Nelson 1o rules

 Visibility of system status. Users should always be informed of system operations

with easy to understand and highly visible status displayed on the screen within a
reasonable amount of time.
 Match between system and the real world. Designers should endeavor to mirror the
language and concepts users would find in the real world based on who their target
users are. Presenting information in logical order and piggybacking on user’s
expectations derived from their real-world experiences will reduce cognitive strain
and make systems easier to use.
 User control and freedom. Offer users a digital space where backward steps are
possible, including undoing and redoing previous actions.
 Consistency and standards. Interface designers should ensure that both the graphic
elements and terminology are maintained across similar platforms. For example, an
icon that represents one category or concept should not represent a different concept
when used on a different screen.
 Error prevention. Whenever possible, design systems so that potential errors are
kept to a minimum. Users do not like being called upon to detect and remedy
problems, which may on occasion be beyond their level of expertise. Eliminating or
flagging actions that may result in errors are two possible means of achieving error
prevention.
 Recognition rather than recall. Minimize cognitive load by maintaining task-
relevant information within the display while users explore the interface. Human
attention is limited and we are only capable of maintaining around five items in our
short-term memory at one time. Due to the limitations of short-term memory,
designers should ensure users can simply employ recognition instead of recalling
information across parts of the dialogue. Recognizing something is always easier than
recall because recognition involves perceiving cues that help us reach into our vast
memory and allowing relevant information to surface. For example, we often find the
format of multiple choice questions easier than short answer questions on
a test because it only requires us to recognize the answer rather than recall it from our
memory.
 Flexibility and efficiency of use. With increased use comes the demand for less
interactions that allow faster navigation. This can be achieved by using abbreviations,
function keys, hidden commands and macro facilities. Users should be able to
customize or tailor the interface to suit their needs so that frequent actions can be
achieved through more convenient means.
 Aesthetic and minimalist design. Keep clutter to a minimum. All unnecessary
information competes for the user's limited attentional resources, which could inhibit
user’s memory retrieval of relevant information. Therefore, the display must be
reduced to only the necessary components for the current tasks, whilst providing
clearly visible and unambiguous means of navigating to other content.
 Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors. Designers should assume
users are unable to understand technical terminology, therefore, error messages should
almost always be expressed in plain language to ensure nothing gets lost in
translation.
 Help and documentation. Ideally, we want users to navigate the system without
having to resort to documentation. However, depending on the type of solution,
documentation may be necessary. When users require help, ensure it is easily located,
specific to the task at hand and worded in a way that will guide them through the
necessary steps towards a solution to the issue they are facing.

what is human computer interaction

Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) is a multidisciplinary field of study that focuses on the design and
use of computer technology, particularly the interaction between humans (users) and computers. The
goal of HCI is to create technologies that let humans interact with computers in meaningful and effective
ways. This involves understanding and improving the design of user interfaces and the overall user
experience.

Key elements of HCI include:

1. **User Interface Design:** Designing the visual and interactive aspects of computer systems to make
them user-friendly and efficient. This includes the design of menus, buttons, icons, and other graphical
elements.

2. **User Experience (UX) Design:** Focusing on the overall experience a user has with a system,
considering factors such as ease of use, satisfaction, and accessibility.

3. **Usability:** Assessing and improving the ease with which users can learn and use a system.
Usability testing involves observing users as they interact with a system to identify areas for
improvement.

4. **Human Factors:** Considering human abilities, limitations, and characteristics in the design of
computer systems. This includes aspects like cognition, perception, and motor skills.

5. **Interaction Techniques:** Exploring and developing various ways for users to interact with
computers, such as touch screens, voice commands, gestures, and more.
6. **Information Architecture:** Organizing and structuring information within a system to make it
easily accessible and understandable for users.

7. **User-Centered Design:** Involving users in the design process to ensure that systems meet their
needs and preferences. This often includes iterative design with feedback from users.

8. **Accessibility:** Ensuring that computer systems are usable by people with diverse abilities and
disabilities. This involves designing interfaces that accommodate different needs, such as providing
alternatives for users with visual or motor impairments.

9. **Cognitive Modeling:** Understanding how users think, learn, and solve problems to inform the
design of systems that align with human cognitive processes.

HCI is essential in the development of software and hardware to create more intuitive, efficient, and
satisfying interactions between humans and computers. As technology evolves, HCI continues to play a
crucial role in adapting interfaces to meet the changing needs and expectations of users.

Prototype lo fi vs hi fi

In the context of design and product development, "lo-fi" (low-fidelity) and "hi-fi" (high-fidelity)
prototypes refer to different levels of detail and functionality in the prototypes created during the
design process. Both types of prototypes serve distinct purposes and are used at different stages of the
design cycle.

1. **Low-Fidelity (Lo-Fi) Prototypes:**

- **Purpose:** Lo-fi prototypes are used in the early stages of the design process to quickly explore
and communicate design concepts.

- **Detail Level:** They are characterized by minimal detail and are often hand-drawn or created
using simple tools like paper, cardboard, or digital wireframing software.

- **Functionality:** Lo-fi prototypes focus on the basic structure and layout of a design without
incorporating complex interactions or realistic graphics.

- **Advantages:** They are quick and inexpensive to create, allowing for rapid iteration and
exploration of different design ideas. They are also effective for getting feedback on overall concepts
and usability.
2. **High-Fidelity (Hi-Fi) Prototypes:**

- **Purpose:** Hi-fi prototypes are created in later stages of the design process when the basic design
concepts have been validated, and more detailed interaction and visual design elements need to be
refined.

- **Detail Level:** These prototypes are more polished and detailed, often resembling the final
product more closely. They can include realistic graphics, interactive elements, and animations.

- **Functionality:** Hi-fi prototypes simulate the actual user interactions and functionality of the final
product more accurately. They may be interactive and provide a more realistic user experience.

- **Advantages:** Hi-fi prototypes are useful for testing specific interactions, gathering detailed user
feedback, and conducting usability testing on a design that closely resembles the final product.

**Choosing Between Lo-Fi and Hi-Fi Prototypes:**

- **Early Exploration:** Use lo-fi prototypes when you're exploring multiple design concepts and want
to iterate quickly.

- **User Feedback:** Lo-fi prototypes are often used for gathering high-level feedback on overall
concepts, while hi-fi prototypes are more suitable for detailed user testing.

- **Cost and Time:** Lo-fi prototypes are quicker and cheaper to create, making them ideal for early
exploration. Hi-fi prototypes require more time and resources but provide a more realistic
representation of the final product.

In many design processes, a combination of both lo-fi and hi-fi prototypes is used. Lo-fi prototypes help
in the early ideation and exploration phases, while hi-fi prototypes are employed as the design becomes
more refined and detailed. The choice between lo-fi and hi-fi prototypes depends on the goals of the
design phase and the specific information or feedback the design team is seeking.
steering law w.r.t HCI

Fitts's Law is a mathematical model that predicts the time required for a user to move a pointing device
from its current position to a target area. The law is expressed by the following formula:

\[ \text{MT} = a + b \times \log_2\left(\frac{D}{W} + 1\right) \]

Where:

- \( \text{MT} \) is the movement time.

- \( a \) and \( b \) are experimentally determined constants.

- \( D \) is the distance from the starting point to the center of the target.

- \( W \) is the width of the target.

The logarithmic relationship in the formula reflects the speed-accuracy tradeoff, indicating that as the
target width increases or the target distance decreases, movement time decreases. Conversely, as the
target width decreases or the target distance increases, movement time increases. This law is widely
used in the design and evaluation of user interfaces, helping designers optimize target sizes and
distances to improve the efficiency of user interactions.

gestalts theory w.r.t HCI

Gestalt psychology, with its principles and laws, has significant relevance to Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI). Gestalt theory, developed in the early 20th century by German psychologists,
emphasizes the way humans perceive and organize visual information. Several Gestalt principles are
particularly pertinent to the design of user interfaces in HCI:

1. **Law of Proximity:**

- **Definition:** Elements that are close to each other are perceived as a group.

- **HCI Application:** Group related interface elements spatially close to each other to signify their
relationship or association.

2. **Law of Similarity:**

- **Definition:** Similar elements are perceived as belonging to the same group.

- **HCI Application:** Use consistent visual styles, colors, and shapes for related elements to convey
their similarity and association.

3. **Law of Closure:**

- **Definition:** Humans tend to perceive incomplete shapes or objects as complete.

- **HCI Application:** Design interface elements in a way that users can mentally complete or fill in
missing information, fostering a sense of completeness.

4. **Law of Continuity:**

- **Definition:** Elements arranged in a straight line or smooth curve are perceived as more related
than those with sharp angles.

- **HCI Application:** Arrange elements in a smooth, continuous manner to guide users through a
logical flow or sequence.

5. **Law of Figure-Ground:**
 - **Definition:** Humans tend to perceive objects as either figures (the main focus) or ground (the
background).

- **HCI Application:** Clearly differentiate between foreground and background elements to help
users focus on key information.

6. **Law of Common Fate:**

- **Definition:** Elements that move in the same direction are perceived as a group.

- **HCI Application:** Use motion or animation to convey relationships between moving elements on
the interface.

7. **Law of Symmetry:**

- **Definition:** Humans perceive symmetrical arrangements as stable and orderly.

- **HCI Application:** Utilize symmetrical layouts when aiming for a balanced and harmonious design.

8. **Law of Prägnanz (Law of Good Figure):**

- **Definition:** People tend to interpret ambiguous images in the simplest form possible.

- **HCI Application:** Design interfaces with clear and simple structures to enhance user
understanding and reduce cognitive load.

Understanding these Gestalt principles can guide designers in creating interfaces that align with users'
natural perceptual tendencies. Applying these principles in HCI contributes to the creation of visually
coherent, intuitive, and user-friendly designs that enhance the overall user experience.

 Heuristic evaluation

Heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method commonly used in the field of Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI) and user experience design. It involves evaluating a user interface against a set of
heuristics or usability principles to identify potential usability issues. This method is generally conducted
by usability experts, researchers, or experienced designers.

Key components of heuristic evaluation include:

1. **Heuristics:** Heuristics are broad usability guidelines or principles that have been established
through research and experience. These guidelines represent common issues that impact the usability of
an interface. Examples of heuristics include visibility of system status, match between system and the
real world, and user control and freedom.

2. **Usability Experts:** Heuristic evaluations are typically carried out by individuals with expertise in
HCI and usability. These experts apply their knowledge of design principles and user behavior to assess
how well an interface aligns with established heuristics.

3. **Evaluation Process:**

- **Preparation:** The evaluator becomes familiar with the goals and context of use for the interface
being evaluated.

- **Heuristic Application:** The evaluator systematically goes through a set of heuristics, examining
the interface against each one.

- **Identification of Issues:** Usability issues or violations of heuristics are identified during the
evaluation. These could include problems with navigation, information design, or error prevention.

- **Severity Ratings:** Each identified issue is assigned a severity rating based on its potential impact
on the user experience.

4. **Benefits:**

- **Cost-Effective:** Heuristic evaluations can be conducted relatively quickly and at a lower cost
compared to some other usability testing methods.

- **Early Identification:** This method is particularly useful in the early stages of design, allowing for
the identification of potential issues before extensive development or testing.

5. **Limitations:**

- **Not User-Centric:** Heuristic evaluation relies on expert judgment rather than direct user
feedback, so it may not capture all user perspectives.

- **Limited Context:** Evaluators may not have the full context of use, which can affect their
assessment of certain design choices.

6. **Heuristic Sets:** Different usability experts or organizations may use slightly different sets of
heuristics. Common sets include Nielsen's 10 usability heuristics and the ISO 9241-110 ergonomic
criteria for dialogues with graphical user interfaces.
7. **Iterative Process:** Heuristic evaluation is often an iterative process. After issues are identified,
designers make improvements, and subsequent evaluations are conducted to assess the impact of
changes.

Overall, heuristic evaluation is a valuable method for quickly identifying potential usability problems in a
user interface. When used in conjunction with other usability testing methods, it contributes to creating
more effective and user-friendly designs.

Cognitive evaluation

Cognitive evaluation in the context of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) refers to the assessment of
how well a user can understand and interact with a system based on cognitive processes. It involves
evaluating aspects such as mental models, cognitive load, and the overall cognitive fit between the
user and the interface. The goal is to design interfaces that align with users' cognitive capabilities,
making interactions more intuitive and efficient.

Key aspects of cognitive evaluation in HCI include:

1. **Mental Models:**

- **Definition:** Mental models are the internal representations that users develop to understand
how a system works. Cognitive evaluation assesses whether the design supports the formation of
accurate and effective mental models.

2. **Cognitive Load:**

- **Definition:** Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental effort required to complete a task.
Evaluation involves determining whether the interface imposes an appropriate cognitive load on users
for various tasks.

3. **Information Processing:**

- **Definition:** This involves how users perceive, interpret, and process information presented by
the system. Evaluation assesses the clarity and effectiveness of information presentation.

4. **Attention and Perception:**

 - **Definition:** Users' attention and perception play a crucial role in interacting with a system.
Evaluation considers factors such as visual hierarchy, information saliency, and the arrangement of
elements to optimize user attention.

5. **Feedback and Error Handling:**

- **Definition:** Cognitive evaluation examines how well the system provides feedback to users
about their actions and how effectively it handles errors. Clear feedback helps users understand the
consequences of their actions.

6. **Learnability:**

- **Definition:** Learnability assesses how quickly users can grasp the functionality of the system.
Cognitive evaluation considers whether the interface supports a smooth learning curve for users.

7. **User Decision Making:**

- **Definition:** The evaluation involves understanding how well the interface supports users in
making decisions. This includes the clarity of options, the availability of relevant information, and the
overall decision-making process.

8. **Cognitive Ergonomics:**

- **Definition:** Cognitive ergonomics focuses on designing interfaces that accommodate users'

cognitive abilities and limitations. It aims to create systems that are easy to understand, learn, and
use.

9. **Task Analysis:**

- **Definition:** Task analysis involves breaking down user tasks into individual steps to understand
the cognitive processes required. This analysis helps in evaluating the cognitive demands imposed by
each task.

10. **Usability Heuristics:**

- **Definition:** Cognitive evaluation often involves applying usability heuristics or principles that
address cognitive aspects. These heuristics may include guidelines related to memory, attention, and
decision-making.
Cognitive evaluation methods may include user testing, cognitive walkthroughs, and expert
evaluations focused on cognitive aspects. By considering cognitive factors in the evaluation process,
designers can create interfaces that are not only visually appealing but also align with users' mental
processes, leading to improved usability and user satisfaction.