Phonological Processes Chart

Phonological Processes Description Example

Consonant Cluster A consonant cluster is ‘star’ becomes ‘tar’ or
Simplification (reduction) simplified, changed, or ‘dar’ ‘must’ becomes ‘mu’
eliminated
Whole Word/Syllable Processes

Final Consonant Deletion The final consonant of a word ‘cup’ becomes ‘cu’
is deleted
Reduplication A syllable is repeated often making ‘wagon’ becomes ‘wawa’
CVCV word
Unstressed (weak) Syllable An unstressed syllable of a word ‘banana’ becomes ‘nana’
Deletion is deleted
Coalescence Features of two adjacent ‘crying’ becomes ‘bying’
sounds are combined into one
sound
Epenthesis A segment is added ‘plan’ becomes ‘palane’

Metathesis Two sounds or segments are ‘cinnamon’ becomes

transposed ‘cimmanin’

Affrication A fricative becomes an affricate ‘sheep’ becomes ‘cheep’

Backing A sound is replaced by a ‘too’ becomes ‘koo’

sound made further back in
the mouth
Deaffrication An affricate becomes a fricative ‘chair’ becomes ‘shair’
Substitution Processes

Denasalization A nasal sound becomes a stop ‘no’ becomes ‘do’

Devoicing of Final Consonants A voiced final sound is devoiced ‘bad’ becomes ‘bat’

Gliding of Liquids Prevocalic liquids become glides ‘light’ becomes ‘wight’

Glottal Replacement A final or intervocalic sound ‘wagon’ becomes ‘wa?on’

is replaced by a glottal stop
Prevocalic Voicing A prevocalic voiceless sound ‘too’ becomes ‘doo’
is voiced
Stopping A fricative or affricate becomes a ‘sheep’ becomes ‘teep’
stop
Velar Fronting A sound is replaced by a ‘cup’ becomes ‘tup’
sound made further forward in
mouth
Vocalization A liquid or nasal becomes a vowel ‘over’ becomes ‘ova’

Labial Assimilation A nonlabial consonant becomes ‘bad’ becomes ‘bab’

milat

labial in the presence of a labial

Assi

Nasal Assimilation A nonnasal consonant becomes a ‘can’ becomes ‘nan’

nasal in the presence of a nasal

*May be progressive – a sound at the beginning of a word changes one at the end or regressive – a sound at
the end of a word changes one at the beginning. Adapted from Bernthal and Bankson, 1998.
 Velar Assimilation A nonvelar consonant becomes ‘dog’ becomes ‘gog’

Pr
io
a velar in the presence of a

n
velar

*May be progressive – a sound at the beginning of a word changes one at the end or regressive – a sound at
the end of a word changes one at the beginning. Adapted from Bernthal and Bankson, 1998.
For more information see the following references:
 Bernthal, J. E., & Bankson, N. W. (1998). Articulation and phonological disorders (4th ed.).
Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
 Hodson, B. W. (1992). Applied phonology: constructs, contributions, and issues. Language, Speech,
and Hearing Services in Schools.23(3), 247-252.
 Khan, L. (1982). A Review of 16 Major Phonological Processes Language, Speech, and
Hearing Services in Schools Vol.13 77-85.
 Klein, E. S. (1996). Phonological/traditional approaches to articulation therapy: a
retrospective group comparison. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 27(4),
314-323.
 Overby, M., Carrell, T. & Bernthal, J. (2007). Teachers’ perceptions of students with speech
sound disorders: a quantitative and qualitative analysis. Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services in Schools. 38(4), 327-341.
 Priesser, D. A. , Hodson, B. W., Paden, E. P. (1988). Developmental phonology: 18-29 months.
Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders. 53(2), 125-130.

Web sites:
 Phonological Processes (three online training modules) www.ttaconline.org
 Overview of Phonological Processes
www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/SpeechSoundDisorders.htm

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction does not represent an endorsement or review of the product by
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Adapted from Speech-Language Pathology Services in Schools: Guidelines for Best Practice ©2018 by the
Commonwealth of Virginia Department of Education. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission. Use of these
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Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction does not represent an endorsement or review of the product by
the Virginia Department of Education.