2021-ME-108 HMT Lab Reports

Shahjahan Khuram 2021-ME-108
University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
Mechanical Engineering Department
Heat and Mass Transfer Lab Report
Submitted to
Sir Syed Saqib
Submitted By
Shahjahan Khuram
Section C
2021-ME-108
1
Contents
Experiment No. I.............................................................................................................................7
Objective:.....................................................................................................................................7
Apparatus:....................................................................................................................................7
......................................................................................................................................................7
Introduction:.................................................................................................................................7
Theory:.........................................................................................................................................8
Transfer of heat:...........................................................................................................................8
Analytical method:.....................................................................................................................10
Laser Flash Method:...............................................................................................................10
SAFETY GUIDELINES:...........................................................................................................13
Experiment No. 2...........................................................................................................................14
Objective:.......................................................................................................................................14
Apparatus:......................................................................................................................................14
Introduction:..................................................................................................................................14
Methodology:.................................................................................................................................15
Analytical Method:........................................................................................................................17
Procedure:......................................................................................................................................18
Results and observations:..............................................................................................................18
Graph:............................................................................................................................................19
Conclusion:....................................................................................................................................21
Experiment No. 3...........................................................................................................................22
1. Objective:...............................................................................................................................22
2. Apparatus:..............................................................................................................................22
4. Theory:...................................................................................................................................22
Heat Transfer..............................................................................................................................22
Heat Conduction........................................................................................................................23
Steady State Conduction........................................................................................................23
Transient Conduction.............................................................................................................23
Thermal Contact Conduction.................................................................................................23
5. Methodology:.........................................................................................................................24
2
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction.........................................................................................24

Effect of cross-sectional area of heat conduction......................................................................25
Thermal Conductivity................................................................................................................25
Thermal Conductance................................................................................................................25
Thermal Resistivity....................................................................................................................25
Heat Transfer coefficient...........................................................................................................26
6. Procedure:...............................................................................................................................26
7. Observation and calculations:................................................................................................26
8. Graph:.....................................................................................................................................27
9. Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................27
Experiment No. 4...........................................................................................................................28
Objective:.......................................................................................................................................28
Apparatus:......................................................................................................................................28
Introduction:..................................................................................................................................28
Theory:...........................................................................................................................................29
Heat Transfer..............................................................................................................................29
Heat Conduction........................................................................................................................29
Steady State Conduction........................................................................................................29
Transient Conduction.............................................................................................................29
Methodology:.................................................................................................................................30
Radial Heat Flow.......................................................................................................................30
Procedure:......................................................................................................................................30
Observation and calculations:........................................................................................................30
Graph:............................................................................................................................................31
Conclusion:....................................................................................................................................33
Experiment No. 5...........................................................................................................................34
Observations:.................................................................................................................................34
Apparatus:......................................................................................................................................34
Introduction:..................................................................................................................................34
Theory:...........................................................................................................................................35
3
Methodology:.................................................................................................................................36
Newton's Cooling Law:..........................................................................................................36
Procedure:......................................................................................................................................36
Observation and calculations:........................................................................................................37
Graph:............................................................................................................................................37
Conclusion:....................................................................................................................................38
Experiment# 06..............................................................................................................................39
Objective....................................................................................................................................39
Introduction................................................................................................................................39
Convection..............................................................................................................................39
Free Convection.....................................................................................................................39
Forced Convection.................................................................................................................39
Literature Review:......................................................................................................................39
Methodology..............................................................................................................................40
Apparatus................................................................................................................................40
Procedure................................................................................................................................41
Observations and Calculations...................................................................................................41
Table.......................................................................................................................................41
Sample Calculation.................................................................................................................42
Graph......................................................................................................................................43
Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................44
Experiment# 07..............................................................................................................................45
Objective....................................................................................................................................45
Introduction................................................................................................................................45
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient....................................................................................45
Literature review:.......................................................................................................................45
Methodology..............................................................................................................................46
Apparatus................................................................................................................................46
Procedure................................................................................................................................46
Table.......................................................................................................................................47
Sample Calculation.................................................................................................................47
4
Graph......................................................................................................................................48
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................50
Experiment# 08..............................................................................................................................52
Objective....................................................................................................................................52
Introduction................................................................................................................................52
Heat Exchanger......................................................................................................................52
Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger...........................................................................................52
Methodology..............................................................................................................................52
Apparatus................................................................................................................................52
Procedure................................................................................................................................53
Table.......................................................................................................................................53
Sample Calculation:...............................................................................................................53
Graph......................................................................................................................................54
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................54
Experiment# 09..............................................................................................................................56
Objective....................................................................................................................................56
Introduction................................................................................................................................56
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger................................................................................................56
Counter Flow Heat Exchanger...............................................................................................56
Methodology..............................................................................................................................57
Apparatus................................................................................................................................57
Procedure................................................................................................................................57
Table.......................................................................................................................................58
Graph......................................................................................................................................59
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................60
Experiment# 10..............................................................................................................................61
Objective....................................................................................................................................61
Introduction................................................................................................................................61
5
Convective Boiling.................................................................................................................61
Nucleate Boiling.....................................................................................................................61
Film Boiling...........................................................................................................................61
Methodology..............................................................................................................................61
Apparatus................................................................................................................................62
Procedure................................................................................................................................62
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................62
Experiment# 11..............................................................................................................................63
Objective....................................................................................................................................63
Introduction................................................................................................................................63
Heat Flux................................................................................................................................63
Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient..........................................................................................63
Methodology..............................................................................................................................63
Apparatus................................................................................................................................63
Procedure................................................................................................................................63
Table.......................................................................................................................................64
Graph......................................................................................................................................66
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................66
Experiment# 12..............................................................................................................................67
Objective....................................................................................................................................67
Introduction................................................................................................................................67
Radiation................................................................................................................................67
Radiation Intensity.................................................................................................................67
Methodology..............................................................................................................................68
Apparatus................................................................................................................................68
Procedure................................................................................................................................68
Graph......................................................................................................................................69
Conclusion:................................................................................................................................69
6
Experiment No. I
“Investigation of Fourier’s law for Linear Conduction
of a Simple Bar.”
Objective:
Investigate and verify Fourier’s

Law for linear heat
Conduction along a simple bar.
Law for linear heat
Law for linear heat
7
Confirm the validity of Fourier's law for heat conduction by measuring temperature gradients
and heat transfer rates in a simple bar
Apparatus:
 Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit
 Test Unit (Insulated bars)
 Temperature measuring multimeter
Fig 1. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit
Introduction:
Conduction is defined as the

transfer of energy from more
energetic particles to adjacent
8
less energetic particles as a

result of interactions between
the particles. In solids,
conduction is the combined
result of molecular vibrations
and free electron mobility.
Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which
explains why they are good heat
Conductors.
Conduction can be easily
understood if we imagine two
blocks, one very hot and the
Other cold. If we put these
blocks in contact with one
9
another but insulate them from

the
surroundings, thermal energy
will be transferred from the
hot to the cold block, as
Evidenced by the increase in
temperature of the cold block.
This mode of heat transfer
between the two solid blocks is
termed ‘conduction’.
Conduction is defined as the
transfer of energy from more
energetic particles to adjacent
10
less energetic particles as a

result of interactions between
the particles. In solids,
conduction is the combined
result of molecular vibrations
and free electron mobility.
Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which
explains why they are good heat
conductors.
Conduction can be easily
understood if we imagine two
blocks, one very hot and the
other cold. If we put these
blocks in contact with one
11
another but insulate them from

the
surroundings, thermal energy
will be transferred from the
hot to the cold block, as
evidenced by the increase in
temperature of the cold block.
This mode of heat transfer
between the two solid blocks is
termed ‘conduction’.
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high
free electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat conductors. Conduction can be
easily understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold. If we put these
blocks in contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will
be transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase in temperature of the
cold block. This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is termed ‘conduction’.
Theory:
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer in which thermal energy is transferred through a material
or between objects in direct contact due to the collisions and interactions of neighboring particles
(atoms, molecules, or electrons) within the material.
12
Fig 2 conduction process in a body
Heat flows from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature during
conduction until thermal equilibrium is reached. Materials with high thermal conductivity
facilitate efficient heat conduction, while those with low thermal conductivity are less effective
at transferring heat through conduction.
Transfer of heat:
The transfer of heat can be explained using the equation for heat transfer through conduction,
which is given by Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction. The formula is as follows:
dT
Q = -kA dx …… (1)
Where:
 Q represents the rate of heat transfer (in watts, W).
 K is the thermal conductivity of the material (in watts per meter per degree Celsius, W/
(m·°C)).
 A is the cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred (in square meters, m²).
dT
 is the temperature gradient, representing the change in temperature (dT) per unit
dx
length (dx) along the direction of heat transfer (in degrees Celsius per meter, °C/m).
This formula describes how heat (Q) flows through a material. It states that the rate of heat
transfer is directly proportional to the thermal conductivity (k) of the material, the cross-sectional
area (A) through which heat flows, and the temperature gradient (dx/dT) across the material. The
negative sign indicates that heat flows from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature.
In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the
one in Figure 1.
13
Fig 3: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar
We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one
end, and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the
bar is insulated in the peripheral direction that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to
an imposed temperature differential along the bar.
The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in the axial direction
it is written as:-
dT
Q = -kA dx
Where Q is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient in the x-direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship which includes all
directions of heat transfer:
(
q⃗ =q x ⃗ı +q y ⃗ȷ+ q z ⃗k =−k A x
dT
dx
ı⃗ + A y
dT
dy
⃗ȷ + A z
dz)
dT ⃗
k …… (2)
The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of
temperature, but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature ranges. Because of the
enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical
conductivity and as a result, metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good
conductors of heat.
In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal conductivity k for
brass and comparing this value to the actual value from one or more references. To do so we will
calculate the cross sectional area A x of the bar and the slope dT /dx from a plot of measured
temperatures vs. length. We can then use these values in a rearranged version of Fourier's Law to
find the thermal conductivity, :
−q x dx
k= … … .. (3)
A x dT
14
Analytical method:
Laser Flash Method:
The Laser Flash Method is an experimental technique used to determine the thermal conductivity
(k) of materials, particularly solids. It relies on the transient response of a sample to a short,
intense laser pulse. The Laser Flash Method relies on the fundamental principle of heat
conduction. When a short laser pulse is applied to one side of a thin sample, it rapidly heats up,
and the temperature response on the other side of the sample is measured. Analyzing how the
temperature changes over time allows for the calculation of thermal conductivity
Figure 1 Laser Flash Method
In the Laser Flash Method for measuring thermal conductivity, the procedure involves several
key steps. First, a thin, uniform sample of the material under investigation is prepared and
securely mounted in the measurement apparatus. This apparatus typically includes a pulsed laser,
a sample holder, a high-speed temperature measurement system, and a data acquisition system.
The process begins with calibration, where the system is calibrated using a known reference
material with well-defined thermal properties. Then, a short, intense laser pulse is directed at one
side of the sample, causing rapid heating. The temperature response on the opposite side of the
sample is recorded over time. Through careful data analysis and the use of mathematical models,
the heating and cooling times are determined. Finally, these time measurements are used to
calculate the thermal conductivity of the material. Multiple measurements are often taken to
ensure accuracy, and the results, including the calculated thermal conductivity value, sample
details, and experimental conditions, are reported comprehensively for scientific or engineering
applications.
Procedure
 Connect the equipment as shown in Figures 1 and 2, making sure that the calibration unit
is switched off before connecting the transformer to the AC outlet.
15
 Apply a very small amount (a drop) of thermal conducting paste to make a thin layer on
each side of the test unit surface and spread it uniformly.
 Insert the steel sample (30 mm length and 25 mm diameter) into the unit and allow
cooling water to flow through the test unit.
 Connect all thermocouples in the appropriate order.
 Switch the calibration unit on and adjust the power control knob to deliver 5 W of power
to the test unit; allow the system to reach steady state (approximately 4-5 minutes).
 Record the temperatures at each thermocouple and the power input.
Observations and Calculations

Length of each sample bar = 30mm
Diameter of bar = 25mm
Distance between one reading point to another = 10mm
Sr. Q T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 k K brass %error

1. watt (Co) (Co) (Co) (Co) (Co) (Co) W/(m·°C) W/(m·°C)
2. 5 40 40 39 33 33 33 109 96.852 11.15
3. 10 51 51 50 34 34 34 109 78.251 28.21
4. 15 60 58 54 35 34 34 109 82.835 24.00
5. 20 76 72 66 35 35 34 109 69.3 36.42
Graphs:
16
Graph 1 temp vs dist. for 5 watt
17
20Watt
Conclusion:
The experimental results demonstrate that heat conduction in the brass bar follows the principles
of Fourier's law, as the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature gradient
and the wattage applied. The calculated thermal conductivity values for brass at each wattage (5
W, 10 W, 15 W, and 20 W) show some degree of variation from the known value. The
percentage errors indicate the magnitude of these discrepancies. The percentage errors, ranging
from 11.15% to 36.42%, suggest that there may be sources of error or variability in the
experimental setup, measurement techniques, or the brass material itself.
SAFETY GUIDELINES:
1. To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the sample or test
unit.
2. Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from the test
unit.
3. Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow the
temperature to go above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.
4. Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.
18
Experiment No. 2
“Investigation of Conduction of Heat along a
Composite Bar and Calculation of Overall Heat
Transfer Coefficient.”
Objective:
To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall heat transfer
coefficient.
Apparatus:
 P.A Hilton linear heat conduction module
Figure 1 linear heat conduction apparatus
Introduction:
In this experiment, linear conduction heat transfer method is studied for a stainless-steel bar in
between the brass at source and sink. The entire system (insulated heater, specimen, air and
laboratory enclosure) are at room temperature initially. The heater generates uniform heat flow
as switched on. This experiment deals with the systematic way to ﬁnd the thermal conductivity
of the stainless-steel specimen.
For conduction, an electrical heating element, which comprises of a heat input section fabricated
from brass fitted with an electrical heater (heat source), is bonded to one end of a stainless-steel
rod. Other end of the rod, which is made of satin less steel, is exposed to heat discharge (heat
sink). For practical situation, heat conduction occurs in three dimensions, a complexity which
often requires extensive computation to analyze. For experiment, a single dimensional approach
is required to demonstrate the basic law that relates rate of heat flow to temperature gradient and
area. For this purpose, the outer surface of the cylindrical rod is well insulated; thus, yielding
one-dimensional linear heat conduction in the rod once the heating element is switched on. We
will use heat sensor values of temperature at different point of the apparatus to find out
conductivity (k).
Theory:
See lab report 1
19
Methodology:
Conduction is the transfer of energy from more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interaction between the particles. Conduction can occur in
solids, liquids and gases. In solids, conduction is the combined result of molecular vibrations and
free electrons mobility. Metals typically have a high free electron mobility, which explains why
they are good heat conductors. In liquids and gases, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusions of the molecules during their random motion.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the medium, its
thickness and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the
medium. The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the heat transfer area but is inversely proportional to the thickness
of the layer.
In the experiment performed, the assuming the length of the bar to be L, a uniform hot
Temperature Th imposed on one end, and on the other end, Tc is the temperature caused by the
cooling water. We have:
Figure 2: Schematics of a long cylindrical insulated bar
Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to form a
composite structure like the composite wall in Figure 1. Let's also assume that the
cross- sectional area normal to the flow of heat transfer is constant and that heat
flows in a one- dimensional direction. Taking only one of the slabs for now, we
learned from Experiment 1 that the heat transfer is governed by Fourier's Law, given
by
(1)
We already have an idea of the concept of thermal resistance for conduction.

Resistance in general is defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate.
As transfer rate goes to zero, the resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the
driving potential goes to zero, resistance fails to exist. By using Fourier's Law and
the definition of resistance, we can derive the thermal resistance for all the modes of
20
heat transfer:
(2)
(3)
(4)
for the surface, fluid, and surroundings respectively. The symbols hr and h are the
heat transfer coefficients for radiation and convection respectively.
Now what happens if we combine all the slabs? If we sum up all the individual heat
transfers, the intermediate temperatures cancel and we get
(5)
To simplify Equation 5, let's combine everything that does not change across the
composite, like the initial and final temperature and the area A, and call the rest that
does change from material to material the overall heat transfer coefficient U. Now
we have
(6)
and the overall heat transfer coefficient is:
(7)
21
We have two ways to find the overall heat

transfer coefficient by finding ktot. The first
way is by summing up all the individual k's by
methods from Experiment 1 and using these
values in Equation 7. The second way is to
evaluate ktot by the overall slope of the plot
from the extreme temperatures.
Figure 2: Composite wall (Heat

Transfer, A. Bejan, Wiley,
1993)
Analytical Method:
The heat flux method is a commonly used experimental technique to determine the heat transfer
coefficient at the interface between a solid surface and a fluid. This method involves measuring
the heat flux through a solid material and using this information, along with temperature
measurements, to calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
In the heat flux method for determining the heat transfer coefficient (ℎh), a carefully controlled
experimental setup is crucial. First, a solid sample with known properties and a precisely defined
surface area is prepared. Calibrated heat flux sensors are strategically placed on the sample's
surface to measure the heat flux. Temperature sensors, such as thermocouples or resistance
temperature detectors, are strategically positioned both on the sample surface and in the adjacent
fluid. These sensors capture the surface temperature at the heat flux sensor locations and the fluid
temperature where the sample interfaces with the fluid.
Once the experimental setup is established, the system is allowed to reach a steady-state
condition, ensuring that temperature readings stabilize. During this state, the heat flux through
the solid surface is recorded using the calibrated heat flux sensors. Simultaneously, the
temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid at each measurement point is
calculated.
22
The surface area in contact with the fluid is determined based on the sample geometry. Using the
heat flux, temperature difference and surface area the heat transfer coefficient (ℎh) is calculated
q
employing the formula ℎ= This equation provides a direct relationship between the
∆ A∗T
measured heat flux, temperature difference, surface area, and the heat transfer coefficient.
The experiment is typically repeated multiple times to ensure the consistency and reliability of
the results. By averaging the calculated heat transfer coefficients from these repetitions, a more
accurate and representative value of ℎh is obtained. It's essential to perform an uncertainty
analysis, accounting for factors such as sensor accuracy and calibration uncertainties, to assess
the reliability and precision of the calculated heat transfer coefficient.
Once the data is analyzed, the results, along with the associated uncertainties and experimental
conditions, are reported. It's crucial to clearly outline any assumptions made during the
experiment and discuss the limitations of the method employed to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the obtained results
Procedure:
1. Ensure main switch is in the off position and residual current circuit breaker is ON.
2. Turn voltage controller anti-clockwise to set AC voltage to minimum. Connect Linear
Heat Transfer Unit H112A to Heat Transfer Service Unit H112.
3. Turn on cold-water supply and electrical supply.
4. Release toggle clamp tensioning screw and clean faces of heated, cooled sections, and
intermediate specimen.
5. Ensure correct orientation of 25 mm diameter, 30 mm long brass cylinder (intermittent
section). Clamp assembly using toggle clamps.
6. Turn on main switch, set temperature selector switch to T1, and increase voltage to
achieve 5W power. Observe temperature T1 increase.
7. Allow system to stabilize. Take readings and make necessary adjustments as per
individual experiment procedures.
8. After completing experiment, reduce voltage to zero, let system cool briefly, and turn off
cooling water supply.
9. Repeat process for 10W, 15W and 20Wpower supply.
10. Tabulate readings of power input and temperature.
11. Use tabulated data to calculate thermal resistance based on the obtained readings
Results and observations:

Distance between consecutive sensors= 10 mm
Diameter= 25 mm
Length = 30 mm
Temperature change of intermediate section = ΔT = T1 – T9
23
Area = A = πd2 /4 = 490.873 mm2 =4.90873 × 10−4 m2
Time taken = 240 s
No Heat Temperature of Overall Thermal Total Overall Percent

. Flow Thermistors (°C) Heat conductivity Therm Heat age
of Rate Transfer (W/m.°C) al Transfer Error
Ob (W) Coefficien Resista Coefficie
s. t nce nt
(W/ (°C/W) (W/
m2.°C) m2.°C)
q T1 T T T T T T U (Eq. 1) K1 K2 K3 R U (Eq.
2 3 4 5 6 7 2)
1 5 39 3 3 3 3 3 3 1698.5 305. 101 152 1.2 1697.2 -0.1
8 8 5 5 5 3 5 .8 .7
2 10 47 4 4 3 3 3 3 1455.9 305. 87. 305 1.1 1851.5 21.4
7 5 8 6 5 3 5 3 .5
3 15 62 6 6 4 3 3 3 1132.3 916. 43. 458 1.6 1272.9 11.0
2 1 0 7 7 5 5 6 .2
4 20 73 7 7 5 4 4 3 1072.7 1222 55. 152 1.5 1314.0 18.4
2 2 0 2 3 5 .0 5 .7
Graph:
Graph for All Power Values
24
Conclusion:
This experiment unequivocally demonstrates that stainless steel has lower thermal conductivity
compared to brass. The significant temperature gradient between points T3 and T6 on the graph
signifies poorer heat conduction in stainless steel than in brass. This disparity is crucial in
applications demanding efficient heat transfer. Brass, with its superior thermal conductivity,
proves to be a better choice for such purposes. Engineers and designers can utilize this
knowledge to optimize the performance of various components and devices. The experiment's
findings underscore the importance of material selection in achieving optimal heat transfer
efficiency in practical applications, shaping the decisions made in engineering and industrial
contexts.
SAFETY GUIDELINES:
1. To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the sample or
test unit.
2. avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from the test
unit.
25
Experiment No. 3
“To investigate the effect of a change in the cross-
sectional area on the temperature profile along a
thermal conductor.”
1. Objective:
To study the effect of change in the area of central bar of specimen on the temperature
distribution over the entire length.
2. Apparatus:
The heat conduction apparatus is used in this experiment which consists of,
a) Digital Control Unit
b) Temperature Measuring Device (Multimeter)
c) Specimen of different materials and cross-sections
Figure
1 P.A
Hilton
linear
heat
conduction module
3. Introduction:
In this experiment, linear conduction heat transfer method is studied for a stainless-steel bar in
between the brass at source and sink. The entire system (insulated heater, specimen, air and
laboratory enclosure) are at room temperature initially. The heater generates uniform heat flow
as switched on. This experiment deals with the systematic way to ﬁnd the thermal conductivity
of the stainless-steel specimen.
26
4. Theory:
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Heat Conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and
movement of electrons within a body. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons,
transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, when joined known as internal
energy. Conduction takes place in most phases: solid, liquid, and plasma.
Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. For example, heat is conducted from
the hotplate of an electric stove to the bottom of a saucepan in contact with it. In the absence of
an opposing external driving energy source, within a body or between
bodies, temperature differences decay over time, and thermal equilibrium is approached,
temperature becoming more uniform
Steady State Conduction
Steady state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature
difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after a time, the spatial distribution of
temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction,
the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out, since the change in
temperature (a measure of heat energy) is zero.
Transient Conduction
Transient conduction occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of
time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex, and analytic solutions of the heat equation
are only valid for idealized model systems. Practical applications are generally investigated using
numerical methods, approximation techniques, or empirical study.
27
Thermal Contact Conduction
Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in
contact. The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of
particles is called conduction, such as when placing a hand on a cold glass of water heat is
conducted from the warm skin to the cold glass, but if the hand is held a few inches from the
glass, little conduction would occur since air is a poor conductor of heat. The following is the
figure which explains the heat transfer at contact of different bodies.
Fig. 2 : Variation of temperature w.r.t distance
5. Methodology:
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
It is stated by Fourier that, “The ration of heat transfer is directly proportional to the area normal
to the heat flow and temperature gradient”. We can also state it, as “Heat flux is directly
proportional to the temperature difference per unit length”.
q cond ∝ A
dT
q cond ∝
dx
dT
q cond=−kA
dx
Where,
 Q is supplied heat in Watts
28
 A is area normal to heat flow in m2

dT K
 is the temperature gradient in
dx m
W
 k is constant of thermal conductivity
m. K
Here in the above formula of heat conduction, the negative sign indicates the drop of temperature
along the flow of heat. We can also say that the negative sign shows the heat is transferred from
higher temperature to lower temperature.
Effect of cross-sectional area of heat conduction

According to the Fourier’s Law of conduction, the heat transfer depends on,
a) Material of medium (k)
b) Temperature difference across the medium (dT)
c) Cross sectional area (A)
d) Length of medium (dx)
For Area, the heat transfer “q” has direct relation given by,
qA
Which means, more is the area, more will be the heat transfer and vice versa. The area in Heat
and Mass Transfer is analogous to the area of Resistance in electrical circuits. In electrical
circuits, if the area of wire will be greater, it will offer less resistance to the current flow. The
same is the case in heat transfer, that is, if the area is greater, it will offer less resistance to the
heat flow and vice versa.
Thermal Conductivity
The material’s intrinsic property to conduct heat is known as thermal conductivity. It is denoted
by “k”. Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in
materials of high thermal conductivity. For instance, metals typically have high thermal
conductivity and are very efficient at conducting heat, while the opposite is true for insulating
materials like Styrofoam. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely
used in heat sink applications, and materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal
insulation. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.
Thermal Conductance
For instance, thermal conductance is defined as the quantity of heat that passes in unit time
through a plate of particular area and thickness when its opposite faces differ in temperature by
one kelvin. For a plate of thermal conductivity k, Area A, thickness dx, the thermal conduction
will be given by,
29
kA
Thermal Conductance =
dx
W
The units of thermal conductance are
K
Thermal Resistivity
The thermal resistance is the resistance offered by the material to the flow of heat. It is inverse of
K
heat conductance. The units of thermal resistance are . In the formula of heat conduction,
W
dT
q cond =−kA
dx
The thermal resistance is given by,
dx
Rcond =
kA
Thus, the heat conduction can also be given as,
dT dT
q cond= =
R dx
kA
Heat Transfer coefficient

The heat transfer coefficient is given by,
1 k
U= =
RA dx
W
The units of overall heat transfer coefficient are 2
m .K
6. Procedure:
a) First, measure the diameters of all specimen and total length of the composite bars.
b) Insert the small diameter bar in the apparatus and tightly fit it.
c) Turn on power supply and set the particular value from the control panel of controller.
d) Wait for few minutes to make the bar heat up and generates a steady flow of heat.
e) Now use the knob of the wire to measure the temperatures that is attached to the multi-meter.
Place the knob in all slots of apparatus to measure the temperatures.
f) Note down all the readings in the observation table.
g) Change the value of applied heat by changing the power from control panel and repeat the
experiment.
30
h) Now draw a relation between the Temperature (T) and the distance (x) to determine the
temperature gradient.
7. Observation and calculations:

Total specimen attached in series = 3
Diameter of Brass (Hotter and Colder Side) = 25mm
Small Diameter of Brass (Central) = 13mm
Material of specimen = Brass – Small Diameter Brass – Brass
Q(W) T1(Co) T2(Co) T3(Co) T5(Co) T7(Co) T8(Co) T9(Co) k (1) k (2) k (3) R(overall
)
5 41 40 40 33 30 30 29 305.5 375.9 305.5 1.00
10 45 44 44 34 30 30 29 611.0 563.9 611.0 0.60
15 54 54 53 36 34 33 33 916.5 1691.7 916.5 0.27
20 65 65 64 34 32 31 31 1222.0 2255.6 1222.0 0.20
8. Graph:
9. Conclusion:
SAFETY GUIDELINES:
31
test unit.
unit.
32
Experiment No. 4
“Investigation of Temperature and Heat Transfer rate
resulting from study radial Conduction through the wall
of Cylinder.”
Objective:
To examine the variation in temperature with respect to the change in distance along the radius
of specimen.
Apparatus:
a) Digital Control Unit
b) Temperature Measuring Device (Multimeter)
c) Radial specimen
Fig. 20: Experimental apparatus for Experiment No. 4
Introduction:
Heat transfer mechanisms are pivotal in the functioning of numerous engineering applications,
and radial conduction through cylindrical structures is a fundamental aspect of this phenomenon.
In this lab investigation, we delve into the intricacies of temperature distribution and heat
transfer rates resulting from radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. By manipulating
variables such as material properties and temperature differentials, our aim is to gain deeper
insights into the factors influencing heat transfer in cylindrical systems. This exploration is
essential for optimizing the efficiency of heat transfer processes in various real-world
33
applications, laying the groundwork for advancements in diverse fields where effective thermal
management is paramount.
Theory:
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Heat Conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and
movement of electrons within a body. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when
adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another.
Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects
in thermal contact. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons,
transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, when joined known as internal
energy. Conduction takes place in most phases: solid, liquid, and plasma.
Heat spontaneously flows from a hotter to a colder body. For example, heat is conducted from
the hotplate of an electric stove to the bottom of a saucepan in contact with it. In the absence of
an opposing external driving energy source, within a body or between
bodies, temperature differences decay over time, and thermal equilibrium is approached,
temperature becoming more uniform
Steady State Conduction
Steady state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature
difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after a time, the spatial distribution of
temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction,
the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out, since the change in
temperature (a measure of heat energy) is zero.
Transient Conduction
Transient conduction occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of
time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex, and analytic solutions of the heat equation
are only valid for idealized model systems. Practical applications are generally investigated using
numerical methods, approximation techniques, or empirical study.
34
Methodology:
Radial Heat Flow

The total heat flow of cylindrical profiles is given by,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
'
1 ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T q 1 ∂T
r + + 2 + =
r ∂r ∂ r ∂ z ∂ z r ∂θ ∂θ k α ∂ t
The conditions will be applied as,

 One Dimensional Flow of Heat
∂T
 Steady Flow, =0
∂t
 q ' =0
The final equation will be,
T 1−T 2 ∆T
q r= =
()
r2 Rcc
ln
r1
2 πkL
Procedure:
1. Turn on power supply and set the particular value from the control panel of controller.
2. Wait for few minutes to make the bar heat up and generates a steady flow of heat.
3. Now use the knob of the wire to measure the temperatures that is attached to the multi-meter.
Place the knob in all slots of apparatus to measure the temperatures.
4. Note down all the readings in the observation table.
5. Change the value of applied heat by changing the power from control panel and repeat the
experiment.
6. Now draw a relation between the Temperature (T) and the distance (x) to determine the
temperature gradient.
Observation and calculations:

k =110 W /mK
r 1=4 mm
r 2=54 mm
L=3 mm
35
−3 2
A=2 π r 2 L=1.02× 10 m
q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Qcalc % error
-
13.7173 63.5497
5 45 44 42 32 31 31 3 5
24.7835
10 57 56 51 33 32 32 8 -59.6507
-
40.8050 63.2398
15 72 71 71 34 32 32 1 1
-
63.1682 68.3385
20 94 93 91 33 33 32 8 4
Graph:
5 Watts:
36
Figure 0-2 Temperature vs Distance (5 Watts)
10 Watts:
37
15 Watts
38
20 Watts
Conclusion:
The temperature decreases as we move away from the heat source. As we can see from Table T
̧,exp did not change significantly when we changed the power source from 15W to 20W. This is
due to not allowing the specimen to reach steady state. The temperature error percentage
increased when power input was increased as evident from Table 4. However, error between
average and actual thermal energy decreased when power was increased.
SAFETY GUIDELINES:
test unit.
unit.
39
Experiment No. 5
“Investigation of Relationship between Power input and
Temperature difference across a Flat plate under Free
Convection and Determine the Convection Heat
Transfer Coefficient.”
Observations:
To measure heat transfer coefficient in case of both, free and forced convection and The
effect of speed of fluid on the heat transfer coefficient of free convection.
Apparatus:
 Free and forced convection heat transfer apparatus
Figure 6 • Free and forced convection heat transfer apparatus
Introduction:
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) between areas of
different temperature. Warm air is less dense than cold air, and so convection currents can form
in the presence of a temperature gradient. When currents are produced only by temperature-
derived density differences in the fluid, it is known as natural convection. When the convection
40
currents are due to an external factor such as a pump or fan, this is forced convection. The faster
the fluid is moved, the faster the rate of convection.
The exchange of heat by convection between a body and its environment depends on:
 The temperature gradient between the two (this determines the amount of heat absorbed or
donated by a given mass of air that comes into contact with the surface).
 Relative movement of the fluid with which the body is in contact. Convection occurs in
liquids and gases. For any solid to lose or gain heat by convection it must be in contact with
the fluid. Convection cannot occur in a vacuum.
Heat transfer by simultaneous conduction and convection, whether free or forced, forms the
basis of most industrial heat exchangers and related equipment. The measurement and prediction
of heat transfer coefficients for such circumstances is achieved in this experiment by studying the
temperature profiles and heat flux in an air duct with associated flat transfer surface.
Theory:
Convection:
is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) or
the motion of a solid object through a fluid. It involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion. Convection can occur naturally (free convection) or can be forced, meaning it is
induced by external means such as a fan or a pump (forced convection).
Q=h×A×ΔT
Where:
 Q is the heat transfer rate (in watts or joules per second)
 h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (in watts per square meter per degree Celsius,
W/(m²·°C))
 A is the surface area through which heat is being transferred (in square meters, m²)
 ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding fluid (in
degrees Celsius, °C)
Free Convection:
Free convection occurs when the natural buoyancy forces within a fluid cause it to move and
transfer heat. This movement is typically caused by temperature differences within the fluid.
When a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, creating a flow. Conversely, when it
cools, it becomes denser and sinks, generating another type of flow. This natural movement of
fluids is responsible for phenomena like the rising of warm air or the circulation of water in a pot
when heated.
Forced Convection:
Forced convection, on the other hand, happens when an external force is applied to the fluid,
compelling it to move and enhance heat transfer. This external force can be generated by fans,
pumps, or any other mechanical devices. Forced convection is often utilized in various
engineering applications to increase the efficiency of heat transfer processes, for instance, in
radiators of cars or cooling systems of electronic devices.
41
Methodology:
Newton's Cooling Law:

The rate at which an exposed body changes temperature through radiation is approximately
proportional to the difference between the object's temperature and its surroundings, provided the
difference is small, according to Newton's law of cooling.
The rate of heat loss from a body is directly proportional to the temperature differential between
the body and its surroundings, according to Newton's law of cooling.
The rate, where a body that is exposed, changes the temperature via radiation is approximately
proportional to the difference between the object’s temperature and its surroundings, and the
provided difference is low. This is known as Newton's Law of cooling.
To define Newton's Law of cooling, the rate of heat loss from a body is directly proportional to
the difference in body temperature, and its surroundings.
In a convective heat transfer, Newton's Law is followed for pumped fluid cooling or forced air,
where the fluid properties do not strongly vary with the temperature. However, only
approximately true for the buoyancy-driven convection, where the velocity of the flow increases
with the difference in temperature. Finally, in the heat transfer case, by the thermal radiation,
Newton's Law of cooling holds only for very slight temperature differences.
Newton's Law of cooling can be given by,
Q = h. A. (Tt – Tamb)
Where,
 Q = rate of heat transfer out of the body
 H = heat transfer coefficient
 A = heat transfer surface area
 T = temperature of the object's surface
 T = temperature of the environment
env
 T = time-dependent temperature
t
Procedure:
1. Connect the mains input power supply plug to a nearest single-phase electrical supply of
220V AC/50Hz.
2. Turn the heater power control knob and fan speed control knob fully anti- clockwise.
3. Clamp the flat plate beat exchanger into the duct using the two toggle clamps and connect
the heater power supply lead and temperature controller lead with the control box.
4. Ensure that the sensor hole is aligned with the direction of the airflow when inserting the
probe through the wall of the duct.
5. Switch on the main power.
42
6. Check that the L.E.D. meter as they are illuminated. Check that the temperature meter
indicates temperatures.
7. Increase the heater power in the exchanger by rotating the power control knob clockwise.
The power supplied to the exchanger should be shown in watts on the meter.
8. Switch on the fan and increase the speed by rotating the fan speed control knob
clockwise.
9. Observe that the air velocity is indicated on the indicator.
10. Check that the plate temperature (TH) increases.
11. Set the heater power control and fan speed control knob to minimum.
12. Now you are ready for the following experiments.
Observation and calculations:

Air velocity = 0m/s
Ambient Temperature = 30o C
Ambient Convective Mean
Q Temp of plate Temp Delta T Heat Transfer Value
Watts C C C W/m2C W/m2C
5 35 30 5 90.91
10 36 30 6 151.52
144.54
15 38 30 8 170.45
20 41 30 11 165.29
Table 1-Experimental data
Graph:
43
Graph 5 h vs Q
Conclusion:
In this experiment, our aim was to find out effect on convection for the natural and forced
system. For this purpose, we have set up the apparatus for the flat plate surface for our
experiment.
Heat transfer is greater in forced convection then in free convection because its heat transfer
coefficient is greater than free convection heat coefficient.
From the experiment we have calculated the temperature difference between ambient
temperature and heater temperature for the case of both free and forced convection. Temperature
difference is less in free convection then in forced one.
From the graph between air velocity and temperature difference sated the air velocity decreases
the temperature difference decreases and vice versa. This is because heat transfer is affected
because of air velocity.
44
Experiment# 06
Objective
To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a Pinned plate in free and forced
convection.
Introduction
Convection
Convection is a mode of heat transfer that occurs in fluids (liquids or gases) where warmer
particles move from one place to another, carrying heat energy with them. This process plays a
crucial role in redistributing heat on Earth and in various industrial and natural phenomena.
Free Convection
This occurs when a fluid, such as air or water, is heated, causing its particles to become less
dense and rise. As the fluid rises, it creates a region of low density, and cooler, denser fluid
replaces it. This sets up a continuous circulation pattern known as a convection current. An
everyday example of natural convection is the rising of warm air near a heater.
Forced Convection
This happens when an external force, such as a fan or pump, is applied to move the fluid. Forced
convection is often more efficient in transferring heat compared to natural convection because it
enhances the fluid motion and, consequently, the heat transfer rate. Examples include the use of
fans to cool electronic devices or pumps to circulate hot water in a heating system.
Literature Review:
In this experimental study, two types of geometries is studied: plate and pin fin heat sink. (Fig.3).
A Square silicon flat wafer of side 5 cm having thickness 1.4 mm is used as baseplate.
Geometrical parameters of the heat sink dimensions are reported in Table 1. As the fin thickness
and fin spacing is equal, there is no surface difference between the plate and pin fin heat sinks.
The fin arrays have been placed in an insulating case made of a 1 cm-thick fibre thermal
45
material, covered by another 1 cm-thick polystyrene layer. An electrical heater having the
specifications (Omega KHLV202/2.5) has been used as heat source, operated through a DC
power supply. Two digital multimeters are used to measure the current and the voltage input.
The fin heat sinks are placed inside a 25 cm× 25 cm × 25 cm box open on top for the
experimentation. A thermal imaging camera is used to record the temperature of the heat sink.
(FLIR T425), considering a constant temperature across the fin array and the fin height. The fin
heat sinks are tested in both the orientations, upward as well as downwards. Power inputs of 5W,
7.5W and 10W have been supplied to have heating power densities of 2.0 kW/m2, 3.0 kW/m2
and 4.0 kW/m2 respectively.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

 Temperature Measurement Device (Thermocouple)
 Pinned Plate
 Circular Fins (Convection Fan)
 Air-flow Channel
Figure 7: Experimental Setup
Procedure
 First of all, start by setting up the apparatus.

 Temperature’s sensors are attached to the apparatus.
 Heat is taken from the source to heat the plate.
 Note the inlet temperature of the air.
 Also note the temperature of the heater.
 Increase the source input power to increase the temperature of the circular fins.
46
 Note the outlet temperature of the air.

 Plot the graphs.

Table
Ambient Temperature = Ta = 27˚C

Area = 11000 cm2 = 0.011 m2
Table 2. Observed Values.
Surface
Power Air Speed
Temperature
W m/s C
0 30
0.5 29
5
1 28
1.3 28
0 31
0.5 30
10
1 29
1.3 28
0 32
0.5 30
15
1 29
1.3 28
0 35
0.5 33
20
1 31
1.3 29
47
Sample Calculation
The sample calculation is done at heat supplied = 10W, for air speed = 0 m/s.
Here the experimental convective heat transfer coefficient has to be calculated for that, we have
the formula,
q=h c A(∆ T )
All the values are given in Table 2. Putting the values in the equation we get,
2
h c=227.27 W /m K
Powe Air Convective Heat
r Speed Transfer Coefficient
W m/s W/m^2 K
0 151.52
0.5 227.27
5
1 454.55
1.3 454.55
0 227.27
0.5 303.03
10
1 454.55
1.3 909.09
0 272.73
0.5 454.55
15
1 681.82
1.3 1363.64
0 227.27
0.5 303.03
20
1 454.55
1.3 909.09
Graph
48
The graphs for the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with respect to the surface
temperature for different supplied power are shown in Error: Reference source not found.
Figure 8. Variation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient w.r.t Air Speed for different supplied Power.
Figure 9. Variation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient w.r.t Air Speed for different supplied Power.
Conclusion:
The convective heat transfer coefficient is calculated for given apparatus for different supplied
power for both forced and free convection. From the values and graphs shown above we can see
that the heat transfer coefficient for free convection is smaller than that of forced convection. The
reason for this is that in forced convection an external force is pushing the heat out of the system.
This is the main reason that the hat transfer in the forced convection is higher. We can also see
that in the first case the heat transfer does not increase anymore with the increase of the air
speed. Few reasons for this might be:
 The apparatus is quite old.
 Human error
49
Experiment# 07
Objective
To compare the convective heat transfer coefficient of a finned plate in free and forced
convection with that of flat/pinned plate.
Introduction
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
The convective heat transfer coefficient, often denoted as ℎ, is a measure of the effectiveness of
heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) adjacent to it through convection.
It represents the rate of heat transfer per unit area per unit temperature difference between the
surface and the fluid. The higher the convective heat transfer coefficient, the more efficient the
heat transfer process.
The heat transfer rate (Q) through convection can be expressed using the following equation:
q=h c A(∆ T )
Where,
 Q is the heat transfer rate.
 h is the convective heat transfer coefficient.
 A is the surface area through which heat is being transferred.
 ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid.
Literature review:
In this experimental study, two types of geometries is studied: plate and pin fin heat sink. (Fig.3).
A Square silicon flat wafer of side 5 cm having thickness 1.4 mm is used as baseplate.
Geometrical parameters of the heat sink dimensions are reported in Table 1. As the fin thickness
and fin spacing is equal, there is no surface difference between the plate and pin fin heat sinks.
The fin arrays have been placed in an insulating case made of a 1 cm-thick fibre thermal
material, covered by another 1 cm-thick polystyrene layer. An electrical heater having the
specifications (Omega KHLV202/2.5) has been used as heat source, operated through a DC
power supply. Two digital multimeters are used to measure the current and the voltage input.
50
The fin heat sinks are placed inside a 25 cm× 25 cm × 25 cm box open on top for the
experimentation. A thermal imaging camera is used to record the temperature of the heat sink.
(FLIR T425), considering a constant temperature across the fin array and the fin height. The fin
heat sinks are tested in both the orientations, upward as well as downwards. Power inputs of 5W,
7.5W and 10W have been supplied to have heating power densities of 2.0 kW/m2, 3.0 kW/m2
and 4.0 kW/m2 respectively.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

 Temperature Measurement Device (Thermocouple)
 Plate with fins
 Insulation
 Circular Fins (Convection Fan)
 Air-flow Channel
Procedure
 First of all, start by setting up the apparatus.

 Temperature’s sensors are attached to the apparatus.
 Heat is taken from the source to heat the fins.
 Note the inlet temperature of the air.
 Also note the temperature of the heater.
 Increase the source input power to increase the temperature of the circular fins.
 Note the outlet temperature of the air.
 Plot the graphs.
51

Table
Ambient Temperature = Ta = 27˚C

Area = 11000 cm2 = 0.011 m2
Air Surface
Power
Speed Temperature
W m/s C
0 32
0.5 30
5
1 29
1.3 29
0 33
0.5 31
10
1 29
1.3 29
0 34
0.5 32
15
1 31
1.3 29
0 36
0.5 33
20
1 31
1.3 30
Sample Calculation
The sample calculation is done at heat supplied = 10W, for air speed = 0 m/s.
Here the experimental convective heat transfer coefficient has to be calculated for that, we have
the formula,
52
q=h c A(∆ T )
All the values are given in Table 2. Putting the values in the equation we get,
2K
h c=151.15W /m
The values for the heat transfer coefficient at different heat supplied and air speed are given as
follows
Convective
Air
Power Heat Transfer
Speed
Coefficient
W m/s W/m^2 K
0 90.91
0.5 151.52
5
1 227.27
1.3 227.27
0 151.52
0.5 227.27
10
1 454.55
1.3 454.55
0 194.81
0.5 272.73
15
1 340.91
1.3 681.82
0 202.02
0.5 303.03
20
1 454.55
1.3 606.06
Graph
53
The graphs for the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with respect to the surface
temperature for different supplied power are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Variation in Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient w.r.t Surface Temperature for different supplied Power
Figure 11. Variation of Surface Temperature w.r.t Air Speed for different supplied Power.
The graph for mean plate temperature against supplied heat is shown in Figure 12.
54
Figure 12. Mean Temperature Vs Supplied Heat.
Figure 13. Comparison of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient for different types of plates.
The graph for comparison of convective heat transfer coefficients for Flat, Pinned and Finned
plate at varying power is shown in Error: Reference source not found.
Conclusion:
55
In this experiment, we have investigated heat convection over the surface of a finned metal plate.
We have observed that the temperature of the plate rises with the increase in power input. As
more heat is transmitted to the plate, it increases its surface temperature. We have also observed
that the value of convective heat transfer coefficient increases as we increase the air velocity.
This is due to the fact that with the increase in air speed, more molecules pass over the plate
surface and transmit more heat with them so h increases as a result.
Also, we have observed that the value of convective heat transfer for air in contact with finned
metal plate is smaller as compared to flat metal plate. This is due to the fact that under the same
conditions, the surface area of the metal plate has greatly increased. As a result, the value of h
decreases.
56
Experiment# 08
Objective
To perform energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger operating under parallel flow conditions.
Introduction
Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is a device designed to efficiently transfer heat between two or more fluids at
different temperatures. Its primary purpose is to facilitate the exchange of thermal energy
without allowing the fluids to mix. Heat exchangers are integral components in various systems,
playing a crucial role in heating, cooling, and energy recovery processes across a wide range of
industries.
Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger

A concentric tube heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that consists of two or more tubes
with one tube placed inside another, forming concentric circles. The space between the inner and
outer tubes allows for the flow of two separate fluids, facilitating heat transfer between them.
This design provides a compact and efficient means of exchanging thermal energy.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Concentric-Tube Heat Exchanger
Figure 14.Experimental Setup.
57
Procedure
 Turn on the apparatus and leave it for some time so that tank temperature gets stabilized.
 Now start by reading the manual provided on the device and setup the device for parallel
flow by moving the taps provided.
 Adjust the water flow rate to an arbitrary value.
 Turn on the hot and cold water taps to begin the process.
 Now wait for a further 10 to 15 mins for the water flow to get stabilized.
 Now take the readings from the labelled thermometer for various data points which will
be calculated in the next part of this document.
 You can change the volume flow rates to take readings for different tank temperatures.

Table
Table 3.Observed Values.
Flow Rate Temperature (°C)

(L/min)
Hot Cold T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Water Water
4 2.5 47 41 24 32 44 28
4 2.2 45 39 26 32 43 28
4 1.8 44 38 26 34 42 29
Sample Calculation:
The sample calculation is done for the first value in the Table 3. For this the formulas used are:
ṁ=ρ × V̇
y=Q a=ṁ c p (T 4−T 3)
x=Qe =ṁ c p (T 1−T 2)

ղ TH = y /x
After putting the values in the formulas above we get the answers as;
ղ TH =¿ 83.33333
All the other values are given as;
58
Table 4. Values for the Efficiency for different flow rates.
First Half Second Half Overall
Qe Qa E Qe Qa E Qe Qa E
0.84 0.70 83.33 0.84 0.70 83.33 1.67 1.39 83.33
0.56 0.31 55.00 1.11 0.61 55.00 1.67 0.92 55.00
0.56 0.38 67.50 1.11 0.63 56.25 1.67 1.00 60.00
Graph
The graph between the temperature and efficiency of the heat exchanger is given in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Efficiency variation with temperature.
The graphs of variation of temperature of hot and cold streams with respect to the unit length for
different values of flow rate of water are given in Figure 16.
Figure 16.Variation in Temperature of hot and cold-water w.r.t unit length for different flow rates of water
Conclusion:
 In this experiment, we have investigated the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger. We have observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger increases with the flow
59
rate of cold water. Keeping the hot water flow rate constant, since more mass of cold-water
flows through the tubes at higher flow rate, hence more heat energy is convected by this cold
water. So, efficiency of heat exchanger increases.
 We have also observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger comes out to be more than
100%. The error in efficiency may be due to fault in thermometers/flow meters or due to any
human error.
 Another reason for more than 100 % efficiency could be that heat is gained by cold water
from the surrounding environment as well. As the surrounding air temperature is higher than
cold water temperature, it also gains some heat from the surrounding. As a result, more heat
is absorbed by cold water as compared to the heat rejected by hot water. Hence, we may get
efficiency of more than 100 % for heat exchanger which is actually not its accurate overall
efficiency.
60
Experiment# 09
Objective
To demonstrate the working principle of a concentric tube heat exchanger operating under
counter flow conditions and determine the performance characteristics.
Introduction
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger
A parallel flow heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger in which both the hot and cold fluids
enter the exchanger at the same end and move parallel to each other along the same or adjacent
channels. The fluids exchange heat by flowing in the same direction.
Counter Flow Heat Exchanger
A counter flow heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger in which the hot and cold fluids flow
in opposite directions, entering the exchanger at opposite ends. This design maximizes the
temperature difference between the two fluids along the length of the exchanger, enhancing the
overall efficiency of heat transfer.
Literature Review:
The concentric tube heat exchanger experiment set - up consists of two coaxial tubes, one inside
the other carrying fluids of different temperatures. Due to the temperature difference, heat will
flow from the hotter stream to the cooler one. This is the simplest form of heat exchanger and a
design that may be successfully analyzed and described by empirical equations. Concentric tube
heat exchanger demonstrates the basic principles of heat transfer. Two separate concentric tubes
are arranged in series in a U format to reduce the overall length and to provide a mid-position
measuring point. The heat exchanger is mounted on the H102 panel fascia and retained by
locking pipe clips. In normal operation, hot water from the heating tank and pump passes
through the ‘HOT OUT ‘braided hose and self-sealing coupling into the inner stainless tube. It
then flows through the heat exchanger and leaves via the ‘HOT RETURN’ braided hose. Cold
water flows from the ‘COLDOUT’ hose through the annulus between the clear plastic tube and
the inner stainless tube. With the hot water in the inner tube, losses from the system to the
outside are minimized while still allowing students to see the construction of the unit. As the
cold stream warms above the ambient temperature, however, there will be some external losses.
12mm compression fittings provide a liquid seal between the stainless tubes and the outer
annulus. This also allows the stainless tubes to be removed for cleaning if necessary. The
midway points of both hot and cold streams are fitted with type K thermocouple sensors to
61
Figure 17: Linear conduction unit

measure the stream temperatures. Miniature thermocouple plugs take these signals to the
temperature indicator and Data Logger (when HC102 upgrade fitted). The hot hose terminates
with a socket and the cold hose a plug to prevent cross-connection. Flow direction may be
arranged for co-current (parallel) or counter-current (opposite direction) of the Hot/Cold streams.
Self-sealing couplings retain the water in both the hoses and the heat exchangers. Changeover
may be performed without stopping the pump or cold flow, but operators should wear gloves for
protection from hot surfaces. Reversing the cold flow is the safer option.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Concentric-Tube Heat Exchanger
Figure 18.Experimental Setup
Procedure
62
 Turn on the apparatus and leave it for some time so that tank temperature gets stabilized.
 Now start by reading the manual provided on the device and setup the device for parallel
flow by moving the taps provided.
 Adjust the water flow rate to an arbitrary value.
 Turn on the hot and cold water taps to begin the process.
 Now wait for further 10 to 15 mins for the water flow to get stabilized.
 Now take the readings from labelled thermometer for various data points which will be
calculated in the next part of this document.
 You can change the volume flow rates to take readings for different tank temperatures.

Table
Table 5. Observed Values.
Flow Rate (L/min) Temperature (°C)
Hot Water Cold Water T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1.6 1 44 38 25 32 41 28
1.2 1 48 37 24 34 44 28
0.8 1 51 38 24 33 45 28
Table 5 shows the values observed during the performance. During the performance
temperatures for the hot and cold streams at unit lengths were noted.
Sample Calculation:
The sample calculation is done for the flow rate of hot water 1.6 L/min. The formulas used to
calculation the transfer and efficiency of the heat exchanger are:
ṁ=ρ × V̇
y=Q a=ṁ c p (T 4−T 3)
x=Qe =ṁ c p (T 1−T 2)

ղ TH = y /x
Upon putting all the known values in the formulas we get,

Qe =0.6688 W
Qa=0.488 W
ղ TH =72.9 %
63
All other values for the heat transfers and efficiency are given in Table 6.
Table 6.Values for efficiency for different flow rates.
First Half Second Half Overall
Qe Qa E Qe Qa E Qe Qa E
0.33 0.21 62.50 0.33 0.28 83.33 0.67 0.49 72.92
0.33 0.28 83.33 0.59 0.42 71.43 0.92 0.70 75.76
0.33 0.28 83.33 0.39 0.35 89.29 0.72 0.63 86.54
Graph
The graph between the temperature and efficiency of the heat exchanger is given in Figure 19.
Figure 19.Efficiency variation with Temperature.
Figure 20 shows the variation of temperature of hot and cold streams of water with respect to the
unit length for constant flow rate.
64
Figure 20. Temperature Variation of hot and cold-water w.r.t Unit Length.
Conclusion:
From the graphs and the table, we can that the efficiency of the heat exchanger is almost 80%
which is better than the efficiency of the heat exchanger when parallel flow tubes were used.
This outcome is backed with theory as well. from the reading it can be noted that as the flow rate
of the hot stream decreases the heat transfer from hot to cold stream increases. The reason for
this is that more volume of cold water comes in contact with the same volume of hot water which
aids the heat transfer. This is evident from the graphs as well. There is a slight error in the
reading 3. The heat transfer value decreases but the efficiency increases. The reason for this error
might be:
 Human error
 Equipment is old
 Systematic error
65
Experiment# 10
Objective
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate and Film Boiling
Introduction
Convective Boiling
The process that occurs when phase changes from liquid to vapor occurs. This phase change
occurs because of addition of heat in the liquid. As the heat is transferred to the fluid and the heat
transfer amongst the liquid as well it is known as convective boiling. The boiling occurs at the
boiling point of the liquid, for water it is 100 C. The layer of the liquid that is in contact with the
hot solid rises up to the top due buoyancy and the cold layer of the liquid replaces it and as it
heats up it rises. This is how the heat transferred through convection in liquids.
For convective boiling there are two further types, forced and natural boiling. In Natural
Convection Boiling the heat transfer occurs by the effect of buoyancy forces and the fluid moves
carrying the heat. But in Forced Convective Boiling the transfer is influenced by some external
force, pump, fan, etc.
Nucleate Boiling
Nucleate Boiling is a type of convective boiling. As the name suggests, a heated surface is added
in the liquid that is to be boiled. In nucleate boiling small liquid vapors bubbles are formed on
the heated surface immersed in the liquid. The surface where these bubbles are formed in known
as nucleation site. The process of nucleation occurs when the surface temperature is higher than
the saturation temperature of the liquid, causing phase change. Once these bubbles are formed,
they rise up to the top due to the effect of buoyancy. This causes a new layer of the liquid to
come in contact and form more bubbles.
Film Boiling
Film Boiling is also another type of Convective Boiling and is much similar to nucleate boiling,
as water vapor bubbles are formed in film boiling as well. The difference between the two comes
in the immersing of the hotter surface. In nucleate boiling the hotter surface is directly added in
the liquid and the liquid comes in contact with the surface and forms the vapor bubbles around
the surface. The bubbles formed then rise to the top, but in film boiling the liquid does not come
in direct contact with the surface because a thin vapor film form around the surface. This film
acts as a resistance for the heat transfer from the surface to the liquid and prevents the direct
contact.
66
Methodology
Apparatus
 Boiling heat transfer Apparatus
Figure 21.Experimental setup
Procedure
 First, the main supply was turned on and a low value of power was applied through the
knob.
 After waiting for few minutes, the power was slightly increased.
 The power was increased gradually, and the response of the liquid was observed.
 Then the water flow meter was checked to make sure that the water was flowing through
the coil.
Conclusion:
 From the experiment different regions of boiling can be distinguished.
 At first no bubbles were formed telling that there was only convective boiling at that
time.
 Then the formation of the bubbles started, but the bubbles didn’t cover the full surface.
This indicates that it was nucleate boiling.
 A point comes when the pressure does not remain same and currently the rate of boiling
and condensation are different.
 The heat flux was maximum in nucleate boiling and decreased in film boiling.
67
Experiment# 11
Objective
To determine the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient up to and beyond the critical
condition at constant pressure
Introduction
Heat Flux
Heat flux refers to the rate of heat transfer per unit area. It is a measure of how much heat energy
passes through or is conducted across a given surface area in a specific amount of time. The heat
flux (q) is typically expressed in units of watts per square meter (W/m²).
Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient
The surface heat transfer coefficient, often denoted as h, is a measure of how effectively heat is
transferred between a solid surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) adjacent to it, typically through
convection. It is a key parameter used in calculations of convective heat transfer.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Boiler Heat Transfer Unit H655
Figure 22: Film boiling apparatus
Procedure
68
 First, set the value of heat input at 146 W and adjust the condense flow rate until the
required condensed pressure is reached.
 Then the vapor pressure, the metal and liquid temperatures were noted
 Then the heat input was increased to 205 W and the flow rate was adjusted to get the
required pressure.
 Repeat the similar increment from nucleate to film boiling.
 When the film boiling is established, the heat input must be reduced and reading
continued until critical point.

Table
Pressure 1 = 20 psi
Pressure 2 = 40 psi
Area = 0.0019 m^2
At Pressure 1:
Table 7. Observed readings at 20 psi pressure.
Heat input Liquid Temp Metal Temp

Flow rate
W C C
146 2 34 53
205 10.5 33 55
266 7 32 56
282 7.5 34 58
At Pressure 2:
Table 8. Observed readings at 40 psi pressure.
Heat input Liquid Temp Metal Temp

Flow rate
W C C
115 1 39 56
155 1 38 57
200 4 40 61.5
255 2 38 61
69
Sample Calculation:
The sample calculation is done at heat supplied = 115 W, for pressure = 40 psi.
Here the experimental heat flux and heat transfer coefficient have to be calculated, for that, we
have the formulas,
Inputting all the values we get,
The values for the heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at different supplied heat and pressure
are given in Table 9 and Table 10.
Table 9. Values for Flux and heat transfer coefficient for 20 psi pressure.
Heat input Flux h
146 76842.11 4044.321
205 107894.7 4904.306
266 140000 5833.333
282 148421.1 6184.211
Table 10.Values for Flux and heat transfer coefficient for 40 psi pressure.
Heat input Flux h
115 60526.32 3560.372
155 81578.95 4293.629
200 105263.2 4895.961
70
255 134210.5 5835.24
Graph
The graphs for the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with respect to the
temperature difference for different pressures are shown in Figure 23.
Figure 23.Variation in Convective Heat Trasnfer Coefficient w.r.t Temperature difference.
Conclusion:
In this report the heat flux and the surface heat transfer coefficient were evaluated at constant
pressure above and beyond critical point. From the graphs with the increase in the temperature
difference the heat transfer coefficient increases as well. This means that as we increase the
liquid temperature the heat flux will also increase. Same goes with the heat transfer rate.
71
Experiment# 12
Objective
Investigation of Radiation Intensity though Sensor Distance Variation.
Introduction
Radiation
Radiation, in the context of heat transfer, refers to the transfer of thermal energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection, which require a material medium to
transfer heat, radiation can occur through a vacuum or any transparent medium. This mechanism
is commonly observed in everyday life and plays a significant role in various natural and
industrial processes.
Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity, in the context of thermal radiation, refers to the amount of radiant energy
emitted, transmitted, or received per unit of solid angle and per unit of time. It is a measure of the
power of electromagnetic waves (radiation) emitted from a surface or traveling through a
particular direction. The radiation intensity (I) is defined as the rate of radiant energy (Φ) emitted
or transmitted per unit solid angle (Ω) and per unit time (t):
Literature Review:
The sensor used on the Radiometer is a thermal sensor to measure the heat flux. This sensor is
usually called a heat flux sensor. This heat flux sensor uses the working principle of Gardon and
Schmidt Boelter or have a working principle same as see beck effect. The sensor is equipped
with a black absorbent that is useful for capturing radiation. Inside the heat flux sensor there is a
main sensor called thermopile. The thermopile will measure the temperature difference read on
the front and back of the heat flux sensor. The received temperature value will be converted to
voltage so that it can be transmitted via cable and received in data collector.
Figure 24: thermal radiation detection centre
72
Radiometer that will be used for this research equipped with Conical Heater as heat source and
will be done by several methods, such as heating temperature, sensors’ distance to heater,
sensors’ offset to center point of heater, sensors’ point of view to heater, and orientation of
workbench. Each test is performed in 1 minute when the temperature read on the control system
is stable and constant. In this test, the data will be read and collected through LabView 2016 and
Microsoft Excel 2016 software. There will be at least three parameters of experiment, i.e.
temperature of heat source, sensors’ distance, and sensors’ offset to center point of heat source.
All of three parameters have many combinations for experiment. The results of experiment
become experiment data of heat flux value from sensor readout. Furthermore, experiment data
will be compared to radiative heat flux theoretical calculation to find the error value of the
experiment data.
Methodology
Apparatus
 Radiation Heat Unit

 Sensor
Procedure
 Turn on the main supply to the apparatus.

 Wait for heat source to get to steady state.
 Measure the intensity of the heat source with the sensor.
 Move the sensor away from the heat source to take different readings, repeat the
procedure.

The observed values from the experiment are shown in Table 11.
Table 11. Observed Vlalues.
Radiation Intensity
Distance
Set 1 Set 2
cm W/m^2
5 1850 1873
10 1387 1406
15 1102 1081
20 791 862
73
25 680 702
30 555 565
Graph
The graphs for the variation of radiation intensity with respect to distance is shown in Error:
Reference source not found.
Figure 25: Radiation intensity variation Vs distance
Conclusion:
From the graphs and the tables shown above it can be seen that the intensity of heat transfer
through radiation decreases with the distance. For the given experiment the procedure was
performed twice for the same value of heat but the intensity of radiation gave different results.
The reasons for this might be:
 Human error
 Systematic error
 Old equipment
74
The intensity of the radiation decreases with distance because the heat transfer through radiation
is by air and the rays do not go in straight lines. Also, air stores some of the heat in itself causing
the intensity to decrease.
75

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Shahjahan Khuram 2021-ME-108

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

Mechanical Engineering Department

Heat and Mass Transfer Lab Report

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction.........................................................................................24

Investigate and verify Fourier’s

Fig 1. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit

Conduction is defined as the

less energetic particles as a

another but insulate them from

less energetic particles as a

another but insulate them from

Fig 2 conduction process in a body

Fig 3: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar

Figure 1 Laser Flash Method

Observations and Calculations

Sr. Q T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 k K brass %error

Graph 1 temp vs dist. for 5 watt

Graph 2 temp vs dist. for 10 watt

Graph 3 temp vs dist. for 15 watt

Figure 1 linear heat conduction apparatus

Figure 2: Schematics of a long cylindrical insulated bar

We already have an idea of the concept of thermal resistance for conduction.

and the overall heat transfer coefficient is:

We have two ways to find the overall heat

Figure 2: Composite wall (Heat

Results and observations:

Temperature change of intermediate section = ΔT = T1 – T9

Area = A = πd2 /4 = 490.873 mm2 =4.90873 × 10−4 m2

Time taken = 240 s

No Heat Temperature of Overall Thermal Total Overall Percent

Graph for All Power Values

Steady State Conduction

Thermal Contact Conduction

Fig. 2 : Variation of temperature w.r.t distance

 A is area normal to heat flow in m2

Effect of cross-sectional area of heat conduction

Heat Transfer coefficient

7. Observation and calculations:

Fig. 20: Experimental apparatus for Experiment No. 4

Steady State Conduction

Radial Heat Flow

The conditions will be applied as,

Observation and calculations:

Figure 0-2 Temperature vs Distance (5 Watts)

Figure 0-3 Temperature vs Distance (10 Watts)

Figure 0-4 Temperature vs Distance (15 Watts)

Figure 0-5 Temperature vs Distance (20 Watts)

Figure 6 • Free and forced convection heat transfer apparatus

Newton's Cooling Law:

Observation and calculations:

 Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

Figure 7: Experimental Setup

 First of all, start by setting up the apparatus.

 Note the outlet temperature of the air.

Observations and Calculations

Ambient Temperature = Ta = 27˚C

 Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

 First of all, start by setting up the apparatus.

Observations and Calculations

Ambient Temperature = Ta = 27˚C

Figure 12. Mean Temperature Vs Supplied Heat.

Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger

 Concentric-Tube Heat Exchanger