2021-ME-108 2021-ME-115 2021-ME-142

Contents
Objective:..............................................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:..........................................................................................................................................................................2
Theory:.................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Pressure:............................................................................................................................................................................2
Gas pressure:..................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Partial pressure:................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Dalton law of partial pressure:..............................................................................................................................................3
Literature review:.................................................................................................................................................................. 3
1. The Flinn staff gas apparatus:....................................................................................................................................3
Procedure:.....................................................................................................................................................................4
Cost:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2. MR. HVAC gas pressure meter:................................................................................................................................4
Procedure:.....................................................................................................................................................................5
Features:........................................................................................................................................................................5
Cost:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
3. Vernier LabQuest2 apparatus:...................................................................................................................................6
Procedure:.....................................................................................................................................................................6
Cost:.............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Apparatus selected by us:......................................................................................................................................................7
Design requirement of apparatus:..........................................................................................................................................7
1. It is able to measure the pressure accurately:.............................................................................................................7
2. Allows easy and precise control of the flow :............................................................................................................7
3. Ensure that the apparatus is safe to use:.....................................................................................................................8
4. It should be highly insulated:.....................................................................................................................................8
5. Lightweight and compact..........................................................................................................................................9
Apparatus designed:..............................................................................................................................................................9
Construction and operation:................................................................................................................................................10
Procedure:...........................................................................................................................................................................10
Data analysis:......................................................................................................................................................................11
Cost analysis:......................................................................................................................................................................11

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Verification and design of Dalton’s law apparatus

Objective:
 To measure partial pressure of each gas
 To measure pressure of mixture of gas
 To design an apparatus to measure pressure of gas individually and collectively

Introduction:
In this report, we will be investigating Dalton's law of partial pressures. This law, discovered by the English chemist John
Dalton, states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of each individual
gas in the mixture. Understanding this law is essential in many fields, including chemistry, physics, and environmental
science.
To investigate this law, we will be using a Dalton law apparatus, which is a device that allows us to measure the partial
pressures of gases in a mixture. By using this apparatus, we can isolate each gas in the mixture and determine its partial
pressure, which we can then use to calculate the total pressure of the mixture using Dalton's law.
The purpose of this report is to gain a deeper understanding of Dalton's law and to learn how to use the Dalton law
apparatus to measure the partial pressures of gases in a mixture. We will also be analyzing our results and discussing any
sources of error that may have affected our measurements.
Overall, this report will provide us with hands-on experience in the field of gas chemistry and deepen our understanding
of the behavior of gases in different settings.

Theory:
Pressure:
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted per unit area. Mathematically, pressure can be expressed as:
Pressure = Force / Area
Where the SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is equal to one Newton per square meter (N/m²). In other units,
pressure can be expressed in terms of atmospheres (atm), pounds per square inch (psi), or millimeters of mercury
(mmHg), among others.

Gas pressure:
The pressure of a gas is a measure of the force that the gas molecules exert on the walls of its container per unit area. Gas
molecules are in constant motion, colliding with each other and with the walls of their container. These collisions create a
force that is distributed across the area of the container, resulting in the pressure of the gas.

PV = nRT
The pressure of a gas depends on several factors, including the temperature, volume, and number of gas molecules in the
container. In general, increasing the number of gas molecules or decreasing the volume of the container will increase the
pressure of the gas, while decreasing the temperature will decrease the pressure of the gas.

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Partial pressure:
The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure that it would exert if it were the only gas in a mixture of gases at the same
temperature and volume. In other words, the partial pressure of a gas is the pressure that the gas contributes to the total
pressure of a mixture of gases.

( η ) gas
Partial pressure of a gas x=Px= × Ptotal
ηtotal
 P  is the total pressure of a mixture
total

 η is the number of moles of the individual gas

gas 

 η  is the total number of moles of all gases in the mixture

total

 η gas/η total is also known as the mole fraction.

According to Dalton's law of partial pressures, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture. This means that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the
pressures of each gas in the mixture, and each gas contributes to the total pressure in proportion to its mole fraction

Dalton law of partial pressure:

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases is the sum of the partial
pressure of every existing individual gas, and every gas is assumed to be an Ideal gas.

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 …

Where P1, P2, P3 are the partial pressures of gas 1, gas 2, and gas 3. Since every gas has an independent behavior, the
ideal gas law is used to find the pressure of that gas if its number of moles, the volume of container and temperature is
known.

Literature review:
Since there are number of methods and apparatus to measure and verify Dalton law of partial pressure. Some of them will
be discussed in this section.
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1. The Flinn staff gas apparatus:
Demonstrate the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas, and accurately determine the value of
absolute zero, with this innovative gas law apparatus. Apparatus consists of a Mason pressure flask fitted with a special
stopper to ensure an air-tight fit, dual-scale pressure gauge, syringe with Luer-lock fitting and Luer-lock adapters and
stopcocks. Simply trap air in the flask at atmospheric pressure, add additional gas via the syringe, cool the flask in an ice-
bath and then begin slow heating, followed by reverse cooling, to obtain temperature and pressure measurements. 

Procedure:
 First the flask is set on a stand and fixed with the help of screws.
 The flask is equipped with a special stopper and a gas pressure guage.
 Gas is filled in an injection and then is expelled in the insulated flask by moving the piston of injection
downward.
 As the piston is moved downward the gas in the injection start to get transfer in insulated flast and the pressure of
flask continue to rise
 After the piston of injection is fully pressed down the injection is taken of and now waited for 5 to 10 seconds to
allow the pressure gauge to show a uniform reading.

Cost:
The expected cost of this apparatus is RS 45000/- (PKR). As this apparatus is imported so cost is directly linked with
exchange rate.

2. MR. HVAC gas pressure meter:

This is one of the modern type of gas pressure measurement instrument. Along with pressure of a gas we can also measure
the temperature of a gas. As clearly in picture we can see that it has two ducts in which one will be used to find the
pressure of unknown gas while the other duct will be used to measure real time atmospheric pressure.

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Procedure:
 First the device is turned on and calibrated and required measuring unit is selected
 With the help of pipe of small diameter the duct of device and gas container are connected.
 The valve of gas container is opened so that from pipe the gas can travel to device.
 As the gas start to travel the device shows certain readings.
 This process is given 20 to 30 seconds so the gas molecule may settle down and a uniform reading may be
observed on the device.

Features:
 12 Selectable Units of Measure (kPa, Psi, Kgfcm2, Ozin2, Bar, mbar, inHg, mmHg, InH2O, FtH2O, cmH2O, Pa)
with function: Data Hold and Error Code – Response Time: 0.5 Sec.
 Ultra-low-power sensing & measurement with 32-bit MCU and 24-bit ADC make the measurement of air press
faster and more accurately.
 High accuracy and fast measurements.
 Includes data hold and date save.
 Perfect for working on tankless heaters.
 Very handy to set gas pressures on electric valves, Using for service testing of gas pressure on domestic boilers,
Measures Air Flow about your bathroom fan etc.

Cost:
The expected cost of this device is Rs 35000/- This is also an imported device so its cost can’t be reduced
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3. Vernier LabQuest2 apparatus:

This is a multipurpose apparatus used to measure the pressure of a gas. It can also measure the volume and temperature of
a gas.

This apparatus consist of:

1. Two tapered valve connectors inserted into a No. 5 stopper.
2. One tapered valve connector inserted into a No. 1 stopper.
3. One two-way valve.
4. Two Luer-lock connectors connected to either end of a piece of plastic tubing.
5. One 20 mL syringe.
6. Two transpiration tubing clamps.
7. One insulated flask.

Procedure:
1. Connect the sensor to the interface.
2. Start the appropriate data-collection software.
3. Place a stopper at the top of flask with a space available for syringe.
4. Connect the pressure sensor with a pipe with side of flask.
5. Fill the syringe with required gas let it is filled with air.
6. Now attach the syringe with top of flask and slowly press the piston of syringe.
7. Now record reading on device on which sensor is connected.

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Cost:
The expected cost of this apparatus is Rs 50000/-

Apparatus selected by us:

After a lot of research we gained a lot of knowledge regarding Dalton law validation. So, we decided to construct an
apparatus by ourselves. First thing was to declare the design requirements for the apparatus. So before modeling the
apparatus we made some rubrics for the apparatus which are as follow:

Design requirement of apparatus:

1. It is able to measure the pressure accurately:
A gas pressure measuring apparatus, such as a pressure gauge, can ensure accurate measurement of pressure through
several key features and practices:

 Calibration: The pressure gauge should be calibrated using a reliable and traceable reference standard to
establish its accuracy. Calibration involves comparing the readings of the pressure gauge to a known standard and
making necessary adjustments to ensure that the gauge provides accurate measurements.
 Quality and Accuracy of Components: The components of the gas pressure measuring apparatus, such as the
sensing element and the mechanical parts, should be of high quality and designed to minimize errors. For
example, the sensing element, which converts the pressure into a measurable signal, should have a linear response
and be sensitive enough to accurately capture pressure changes.
 Environmental Conditions: The gas pressure measuring apparatus should be operated within the specified
environmental conditions recommended by the manufacturer. For example, temperature and humidity can affect
the accuracy of the pressure gauge, so the apparatus should be used within the recommended temperature and
humidity range.
 Proper Installation: The pressure gauge should be installed correctly according to the manufacturer's instructions
to ensure accurate measurements. Improper installation, such as using incorrect fittings or not tightening
connections properly, can introduce measurement errors.
 Zero Point Adjustment: Many pressure gauges have a zero point adjustment feature that allows for fine-tuning
the gauge to read zero when no pressure is applied. Regular zero point adjustment should be performed to account
for any drift or offset in the zero reading, which can affect the accuracy of the measurements.
 Avoidance of Over-Range or Over-Pressure: The gas pressure measuring apparatus should not be exposed to
pressures that exceed its maximum range or over-pressure limit. Operating the gauge beyond its specified range
can cause damage to the gauge and result in inaccurate measurements.
 Regular Maintenance: Regular maintenance, including cleaning, inspection, and recalibration, should be
performed according to the manufacturer's recommendations to ensure the continued accuracy of the gas pressure
measuring apparatus.
By following these best practices and using a high-quality gas pressure measuring apparatus that is calibrated and
maintained properly, accurate pressure measurements can be ensured. It is important to always refer to the manufacturer's
instructions and guidelines for the specific gas pressure measuring apparatus being used to ensure accurate measurements.

2. Allows easy and precise control of the flow :

A gas pressure measuring apparatus can help ensure safe and easy flow of gas through several mechanisms:

 Pressure Regulation: Some gas pressure measuring apparatus, such as pressure regulators, are designed to
regulate gas pressure and maintain it at a constant level. This helps ensure a stable and controlled gas flow,
preventing sudden pressure surges or drops that could disrupt the safe flow of gas.

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 Pressure Relief Mechanisms: Gas pressure measuring apparatus may also be equipped with pressure relief
mechanisms, such as relief valves or pressure vents, which are designed to release excess pressure to prevent
over-pressurization of the system. These relief mechanisms provide a safety measure to protect the gas system
from potential damage or catastrophic failures due to high pressure.
 Proper Installation and Connection: Correct installation of the gas pressure measuring apparatus, including
proper connection to the gas supply lines, is crucial to ensure safe and easy gas flow. Proper installation includes
using appropriate fittings, sealing materials, and following manufacturer's guidelines to avoid leaks or other
installation errors that could compromise the integrity of the gas system.
 Regular Maintenance and Inspection: Regular maintenance and inspection of the gas pressure measuring
apparatus, as recommended by the manufacturer, is important to ensure its continued safe and reliable operation.
This includes checking for any signs of wear, damage, or malfunction, and addressing them promptly to prevent
potential safety risks.

3. Ensure that the apparatus is safe to use:

A gas pressure measuring apparatus can ensure that it is safe to use through several key factors:

 Compliance with Safety Standards: A reliable gas pressure measuring apparatus should comply with relevant
safety standards and regulations, such as ISO, ANSI, or other industry-specific guidelines. These standards define
requirements for design, performance, and safety features of the gas pressure measuring apparatus to ensure that it
is safe to use in a specific application or environment.
 Quality and Reliability: The gas pressure measuring apparatus should be of high quality, manufactured using
robust materials and components, and designed to withstand the expected operating conditions. It should be
reliable and able to provide accurate and consistent measurements over its intended operating range, avoiding any
potential risks associated with inaccurate or inconsistent readings.
 Operator Training: Proper training of operators who handle the gas pressure measuring apparatus is crucial for
safe operation. Operators should be trained on the correct operation, maintenance, and safety procedures of the
specific gas pressure measuring apparatus they are using, including understanding the operating limits, emergency
procedures, and safe handling practices.

4. It should be highly insulated:

A gas pressure measuring apparatus can ensure high insulation by implementing the following measures:

 Design and Construction: The gas pressure measuring apparatus should be designed and constructed with
materials and components that provide high insulation properties. For example, the apparatus may incorporate
insulating materials, such as ceramics, polymers, or special coatings, to reduce heat transfer or electrical
conductivity.
 Seal Integrity: Proper sealing of the gas pressure measuring apparatus is critical to ensure high insulation. Seals,
gaskets, or O-rings used in the apparatus should be made of suitable materials that are resistant to gas permeation,
moisture ingress, or other factors that could compromise the insulation properties.
 Shielding and Encapsulation: The gas pressure measuring apparatus may be shielded or encapsulated in
protective enclosures or housings that provide additional insulation. These enclosures can protect the apparatus
from external influences, such as temperature fluctuations, moisture, or electromagnetic interference, which can
affect the insulation properties.
 Grounding and Bonding: Proper grounding and bonding of the gas pressure measuring apparatus can help
ensure high insulation. Grounding involves connecting the apparatus to a ground reference, while bonding
involves connecting different metallic parts of the apparatus to eliminate potential differences that could cause
electrical arcing or spark discharge, which could compromise the insulation properties.

5. Lightweight and compact

There are several design and engineering considerations that can help ensure that a gas pressure measuring apparatus is
lightweight and compact:
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 Material Selection: Choosing lightweight materials for the construction of the gas pressure measuring apparatus,
such as aluminum, plastics, or composites, can significantly reduce its weight. These materials should be selected
based on their mechanical properties, durability, and compatibility with the gas being measured, to ensure reliable
and accurate measurements.
 Efficient Design: Implementing an efficient and optimized design that minimizes unnecessary bulk, eliminates
redundant features, and maximizes space utilization can help reduce the size and weight of the gas pressure
measuring apparatus. This can involve careful selection of components, streamlined routing of tubing or wiring,
and innovative packaging solutions.
 Integration: Integrating multiple functions or features into a single unit can reduce the overall size and weight of
the gas pressure measuring apparatus. For example, combining pressure sensing, signal processing, and
communication functions into a single compact unit can minimize the need for separate components or modules,
resulting in a more lightweight and compact design.

Apparatus designed(2-D Drawing):

“Dalton's Law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of each individual gas in the mixture, assuming ideal gas behavior.”

Construction of Apparatus:
Apparatus Required:
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 Three syringes labeled A, B, and C(diameter=12mm)
 Three pressure gauges, one for each syringe
 Three valves, one for each syringe
 Known gases to fill syringes A and B
 1 meter rubber pipe(diameter=8mm)
Here's a detailed explanation of the construction and operation of our apparatus:
1. Syringes: You have three syringes, labeled A, B, and C. Syringes A and B are filled with different gases, and
syringe C is used to collect and measure the combined gas from syringes A and B.
2. Pressure Gauges: You have three pressure gauges, one for each syringe (A, B, and C). These pressure gauges are
used to measure the pressure of the gases in each syringe before and after the gas transfer.
3. Valves: You have three valves, one for each syringe (A, B, and C). These valves control the flow of gases
between the syringes and allow you to transfer gas from syringes A and B to syringe C.
4. Gas Transfer Process: To validate Dalton's Law, you start by filling syringe A with a known gas and noting its
pressure using the pressure gauge attached to syringe A. Similarly, you fill syringe B with a different known gas
and measure its pressure using the pressure gauge attached to syringe B.
5. Gas Mixture in Syringe C: Next, you transfer the gases from syringes A and B to syringe C by opening the
valves between syringes A and C, and B and C, and allowing the gases to mix in syringe C. The combined gas
mixture in syringe C will now exert a total pressure that should be equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
gases in syringes A and B, as per Dalton's Law.
6. Pressure Measurement in Syringe C: After the gas transfer is complete, you measure the pressure of the
combined gas mixture in syringe C using the pressure gauge attached to syringe C. If the pressure of the gas
mixture in syringe C matches the sum of the pressures of gases in syringes A and B, it would validate Dalton's
Law.
7. Data Analysis: You can analyze the data obtained from the pressure measurements in syringes A, B, and C to
verify if the total pressure in syringe C is indeed equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in syringes
A and B, as predicted by Dalton's Law. If the pressures match, it would provide evidence to support Dalton's Law.
It's important to ensure that the syringes, valves, and pressure gauges used in your apparatus are properly calibrated, leak-
free, and suitable for the gases being measured to ensure accurate results. Proper safety precautions, such as handling
gases in a well-ventilated area and avoiding any ignition sources, should also be followed during the experiment.

Procedure:
1. Fill Syringe A with a known gas and record the initial pressure using the pressure gauge attached to syringe A.
Similarly, fill Syringe B with a different known gas and record the initial pressure using the pressure gauge attached
to syringe B.
2. Close the valves between syringes A and C, and B and C to isolate syringe C from syringes A and B initially.
3. Open the valve between syringes A and C and allow the gas from syringe A to flow into syringe C. Note the time it
takes for the gas transfer to complete, if needed.
4. Close the valve between syringes A and C and record the pressure of the gas in syringe C using the pressure gauge
attached to syringe C. This pressure represents the partial pressure of the gas from syringe A in the gas mixture in
syringe C.
5. Repeat the gas transfer process from syringe B to syringe C by opening the valve between syringes B and C, allowing
the gas from syringe B to flow into syringe C, and then closing the valve. Record the pressure of the gas in syringe C
using the pressure gauge attached to syringe C after the gas transfer is complete. This pressure represents the partial
pressure of the gas from syringe B in the gas mixture in syringe C.
6. Calculate the total pressure of the gas mixture in syringe C by adding the partial pressures of the gases from syringes
A and B. The total pressure of the gas mixture in syringe C should be equal to the sum of the pressures of gases in
syringes A and B, as per Dalton's Law. If the pressures match, it validates Dalton's Law.
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7. If desired, repeat the experiment multiple times with different gas mixtures or different pressures in syringes A and B
to obtain more data points for analysis and verification of Dalton's Law.
8. Analyze the data obtained, compare the partial pressures of individual gases in syringes A and B with the
corresponding pressures of the gas mixture in syringe C, and calculate the percentage deviation, if any, to evaluate the
accuracy of the measurements and validate Dalton's Law.
NOTE:
Proper safety precautions, such as handling gases in a well-ventilated area and avoiding any ignition sources,
should be followed during the experiment to ensure safe and accurate results. Additionally, ensure that the
syringes, valves, and pressure gauges used in the apparatus are properly calibrated and suitable for the gases being
measured.

Cost analysis:
Conclusion:

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