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The somites are as follows:
Somites Number
Occipital 4 pairs
Cervical 8 pairs
Thoracic 12 pairs
Lumbar 5 pairs
Sacral 5 pairs
Coccygeal 8 -10 pairs
[Ref: Langman]

Figure: Somite
Fate/differentiation

Figure: Fate of somite

The somites later differentiate into three parts

1. Sclerotome- It gives rise to vertebral column and ribs. Sclerotome also
form a loosely woven tissue called mesenchyme
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2. Dermatome- Give rise to dermis and subcutaneous tissue
3. Myotome- Gives rise to (striated) muscles.
Dermatome and myotome together called dermomyotome.
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Derivatives of Germ Layers

Fig. derivatives of germ layers

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The following three tables shows the derivatives of the 3 germ Layers

Table: Derivatives of the Ectodermal Germ Layer

Primordia Adult Derivatives or fate

Surface  Epidermis of skin
Ectoderm  Mucous membrane of lips, cheeks, gums, part of the floor of
the mouth, part of the palate, nasal cavities and paranasal
sinuses.
 Epithelium of lower part of anal canal (Below pectinate line)
 Epithelium of terminal part of male urethra
 Epithelium of Outer surface of labia minora and whole of
labia majora
 Anterior epithelium of cornea, epithelium of conjunctiva,
epithelial layers of ciliary body and iris.
 Epithelium of Outer layer of tympanic membrane, epithelial
lining of membranous labyrinth including the special end
organs.
 Epithelium of Lacrimal canaliculi, sac, nasolacrimal duct
 sweat and sebaceous glands, parotid glands (and other
salivary glands?), Mammary glands, pars anterior of
pituitary gland.
 Others:
o Hair
o Nails
o Enamel of teeth
(Ref.: Inderbir Singh)
Otic placode  Inner ear
Lens placode  Lens of eye
Nasal placode  Nasal cavities & paranasal sinuses

Neural tube  CNS.

 Retina & optic nerve and musculature of iris.
 Pineal & pituitary gland (Neurohypophysis- post. lobe &
stalk).
 Neurons of motor nerves
 Neuroglia-
o Ependymal cells
o Macroglia,
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o Astrocyte,
o Oligodendrocyte
(Ref.: Langman)

Neural Crest  Connective tissue and bones of the face and skull.
 Cranial nerve ganglia
 C cells of the thyroid gland
 Conotruncal septum in the heart
 Odontobiasts
 Dermis in face and neck
 Spinal [dorsal root] ganglia
 Sympathetic chain and pre aortic ganglia
 Parasympathetic ganglia of the gastrointestinal tract
 Adrenal medulla
 Schwann cells
 Glial cells
 Meninges [forebrain ]
 Melanocytes
 Smooth muscle cells to blood vessels of the face and fore
brain
(Ref.: Langman, 14th, 78)

Fig: Neural crest derivatives.

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Table: Derivatives of the Mesodermal Germ Layer

Primordia Adult Derivatives or fate

Paraxial
Mesoderm
1. Somite  Dermatome- Dermis
 Myotome – Striated muscle
 Sclerotome.- Vertebrae & ribs.
2. Neuromeres Dura mater of skull.

Intermediate  Pronephros
Mesoderm  Mesonephros
 Metanephros (permanent kidney)
 Ureter & trigone of urinary bladder
 Mesonephric duct & Mullerian duct.
 Gonadal germinal epithelium.
 Duct of seminal vesicle
Lateral Plate
Mesoderm
1. Somatopleuric  Gonadal cortex and adrenal cortex
Mesoderm  Parietal layer of pericardiurn, pleura &
peritoneum
2. Splanchnopleu
ric Mesoderm  visceral layer of pericardium, pleura and
peritoneum
 Visceral musculature.
 Connective tissues of organs.
 CVS
 Blood cells.
 Lymphatics, lymph nodes & spleen.

Besides these, in embryo exist

(1) Pharyngeal arch mesoderm, and
(2) Mesoderm of septum transversum

They give rise to; (respectively)

1. Branchial musculature
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2. Central tendon of diaphragm, Capsule and stroma of liver, Fibrous
pericardium
(Ref.: Langman and Inderbir Singh)
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Table: Derivatives of the Endodermal Germ Layer

Primordia Adult Derivatives or fate
Endoderm (i)Lining epithelia: The following lining epithelia are of
endodermal origin
1. Epithelium of part of the mouth, part of the palate,
tongue, tonsil, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines and upper part of anal canal (Above
pectinate line).
2. Epithelium Of pharyngo-tympanic tube, middle ear, inner
layer of tympanic membrane, mastoid antrum and air
cells.
3. Epithelium of respiratory tract.
4. Epithelium of gall bladder and extra-hepatic biliary duct
system, epithelium of pancreatic ducts.
5. Epithelium of
 Urinary bladder except trigone (mesoderm.)
 Female urethra except Part of its posterior wall
(mesoderm)
 Male urethra except part of the posterior wall of
its prostatic part (mesoderm), and except the part
of the penile urethra lying in the glans penis
(ectoderm).
6. Epithelium of lower part (or whole of) vagina, vestibule
and inner surface of labia minora.
(ii) Glands.
(a) Endocrine:
 Thyroid,
 parathyroid,
 thymus,
 islets of langerhans.
(a) Exocrine-
 liver,
 pancreas,
 glands in the wall of gastrointestinal tract,
 greater part of prostate (except inner glandular
zone) and its female homologus.
[Ref. I Singh]
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Endoderm folds
Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine

oral and anal openings perforate

respiratory tract forms from foregut

associated glands form

Explanatory SAQ-: Embryonic period is highly sensitive to teratogen – why?

Ans.: This period is critical for normal development.
 Most major organs and organ systems are formed during the third to eighth week
(embryonic period).
 Stem cell populations are establishing each of the organ primordia, and these
interactions are sensitive to insult from genetic and environmental influences.
So this period is highly sensitive to teratogen.

Unfortunately, the mother may not realize she is pregnant during this critical time,
especially during the third and fourth weeks, which are particularly vulnerable.
Consequently, she may not avoid harmful influences, such as cigarette smoking and
alcohol.
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11. Fetal Period

Some Facts Concerning the Fetus
Then we developed out of him another creation*Surah Al -Mu'minun, Ayah 14

Introduction for grasping the chapter

In the previous chapter, we have seen the development of different organs and
organ systems from different germ layers (organogenesis). After such
development, the embryo enters into the fetal period (3rd month to birth). In
this time, maturation of the organs and organ systems occurs. Rapid growth also
occurs in this period. With these facts of the fetus, some other features of
the embryo will also be described here.

*Viable Fetus
When the fetus is 28 weeks old, the respiratory system and the nervous system
of fetus (<- embryo) differentiate sufficiently. So, a fetus is viable from this
time and this age is called the viable age of the fetus,

Growth & Fetal Growth

Growth in biology can be definedas "increase in size and mass which results
from synthesis of protoplasm &extracellular materials which are specific tissue
component"(Gray).

Embryonic measurements
This growth is of 3 types-
1. Multiplicative growth- Increase in number of cells
*
This Ayah refers to the fetal stage when there is growth of the body and coming of the soul.
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2. Auxenticgrowth-Increase in size of cells
3. Accretionary growth- Increase in the amount of structural intercellular
material.

Factors Affecting Fetal Growth

A. Factors retarding the growth
1 Genetic- most important. B. Factors stimulating the growth
2. Environmental. 1. Diabetes of mother
3. Severe malnutrition. 2. Maternal hypoglycemia & subsequent
4. Heavy smoking compensatory secretion of insulinin
5. Placental insufficiency. the fetus.

Types of the Age of the Embryo & Fetus

There are several types of ages
1. Menstrual age- Counted from the first day of last menstruation.
2. Ovulatory age- Counted from the day of ovulation,
3. Coital age- Counted from the day of entrance of male gametes in thefemale
genital tract.
4. Fertilization age- Counted from the day of fertilization. It is 12 hours
lessthan ovulatory age.
The actual age is 14+1days less than the menstrual age.

Length (size) of the Embryo & Fetus

The length of the fetus can be measured in different ways. They are-
1. Crown rump length- Length in sitting Position from vertex to breach
(depression between the buttocks)
2. Crown-heel length- Length in standing position. Vertex-breach( in standing).
3. Length measured from foot. etc.
Growth in length and weight in fetal period
Age (weeks) CRL Weight (gm)
9-12 5-8 10-45
13-16 9-14 60-200
17-20 15-19 250-450
21-24 20-23 500-820
25-28 24-27 900-1300
29-32 28-30 1400-2100
33-36 31-34 2200-2900
37-38 35-36 3000-3400
Duration of Pregnancy
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Pregnancy lasts for10 lunar months. Thus it is 280 days after the, onset oflast
menstruation. or more accurately, 266 days or 38 weeks after fertilization. [Langman,)

Expected Date of Delivery (EDD)

it can be determined by the following formula
EDD=280 days from1st day of last memtruation+10 days.

Nutrition of the Embryo & Fetus

Embryo and fetus get nutrition from the following sources-
1. Utero-placental circulation
2. Fluids of amnion and yolk sac. (1st two weeks)
3. Cell body of the oocyte. (in pre-embryonic period)
4. Tubal anduterine secretion.
(Gray’s Anatomy)
What is vernix caseosa?
The outer layer of epidermis at about 6th month of intrauterine life degenerates and
its cells are cast off. Mixed with the secretion of sebaceous glands it forms vernix
caseosa. The same covers fetus until birth and is supposed to protect it from pressure
exerted by amniotic fluid.

Signs of mature fetus

(a) Skin (smooth, plump, pink and covered
with vernix caseosa).
(b) Abundant subcutaneous fat
(c) Abundant dark hairs on scalp.
(d) Lanugo absent from most situations
De
velopmental horizons during fetal life
Events
(e) Nails projecting beyond finger tips.
(f) Skull sutures closed except at
fontanelles,
(g) Moves and cries vigorously when born.
Age (weeks)

Taste bud appears 7

Swallowing 10
Respiratory movements 14-16
Sucking movements 24-26
some sounds heard 24-27
Eyes sensitive to light 28

12. Placenta and other Fetal Membranes

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"He created you in the wombs of your mothers from one stage to another and all
along three veils of darkness † surrounded you. Surah AI-Zumar, Ayah 6,

SAQ of first professional examination

1. Define fetal membrane. Enumerate the extra-embryonic fetal membranes.
2. What are the developmental sources of placenta?
3. Describe the formation of placenta.
4. What is placental barrier? Name its types.
5. Give the structure of placental barrier.
6. Give the contents & development of umbilical cord.
7. Write in short about placental circulation.
8. What is polyhydroamnions? Give its causes & effect
9. Give the abnormalities of placenta.
10. Name different types of anatomical placenta.
11. What are the functions of amniotic fluid?
12. Write down the functions of placenta.
13. Give the abnormalities of placenta.
14. Define vitello-intestinal duct. Give its fate.
15. Define allantois. Give its fate & developmental anomalies. Discuss different
twinning. Give the differences between monozygotic & dizygotic twins.
16. Short note on:
a. amnion
b. Umbilical cord
c. Placenta
d. Chorion
e. Yolk sac

Introduction for grasping the chapter

Definition Certain extra-embryonic membranes formed during implantation of
of fetal
membranes the embryo serve the embryo and fetus by providing protection,
nutrition .They are called fetal membranes.

Placenta is the most important fetal membrane.

†
‘Three veils of darkness’ - These are taken to mean the following:
a. The abdominal wall
b. Uterine wall
c. The placenta with its chorionic-amniotic membranes
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Figure:: Development of fetal membranes

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Names of the fetal membranescan be listed as follows-

1. Trophoblast.
2. Chorion.
3. Amnion.
4. Yolk sac.
5. Allantois.
6. Vitelline duct.
7. Connecting
stalk.
8. Umbilical cord.
9. Placenta

Figure: Fetal
membrane

Trophoblast

Formation
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As cleavage proceeds, the ovum comes to have 16 cells. This is known as morula.
The morula consists of an inner cell mass that is completely surrounded by an
outer layer of cells. The cells of the outer layer later give rise to trophoblast.
[Langman]

Fate
It divides into two layers- outer and inner.
 The inner one is cellular and called as cytotrophoblast.
 The outer one having no cell boundary is termed syncytotrophoblast.
These two together with primary mesoderm constitute chorion.
[Langman]

- Cytotrophoblast—Langhans layer: The inner layer of cells is cuboidal to low columnar,

mononucleated and contains mitotic figures indicating their capacity to divide.
- Syncytial trophoblast—plasmodial layer: The outer layer of multinucleated cells without
mitotic figures. These are formed by the dividing cells of cytotrophoblast that have
migrated to the periphery and fused.

Chorion

Definition
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The trophoblastic wall of the blastocyst. lined internally by somatopleuric extra
embryonic mesoderm is called chorion. [Langman]

Formation
- The extraembryonic somatic mesoderm and the two layers of trophoblast
(cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast) contribute for the formation of
chorion all around the developing embryo
- The extraembryonic coelom is now called the chorionic cavity.

Parts

Figure: Parts of Chorion. Left: longitudinal section across uterus right:

transverse section across uterus

It is divided into two parts - chorion laeve& chorion frondosum

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1. The part of Chorion on the embryonic pole is full of villi and goes by the
name Ofchorion frondosum.
2. Rest of the chorion on the abembryonic pole lacks in villi and appears smooth.
It is chorion laeve.

Function
1. The chorion encloses the embryo and all other fetal membranes.
2. It is the fetal organ for nutrition, respiration and secretion.

Fate
Frondose part becomes fetal placenta.
Smooth part fuses with decidua parietalis
Cast off after birth.

Chorionic villi
Chorion frondosum later develops into Chorionic villi to form placenta.

Definition
Chorionic villi are small finger like projections which form the main functional
elements of placenta. These are surrounded by maternal blood.

Stages of formation
See point 1, 2, & 3 in formation of placenta.

Amnion

It is a membranous sac formed by a layer of ectodermal cell (amniogenic cells)

continuous with the ectoderm of the embryonic area and covered externally by
a layer of primitive extraembryonic mesoderm (somatopleuric layer).When the
cells of epiblast which are columnar in shape arrange themselves to enclose a
cavity, ectodermal vesicle (amniotic sac) is produced. The sac contains amniotic
fluid. [Langman, 14th,50]
,
Summary
Origin-Cavitation where inner cell mass joins trophoblast.
Composition-Made of ectoderm and somatic mesoderm.
Fate- persists until birth.
Fuses with chorion.
Covers fetal surface of placenta
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Function-Contains fetus dipped in amniotic fluid of later pregnant uterus
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Amniotic fluid
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The fluid in the amniotic cavity is called amniotic fluid.
It is clear & watery, produced partly by amniotic cells but primarily by maternal
blood.

Functional importance
(1) It gives nutrition to the embryo and fetus.
(2) It acts as a sock absorber
(3) Fetus can move his limbs for this fluid. This movement enhance his
development/growth:
(4) This fluid helps in the dilatation of the cervix.
(5) It prevents the adhesion of the embryo to the amnion. From the 5th month,
fetus swallows its own fluid amounting 400 ml/day [Fetus drinks it's own urine]

Total amount/day
800 ml[1500-2000ml of fluid is called hydramnion& below 400 ml is oligoamnion)

Abnormal production
- Hydramnios—more than 2 L
of amniotic fluid will be
present. In some cases,
hydramnios is associated
with atresia of the
esophagus, which prevents
swallowing of amniotic fluid
by the fetus
- Oligoamnios—scanty amniotic
fluid. It is sometimes
associated with renal
agenesis, as no urine is added
to the amniotic fluid. Both
conditions can cause
abnormalities in the fetus.
They can also cause
difficulties during childbirth.

Amniocentesis
Amniotic fluid is sampled by inserting a hollow needle through the mother's
anterior abdominal wall and uterine wall into the amniotic cavity. A syringe is
then attached and amniotic fluid withdrawn. Because there is relatively little
amniotic fluid amniocentesis is difficult to perform prior to the fourteenth
week.
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Yolk sac
It is endoderm lined cavity into which endodermic vesicle is differentiated.

Formation & type

1. Primary yolk sac-
During 9th day of development, at the embryonic pole flattened cells
invaginating from the hypoblast form a thin membrane known as the
exocelomic membrane (Heuser's membrane). This membrane together with
the hypoblast forms the Primary yolk sac. [Langman, 14th, 52]

2. Definitive (secondary) yolk sac—

By the 13th day of development, the hypoblast produces additional cells that
migrate along the inside of the exocelomic membrane, These cells proliferate
and gradually form a new cavity within the exocelomic cavity. this cavity is
known as secondary or definitive yolk sac. [Langman, 14th, 53]
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3. Tertiary yolk sac- it is vitelline sac. It is the remnant of secondary yolk sac.
When the embryo folds ventrally, a great portion of secondary yolk sac is
converted into foregut, midgut, and hindgut cavities and the other portion is
converted into the tertiary yolk sac.

Function
For a time it gives nutrition to the embryo.
Derivatives
1. Embryonic gut.
2. Allantois.
3. Earliest blood vessels (From the mesoderm surrounding the yolk sac).
4. Primordial germ cells.
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Allantois
(Allantoic diverticulum)

It is an endodermal diverticulum from primitive hindgut. Traversing umbilicus

and umbilical cord, it ends blindly at placenta.

Fate
 The part of allantois within the body forms urachus and bladder (except the
trigone).
 The remainder of it disappears.
In reptiles, it is an enormous endodermal out growth. There it forms
chorioallantoic membrane and functions like mammalian placenta. In man, it is a
vestigealstructure.

Developmental anomalies
(1) Patent urachus.
(2) Urachal cyst.
(3) Urachal fistula.

Vitello-intestinal duct

The communication between midgut and yolk sac at an early stage of

development is, called vitello-intestinal ductor omphalomesenteric duct.
Normally, it disappears in course of development. But in 2% of cases inner
extremity of the duct persists as Meckel's diverticulum (developmental
anomaly) (Ref. 1. Singh).

Connecting Stalk
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The area of primary mesenchyme suspending the embryonic disc, the amniotic
cavity and the yolk sac from the wall of the chorion is connecting stalk. In it
develops umbilical vessels.

Umbilical cord

Definition-
'it is a cord like cylindrical structure that connects the fetus with the placenta

Measurement
 Length: 20-120cm (usually 45-60cm).
 Diameter: 2 cm.

Development
Itis developed from body stalk & is covered by amnion
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Structure
Following structures are found along the cross section of Umbilical cord.
1. Yolk sac with vitello-intestinal duct.
2. Allantois.
3. Umbilical vessels
-Two artery.
-One vein
5. Wharton's jelly.
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The Placenta

Definition
Placenta is a structure by which fetus is attached to mother & which gives
nutrition to the embryo (or fetus) & excretes waste products from fetus to
mother.

Formation

Placenta is formed from both fetal & maternal sources.

 Fetal source is chorion frondosum &
 Maternalsource is decidua basalis.

A. formation of chorion frondosum: It follows the following stages

1. Formation of primary stem villi-
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By the beginning of 3rd week, a cytotrophoblastic core is covered by a
syncytotrophoblastic layer & forms primary stem villi . [Langman, 14 th, 68]

Figure: Formation of primary stem villi

2. Formation of secondary stemvilli-Mesodermal core penetrates the primary

stem villi & thus forms secondary stem villi. [Langman, 14th, 68]
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Figure: Formation of secondary stem villi

3. Formation of tertiary stem villi-Blood vessels appear in the mesoderm of

secondary villi to form these. These vessels establish contact with
intraembryonic circulatory system. [Langman, 14th, 68]

Figure: Formation of tertiary stem villi

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4.Formation of cytotrophoblastic shell- cytotrophoblastic cells in the villi

penetrate progressively into the overlying syncytium until they reach the
maternal endometrium. Here they establish contact with similar extensions o f
neighboring villous stems, form ing a thin outer cytotrophoblast shell. This shell
gradually surrounds the trophoblast entirely and attaches the chorionic sac
firmly to the maternal endometrial tissue. [Langman, 14 th, 69]

Figure: Formation of cytotrophoblastic shell.

5. Between the villi - numerous intervillous spaces are formed. The villi on
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the embryonic pole continue to grow & expand and thus give rise to chorion
frondosum. [The villi on the abembryonic pole degenerate & are called chorion
laeve.]

B. Decidua basalis- The decidua over the chorion frondosum is called decidua
basalis

Chorion frondosum & decidua basalis together form the placenta.

Figure: Components of placenta.

C. The Further development

Figure: External appearance of a fully formed placenta.