝑥 (𝑥̂𝑓) = 𝑥̂ ( )− (𝑥𝑓) = 𝑥 ( )−𝑥 − 𝑓 = 𝑖ℏ𝑓
𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝑖

Relevant problems

1. Give a mathematical definition for the Kronnecker delta (δnm). What is the numerical value
of the Kronnecker delta when the two eigenfunctions are orthogonal? What is the numerical
value of the Kronnecker delta when n and m are the same eigenfunction (i.e. n = m)? In
addition to these two values, can the Kronnecker delta be equal to any other numerical
values?
 d 
2. 3. Find the result of operating on the function f  y   e  y
2
/2
with A  y    and
 dy 
 d 
B  y    . Is f(y) an eigenfunction of  or of B̂ ?
 dy 

4. Find the following commutators for any function f(x).

  
(a) dˆ , x 2 
 

  
(b) d 2 , xˆ 
 

 
d d2
Hint: dˆ  , d 2  2 , xˆ  x , and x 2  x 2 .
dx dx

 1  d  2 d  2
5. Find the result of operating with the operator O   r    on the function
r 2  dr   dr  r

  Ae br . What values must the constants have for  to be an eigenfunction of O ?

 
6. Find the result of operating with the operator  2 on the function x 2  y 2  z 2 . Is it an
eigenfunction?

7. The function   Ax1  x  is a well-behaved wave function in the interval 0  x  1 . Calculate

the normalization constant (A), and the average value of a series of measurements of x (i.e find
the expectation value: <x>).

8. For the wave function  and the operator ̂ , give an expression that could be used to calculate

the average value obtained from repeated measurements (i.e. show an expression for  ˆ  ).