A REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

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COMPILED BY
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STEPH NOV 3
PALEJARO 2021

LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY

Phonetics
The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds.

Articulatory Phonetics Study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.

SEPYT

Acoustic Phonetics Physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.

Auditory Phonetics Deals with perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.

Voiced Sounds
Voiced
vocal folds are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes

through, creating a vibration effect

Voiceless

vocal folds are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded

PLACE OF ARTICULATION the location at which two speech organs approach or come PL
together in producing a speech sound

BILIBIALS

Formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia).
The initial sounds in the words
pat, bat and mat .

initial sounds of the words fat and

LABIODENTALS Formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. vat and the final sounds in the
words safe and save

DENTALS Formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The initial sound of thin and the
final sound of bath.

Formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge,
ALVEOLARS which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above
The initial sound of thin and the
final sound of bath.
the upper teeth.

The initial sounds in top, dip, sit,

PALATALS Sounds produced with the tongue and the palate
zoo and nut

beginning of words like go, gun

VELARS Sounds produced with the back of the tongue
against the velum
and give. final sound in words
like bag, mug and, plague

GLOTTALS Produced without the active use of the tongue and

other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h].
beginning of house, have, whose,
who.
Charting consonant sounds

MANNER OF ARTICULATION
the way they are pronounced

STOPS a blocking or briefly stopping effect on the air stream, then letting go abruptly. Bed and ten

almost blocking the air stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the
FRICATIVES air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called
fricatives. Ex. Fish and those

a brief stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release which causes some friction,
AFFRICATES you will be able to produce the sounds [ʧ] and [ʤ]. beginning of the words cheap and
jeep.

NASALS velum is lowered and the air stream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce
[m], [n] and [ŋ]. Morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals

formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of
LIQUIDS the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. Led and red.

GLIDES typically produced with the tongue in motion (or “gliding”) to or from the position
of a vowel and are sometimes called semi-vowels

GLOTTAL STOP occurs when the space between the vocal folds (the glottis) is closed completely
(very briefly), then released. Butter or bottle without pronouncing the “-tt-”

This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly.
GLOTTAL FLAP “budder,” rider, metal and medal.

Vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air. They are all

VOWELS typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue
influences the shape through which the airflow must pass.

HIGH, FRONT VOWELS- Place of Articulation- front versus a back and a high versus a low area. sound is made with

HEAT, HIT the front part of the tongue in a raised position

LOW, BACK VOWELS-

HOT, HAT
 -sounds that consist of a combination
list of the major vowels with examples of familiar
DIPTHONGS
words illustrating some of the variation in spelling of two vowel sounds.
that is possible for each sound. -low towards high front
/aʊ/ as in “Town”
/aɪ/ as in “Light”
/eɪ/ as in “Play”
/eə/ as in “Pair”
/ɪə/ as in “Deer”
/oʊ/ as in “Slow”
/ɔɪ/ as in “Toy”
/ʊə/ as in “Sure”

PHONOLOGY
description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds

concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the

sounds in language.
the underlying design, the blueprint of each sound type,
which serves as the constant basis of all the variations in
different physical articulations of that sound type in
different contexts. if feature is present, we mark it with a plus sign (+)

is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language and if it’s not present, we use a minus sign (−)

that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical differences between phonemes and allophones
sounds we say and hear. phoneme- individual unit of sound in a word.
PHONEME- Meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language allophone- articulation of a phoneme
slash marks (/)- used to indicate a phoneme.
brackets ([])- used for each phonetic produced segment Nasalization (˜-tilde)-nasal effects in sound,
usually a vowel.
/f/ & /v/- English phonemes
ex. [m], [n], and [ŋ]- think, and sing
features- distinguishes each phoneme from the next
-nose, bring, mouth
ex. phoneme /k/- cat, kit, scat, skit.
PHONES- different versions of the sound-type regularly produced in actual speech.
-they are phonetic units and appear in square brackets
ALLOPHONE- is one set of multiple spoken sounds used to pronounce a single phoneme.
ex. the /a/ sound in mat and the /a/ sound in mad.
/t/ sound in tar vs star
Aspiration- puff of air
MINIMAL PAIR AND SETS CONSONANT CLUSTERS
Minimal pair- when two words are identical in Consonant cluster- when both the onset and the
form except for a contrast in one phoneme. coda can consist of more than one consonant.
ex. pat & bat, fan & van, bet & bat, and site & side Ex. /st/ used as onset in stop and /st/ used as a
Minimal set- a group of words can be coda in post.
differentiated by changing one phoneme. black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw
ex. feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, and foot
big, pig, rig, dig, fig, wig COARTICULATION EFFECTS
PHONOTACTICS- Contraints or rules Coarticulation- The process of making one sound
in speech sounds. almost at the same time as the next sound.
Assimation- When two sound segments occur in
SYLLABLES- Contains are vowel or vowel like
sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken
sound, including dipthongs
or “copied” by the other
RHYME- Consists of a vowel and treated as a
Elision - illustrating the normal pronunciation of
nucleus. Following consonants are described as the
you and me.
coda.
The Normal Speech - These two processes of
NUCLEUS- the central part of the syllable
assimilation and elision occur in everyone’s
commonly a vowel.
normal speech and should not be regarded as some
CODA- (AKA Auslaut) consonants of a syllable
type of sloppiness or laziness in speaking.
that follow the nucleus.
ONSET- the sound occurring before the nucleus.
OPEN SYLLABLES- have an onset and nucleus
but with coda.
Ex. me, to, no
CLOSED SYLLABLES- coda is present
ex. up, cup, at, hat
Morphology
-“the study of forms,”
-type of investigation that analyzes all those basic “elements” used
in a language
Morphemes- “elements” in the form of a linguistic message
"base" or "root" that gives the word its principle meaning.
a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.
EX. the morpheme in the word womanly is woman.
(talk) talker, talking, talked, talks
reopened (re) (open) (ed) tourists (tour) (rist) (s) MORPHS- the actual forms used to realize
morphemes
ex. (cats) cat- lexical morpheme, s- inflectional
FREE MORPHEMES- morphemes that can stand by themselves as
morpheme.
single words. ALLOMORPHS- a group of different
EX. open, tour morphs, all versions of one morpheme.
ex. (s) has three allomorphs
BOUND MORPHEMES- forms that cannot normally stand alone (s) cats
and are typically attached to another form. (z) dogs
EX. -re, -ist, -ed, -s, (affixes) (I z) boxes

-all affixes, prefixes, and suffixes in English are bound

morphemes.
-basic nouns, adjectives, verbs are free morphemes
STEMS- basic word forms.

EX.

Lexical and functional morphemes

Lexical morphemes- set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs
that carry the “content” of the messages. ex. girl, man, house, tiger,
sad
functional morphemes- functional words in the language such as
conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. ex. and, but, when,
because, on, near, above, in.
Derivational and inflectional morphemes
derivational morphemes- used to make new words or to make new
words of a different grammatical category.
EX. (-ness) good- goodness, (-less, -ful) care- careful, careless.
ex. of derivational morphemes
re-, pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un, ful, less, ly, ment.
inflectional morphemes- indicate aspects of the grammatical function
of a word.
-used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not,
comparative or possessive form.
Ex. -ing, ed, en, est, er, s, 's
Noun + -’s, -s Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en Adjective + -er, -est
SYNTAX
Generative grammar- “generate” or produce sentence
Comes originally from Greek and literally means
“a putting together” or “arrangement

* ungrammatical sentence
structures and not just describe them. → consists of / rewrites as
Deep structure- an abstract level of structural organization in ( ) optional constituent
which all the elements determining structural interpretation are { } one and only one of these
represented.
constituents must be selected
(Noun Phrase + Verb + Noun Phrase)
structural ambiguity- has two distinct underlying Movement rules
interpretations that have to be represented differently in deep
structure.
ex. Nicole saw the people with binoculars
1st inter: Nicole saw people through binoculars
2nd inter: The people had binoculars when Nicole saw them

Recursion-rules have the capacity to be applied more than once

in generating a structure.
For ex. we can have one prepositional phrase describing Lexical rules
location (on the table) in the sentence The gun was on the table.
the gun was near the window.

TREE DIAGRAMS
visual representation of syntactic structure
COMMON SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
S sentence
NP noun phrase
PN proper noun (Mary, George)
Complement phrases
N noun (girl, dog, boy)
VP verb phrase
Adv adverb (Verb+ly) (Openly, tightly,filthy)
V verb ( followed, helped, saw)
Adj adjective (describing words)
Prep preposition (At, above, by, upon, in)
Art article ({a, the)
Pro pronoun (it, you)
PP prepositional phrase (at high waters, on top of the bed)
Aux auxiliary verb (am, is, are, was, were, being)