Force Systems Civil Engineering Department

2. FORCE SYSTEMS

2.1. Introduction

The foundation for a basic understanding of not only statics but also of the entire subject of mechanics is
laid in this chapter.
A force has been defined as the action of one body on another. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is
Newton (N).
External Applied forces
Action of a force
Internal Reaction forces

Stresses and strains

The relation between internal forces and internal strains involves the material properties of the body and is
studied in strength of materials, elasticity and plasticity.

Since the course deals essentially with the mechanics of rigid bodies, we will treat almost all forces as
sliding vectors for the rigid body on which they act.
When only the resultant external effects of a force are to be investigated, the force may be treated as a
sliding vector, and it is necessary and sufficient to specify the magnitude, direction and line of action of the
force.

Principle of transmissibility

It states that a force may be applied at any point on its given line of action without altering the resultant
effects of the force external to the rigid body on which it acts.

Contact forces Distributed

Forces Forces
Body forces Concentrated

Contact forces:-generated through direct physical contact between two bodies.

Body forces:- those applied by remote action, such as gravitational and magnetic forces.
A force may be measured either by comparison with other known forces, using a mechanical balance, or by
the calibrated movement of an elastic element.
The action of a force is always accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.
F2

F2 R - principle of transmissibility
R = F1 + F2

F1
-The resultant R replaces F1 and F2 without altering the external effects on
the body upon which they act.
In addition to the need for combining forces to obtain their resultant, we often have occasion to replace a
force by its vector components which act in specified directions.

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F2 R is resolved into F1 and F2.

R
R = F1 + F2
F1
F1 and F2 are vector components of R.

The relationship between a force and its vector components along given axes must not be confused with the
relationship between a force and its orthogonal projections onto the same axes.
Only when the axes are perpendicular are the components and projections of the vector equal.
.Fa and Fb are orthogonal projections.
Fa .F1 and F2 are vector components in the a and b
directions
F2 R
b
F1 Fb

2.2. Coplanar (Two-Dimensional) Force Systems

2.2.1. Resolution of A Force

The most common two-dimensional resolution of a force vector is into rectangular components.
y F = Fx + Fy= Fxi + Fyj

Fy F

θ
Fx x
The scalar components Fx and Fy may in general be positive or negative, depending on the quadrant into
which F points.
Fx = Fcosθ , Fy = Fcosθ , F = (Fx2 + Fy2) θ = tan-¹ (Fy / Fx)
It is essential that we be able to determine the correct components of a force no matter how the axes are
oriented or how the angles are measured. F
β α
Eg. y F x y
β

F
y
x β
x

Fx = Fsin β Fx = - Fcosβ Fx = Fcos(β – α)

Fy = Fcos β Fy = - Fsinβ Fy = Fsin(β – α)

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It is often convenient to utilize rectangular components in finding the sum or resultant force R.

F2y F2
F1
F1y
R
Ry

F1x F2x x
Rx

R = F1 + F2 = (F1xi + F1yj) + (F2xi + F2yj) or

R = Rxi + Ryj = (F1x + F2x)i + (F1y + F2y)j

Rx = F1x + F2x = Σ Fx
Ry = F1y + F2y = ΣFy

R= (Rx2 + Ry2)
Sine and Cosine Laws
Cosine law

R R2 = F12 + F22 – 2F1.F2cosα

F1 γ = F12 + F22 + 2F1.F2cosθ

θ β α θ

F2

Sine law

R/sinα = F2/sinγ = F1/sinβ

2.2.2. Moment, Couple and Force-Couple Systems

1/ Moment
A force may tend to rotate a body about an axis. This rotational tendency is known as the moment M of the
force. It is also referred to as torque.
Moment is a vector quantity having direction perpendicular to the plane of the body and its sense depends
on the direction in which the force tends to rotate the body. The right-hand rule is used to identify the sense.

The magnitude of the moment or tendency of the force to rotate the body about an axis normal to the plane
of the body is proportional to the magnitude of the force and the moment arm, which is the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the line of action of the force.

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Eg.
o M

F
r α
A
d

The magnitude of the moment is: M = F.d Its SI unit is Nm.

Sign convention consistency within a given problem is essential.

In some two-dimensional and many three-dimensional problems to follow, it is convenient to use a vector
approach for moment calculations. The moment of F about point A of the above fig. may be represented by
the cross-product expression:
M=rXF , rXF=- FXr

Where, r = a position vector which runs from the moment reference point A to any point on the line of
action of F.
The magnitude of this expression is given by; M = Frsinα = Fd.

Note that the moment arm d = rsinα does not depend on the particular point on the line of action of F to
which the vector r is directed. The direction and sense of M are correctly established by applying the right-
hand rule to the sequence r X F. The moment is perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors r and F.

In evaluating the moment of a force about a given point, the choice between using the vector cross product
or using the scalar expression will depend largely on how the geometry of the problem is specified. If the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the moment center is given or is easily
determined, then the scalar approach is generally simpler. If, however, F and r are not perpendicular and are
easily expressible in vector addition, then the cross-product expression is often preferred.

Varignon’s Theorem
It states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of
P R

Q
r
o
the force about the same point. r
Proof:
Mo = r X R , R = P + Q
r X R = r X (P + Q)
Using the distributive law of cross product,
Mo = r X R = (r X P) + (r X Q)

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2/ Couple

Couple is the moment produced by two equal and opposite and non collinear forces.

-F - These two forces cannot be combined into a single force, since

F their sum in every direction is zero.
a - The effect of the two forces is entirely to produce a tendency.
d of rotation.
o

The magnitude of the couple M about an axis passing through any point such as o is;
M = F(a + d) – Fd = Fd (the magnitude contains no reference to the dimension a).The direction of the
couple is ccw.
The moment of a couple has the same value for all moment centers.
The moment of a couple may be represented by vector algebra using the cross product notation.

-F
M = rA X F + rB X (-F)
rB r F
= (rA - rB) X F
o rA
= r X F (the expression contains no reference to the moment center o
to arbitrary points A and B on the line of action of F and –F, respectively.
The direction of a couple is normal to the plane of the couple and the sense is established by the right-hand
rule.
A couple is unchanged as long as the magnitude and direction of the vector remain constant.

Force-Couple Systems
The effect of force acting on a body has been described in terms of the tendency to push or pull the body in
the direction of the force and to rotate the body about any axis which does not intersect the line of the force.
The representation of this dual effect is often facilitated by replacing the given force by an equal parallel
force and a couple to compensate for the change in the moment of the force.

It is possible to replace a force at a point by the same force acting at a different point and a couple without
altering the external effects of the original force on the body. The combination of the force and couple is
referred to as a force-couple system.

Eg. F
d =

F M = F.d
A given couple and a force which lies in the plane of the couple (normal to the couple vector) may be
combined to produce a single force by reversing the foregoing procedure.

2.2.3. Resultants
Most problems in mechanics deal with a system of forces, and it is usually necessary to reduce the system to
its simplest form in describing its action.

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The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force combination that can replace the original forces
without altering the external effect of the system on the rigid body to which the forces are applied.

For any system of coplanar forces F1, F2, F3, etc. in the x-y plane, the resultant R of the forces is given by:

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + ….. = ∑ Fi
= (F1xi + F1yj) + (F2xi + F2yj) + (F3xi + F3yj) + ……
= ∑ Fxi + ∑ Fyj
= Rxi + Ryj
Rx = ∑ Fx ; Ry = ∑ Fy , R = ((∑Fx)2 + (∑Fy)2)

θ = tan-1(Ry/Rx) = tan-1(∑Fy/ ∑Fx)

It is possible to reduce a given system of forces to a force-couple system at an arbitrary chosen point.

F1

F2
F1 Mo = ∑Fi*di
M1 F2
3 M2 R = ∑F
M3 3
F3 3 F3

Mo = M1 + M2 + M3
M1 = F1*d1
M2 = F2*d2
M3 = F3*d3

R
` d d = Mo/R
R = ∑Fi
Mo = ∑Mi = ∑Fi*di
Mo = R*d
The moment of the resultant force about any point equals the sum of the moments of the original forces of
the system about the same point.
If the resultant force R for a given force system is zero, the resultant of the system need not be zero as it
may be a couple.
Eg. F1
F1 + F2 = - F3

F2 R = 0, M = F3*d

d
F3

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2.3. Non-coplanar (Three Dimensional) Force Systems

2.3.1. Resolution of a Force

z

Fzk F y
θz
θy Fyj

θx
Fxi

x
Fxi, Fyj and Fzk are rectangular components of F.

F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk, Fx = Fcosθx, Fy = Fcosθy, Fz = Fcosθz

F = Fcosθxi + Fcosθyj + Fcosθzk = F (cosθxi + cosθyj + cosθzk)

n = unit vector in the direction of F

2 2 2
F = n F, F = (Fx + Fy + Fz )

In solving three-dimensional problems, one must usually find the x, y and z scalar components of a given or
unknown force. In most cases, the direction of a force is described;
i/ by two points on the line of action of the force, or
ii/ by two angles which orient the line of action.

i/ If the coordinates of points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) on the line of action of the force are known and the
direction of the force is from A to B, the force may be written as;

F = FnAB = F.AB/| AB | = F. (x2 – x1)i + (y2 – y1)j + (z2 – z1)k

((x2-x1)2 + (y2-y1)2 + (z2-z1)2)
ii/ z

Fz F

Φ
Fy
Fx θ
Fxy y

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F = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk

Fxy = F.cosΦ, Fz = F.sinΦ, Fx = Fxy.cosθ = F.cosΦ.cosθ, Fy = Fxy.sinθ = F.cosΦ.sinθ

Rectangular components of a force F may be written with the aid of dot or scalar product operation.
If the unit vector n = αi +βj +γk and F = F(li + mj + nk), the projection of F in the n direction is given by:

i/ As a scalar
Fn = F. n = F(li + mj + nk) . (αi + βj + γk) = F(lα + mβ + nγ)
ii/ As a vector
Fn = (F.n) n
If θ is the angle between F and n, F. n = Fncosθ, θ = cos-1((F . n)/ | F |)

It should be observed that the dot product relationship applies to non intersecting vectors as well as to
intersecting vectors.

2.3.2. Moment, Couple and Force-couple Systems

In three dimensions, the determination of the perpendicular distance between a point or line and the line of
action of the force can be a tedious computation. The use of a vector approach using cross-product
multiplication becomes advantageous.
i/ Moment
z
Fz

Fy

r Fx y

O rz
rx

ry

The moment Mo of F about an axis through O is given by;

Mo = r X F = (rxi + ryj + rzk) X (Fxi + Fyj + Fzk) = i j k

rx ry rz
Fx Fy Fz

= (ry.Fz – rz.Fy)i + (rz.Fx – rx.Fz)j + (rx.Fy – ry.Fx)k

= Mxi + Myj + Mzk

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If n is a unit vector in the  direction, the moment M of F about any axis  through O is expressed by;
M = Mo .n = (r X F. n) --- which is the scalar magnitude.
Or
M = (Mo. n) n = (r X F. n) n ------ vector expression for the moment of F about an axis 
through O.

Varignon’s Theorem; - the sum of the moments of a system of concurrent forces about a given point
equals the moment of their sum about the same point.
F3
-The sum of the moments of the forces about O is;
F2
Mo = r X F1 + r X F2 + r X F3 + -------
= r X (F1 + F2 + F3 + ----)
F1 = r X  Fi
r =  (r X Fi)
=rXR
ii/ Couple

- F d F

B
r

rB A
rA
O
-If the vector r joins any point B on the line of action of –F to any point A on the line of action of F. The
combined moment (couple) of the two forces about O is;

M = rA X F + rB X (-F) = (rA – rB) X F = r X F

The moment of the couple, M = r X F. It is the same about all points.
- The moment of a couple is a free vector, whereas the moment of a force about a point (which is also
the moment about a defined axis through the point) is a sliding vector whose direction is along the
axis through the point.
- A couple tends to produce a pure rotation of the body about an axis normal to the plane of the forces
which constitute the couple.
Force-Couple System

F M=rXF
F

B r B

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The force F at point A is replaced by an equal force F at point B and the couple

M = r X F.

 Couple vectors obey all of the rules, which govern vector quantities.

2.3.3. Resultants

-Any system of forces may be replaced by its resultant force R and the resultant couple
M. For the system of forces F1, F2, F3, ----- acting on a rigid body, the resultant force R and the resultant
couple M is given by;

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + -------- =  Fi

M = M1 + M2 + M3 + ----- =  Mi
M1
Eg. M2

F1 F1

= O
F2

F2 M = M1 + M2

=
M1 = r1 X F1 , M2 = r2 X F2
O R = F1 + F2

. r1, r2 = vectors from O to any point on the line of action of F1 and F2 respectively.

In three dimensions, the magnitudes of the resultants and their components are;

Rx =  Fx, Ry =  Fy, Rz =  Fz R= ((Fx)2 + (Fy)2 + (Fz)2)

Mx =  (r X F)x , My =  (r X F)y , Mz =  (r X F)z , M = (Mx2 + My2 + Mz2)

.The magnitude and direction of M depends on the particular point selected. The magnitude and direction of
R, however, are the same no matter which point is selected.

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Wrench Resultant

When the resultant couple vector M is parallel to the resultant force R, the resultant is said to be a wrench.

R R

M
M

Positive Wrench Negative Wrench

Eg. Screw driver application

-Any general force system may be represented by a wrench applied along a unique line of action.

Eg. Take the resultant force R and resultant couple M acting at some point O of the general force system.
M = M1 + M2
M
R R
R M2
O M1 d R
O

-R

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