Geot 1973 23 3 319

BJERRUM,L. (1973). G6otechnique 23, No. 3, 319-358.
319
Geotechnical problems involved in foundations of

structures in the North Sea
L. BJERRUM*
Owing to the development of oil and gas fields in the En raison de l’exploitation des regions petroliferes
North Sea, the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute has dans la mer du Nord, I’Lnstitut Geotechnique de
in recent years become involved in extensive investi- Norvege s’est occupe recemment de nombreuses
gations of the sea bed. Work has been carried out reconnaissances des fonds sous-marins. Des tra-
vaux de recherche ont et6 effect&s pour recueillir
to obtain geotechnical information relevant to the des renseignements geotechniques applicables aux
design of offshore constructions such as platforms, constructions marines dloignees de la tote, telles que
bridges and pipelines. This Paper examines the be- les plateformes de sondage, ponts et pipe-lines. _
haviour of the sea bed beneath such structures which Cet Article decrit le comuortement du fond sous-
are of unprecedented size and which may give rise to marin sous l’action de ces constructions dune gran-
problems of a type which has never been tackled deur sans me&dent aui soulevent ulusieurs urob-
before. These problems, which include the stability blemes d’un genre qui n’a jam&s et6 aborde
jusqu’alors. Ces probltmes examines en detail
of structures resting on fine sand where it is neces- concernent par exemple la stabilite des constructions
sary to make predictions of the undrained bearing qui s’appuyent sur un sable fin oh il est necessaire de
capacity of footings on the sand, and of the effect of predire la force portante non drain&e des semelles et
repeated wave loads on structures and foundations, l’action des charges repetees, occasionnees par les
are dealt with in this Paper. vagues, sur ces structures et leurs fondations.
INTRODUCTION
About two years ago the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute became involved in the offshore
work in the North Sea, generated by the discovery of large amounts of oil and gas off the coast
of Norway. Since then, this engagement has been steadily increasing, and I am not exaggerat-
ing when I say that these two years have been one of the most exciting periods in the history of
the Institute.
The type of work which the Institute has undertaken is, for instance
(a) On behalf of the Norwegian government through its agent, Det norske Veritas, to
ensure that the various structures to be built for the development of the Ekofisk oil field
are safe with respect to their foundations.
(b) As consultants to an oil company to act as their geotechnical advisors for the develop-
ment of the Frigg gas field. This includes the responsibility for soil investigations and
the geotechnical aspects of the design and construction of permanent installations.
(c) To assist a number of contractors and their design engineers in developing new types
of production platform by carrying out the geotechnical calculations required to deter-
mine the stability and the displacement of their structures.
(n) To assist with soil investigations and geotechnical evaluation of conditions for place-
ment of pipelines.
Taking into consideration that some of these structures are of unprecedented dimensions and
that most of the problems encountered are of a type which has never been tackled before, it is
l Lecture to have been presented at Imperial College, London, 1 March, 1973.
Downloaded by [ UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA] on [11/05/19]. Copyright © ICE Publishing, all rights reserved.
320 L. BJERRUM
easily understood that the work with these structures has been an exciting challenge. It is
also understandable that-although we have been forced to take a careful look at some of
these problems-there is a long way to go before we have the final solutions. In fact, we still
consider ourselves as having only just started.
BORING PLATFORMS IN LAKE MARACAIBO

But, let us start our voyage at Lake Maracaibo, as it was here that the modern development
of offshore construction started. When oil was discovered in this area in the 192Os, Shell, as
the first oil company, was granted the concession on land next to the lake. British Petroleum,
as the next, obtained the rights on a strip of land along the shoreline out to a depth of a few
metres. Standard Oil, or Creole as the Venezuelan daughter company is named, came as the
last one and was given the concession to make borings in the lake. Thanks to the develop-
ment of new techniques for construction of offshore platforms, Creole expanded its activity to
deeper and deeper waters, and today the major part of the oil produced in this area originates
from hundreds and hundreds of platforms built into the lake.
The final solution developed to solve the problem of obtaining a satisfactory foundation for
these platforms in unique. The bottom of the lake consists to considerable depths of a layer
of soft clay with embedded layers of sand. Precast reinforced concrete piles are used as
foundations for the platforms. To obtain sufficient bearing capacity, the piles are cast with
lengths of up to 230 ft (70 m). Fig. 1 shows a view of Creole’s pile storage yard with 40 x 40 in.
(1.0 x I.0 m) piles 180 ft (55 m) long. These piles are not driven; they are handled by a
gigantic 200 ton floating crane (Fig. 2). This crane takes the piles and places them at the site.
They will tend to sink down into the clay under their own weight. The crane then takes a
200 ton concrete block and places it on the top of the pile. The pile is thereby pressed down
until it reaches its final depth, being at the same time load-tested for 200 tons. Four piles are
required for a boring platform. The platform itself is also prefabricated and by means of the
floating crane it is lowered down over the previously placed piles.
BORING PLATFORMS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO

An important step forward was taken in the 1960s when oil drilling was started in the deep
waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Before this, an unfortunate accident was experienced with the
so-called Texas towers, which were built for the US Air Force in the years 1955-56. These
radar outposts were planned for shallow areas along the Atlantic coast. They were triangular
in shape, approximately 200 ft (60 m) along each side. The first two towers were placed at
sites with a depth of water of 50-80 ft (15-25 m). For the third installation the depth of water
was 180 ft (55 m), and this tower collapsed in a storm on 15 January, 1961. As a result of this
failure, the two platforms first installed were dismantled and removed.
In the Gulf of Mexico, however, the jacket or template type of drilling platform was de-
veloped to be placed at sites with depths of water of up to 200 ft (60 m) and in an area which
suffers from very strong hurricanes and where the waves reach heights of up to 55 ft (17 m).
Figs 3-8 show various stages of the erection of a system of five large platforms constructed a
few years ago. The templates are prefabricated ashore (Fig. 3). They consist of four tubular
columns, one at each corner, connected with steel pipe bracing, all of which are welded
together. Fig. 4 shows the template being transported on a barge to the site where it is
launched (Fig. 5). The tubular members which are sealed to provide buoyancy, permit the
structure just to float. Water is now pumped into the members and, assisted by a 250-ton
floating crane, they are placed at the bottom in an upright position, the uplift being controlled
GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN FOUNDATIONS OF STRUCTURES IN THE NORTH SEA 321
so that the pressure which the legs exert on the sea floor is kept very low. The bottom of the
Gulf of Mexico consists of highly plastic and very soft clay to depths exceeding 500 ft (150 m).
The clay next to the surface is of recent origin and its undrained shear strength is less than
100 lb/ft2 (0.5 t/m”).
The platforms therefore need a pile foundation. The piles are open-ended steel tubes with a
diameter of 4 ft (1.20 m). As shown in Fig. 6, they are lowered down through the four legs
and then driven a further 300 ft (90 m) into the clay. In each corner two main piles and a few
smaller auxiliary piles are generally required. When the piles are driven and concreted to the
legs, the prefabricated deck is installed. As the result of the combined effects of vertical and
horizontal loads on the structure the pipe piles are subjected to compressive loads requiring
ultimate bearing capacities of up to 3000 tons. Due to the overturning moment, a resistance
against tension of up to 1000 tons is required and, in addition, the piles must resist horizontal
forces of the order of 200 tons. Compared with piles on shore, the piles used for the offshore
structures represent an increase in dimensions of a factor close to 10. Let me mention that the
final length of the piles is about 700 ft (210 m) and their weight is approximately 100 tons. It
is therefore not surprising that the soil engineers responsible for the design and construction of
these structures felt that they were ‘groping in the dark’, especially in relation to methods of
predicting the bearing capacity of the piles and specifying the method of construction. I
should here like to give a reference to various papers published by Bramlette McClelland and
his colleagues, who have also provided me with photographs.
EKOFISK TEMPLATE TYPE STRUCTURES

It was in the late 1960s that the first commercial oil field-the Ekofisk field-was discovered
in the Norwegian part of the North Sea. About two years ago, the Phillips Petroleum Com-
pany group announced that it would go ahead and start immediately the development of the
oil field for production. The Ekofisk oil field is located about 200 miles (320 km) southwest
of the Norwegian coast, which is very nearly halfway between Norway and England. At this
location the depth of water is 230 ft (70 m). The North Sea is famous for its frequent and
sudden storms, and the maximum heights of the waves exceeds 65 ft (20 m). When Phillips
decided to develop the Ekofisk oil field, their construction engineers were facing some very
difficult and unusual problems. At a site with a distance to the nearest harbour of nearly
200 miles (320 m) and in unbelievably rough waters, they had to carry out-within two to three
years+onstruction work to a total value of some 800 million US dollars.
Today the facilities are taking shape (Figs 7 and 8). The flare structure, the connecting
bridge, and the field terminal platform are complete and production equipment is being
installed. This platform will be in operation in the near future. The three drilling platforms
have their templates or jackets set and piling is almost completed. As observed, the struc-
tures are of the same type as used in the Gulf of Mexico. The templates or jackets are pre-
fabricated ashore and transported to the site on a barge. After placement, piles are installed
through the legs to provide the foundation.
The soil conditions in the North Sea are, however, entirely different from those encountered
in the Gulf of Mexico. As illustrated in Fig. 9, at the Ekofisk site the soil consists of a sequence
of layers of fine, dense sand and hard clay, offering very great resistance against the driving of a
pile. The figure shows the jacket leg and the primary open-end steel-pipe pile. The pipe pile
has a diameter of 42 in. (1.1 m) and a wall thickness of l-2 in. (25-50 mm). With the deck
60 ft (20 m) above sea level and a depth of water of 230 ft (70 m), the first length of the pile is
about 400 ft (120 m), and it has a weight close to 100 tons. The pile driver used is of the
328 L. BJERRUM
i Maximum loads:
1007
Axial compr.: 2020 tons
Horizontal
at mudline toils
75 -
C _ -
50 - Jacket leg
+ 42 in. primary pile
Mudline
+ 30 in. insert pile
Fine sand -+ 36 in. drilled hole

\
50 -
Silty Hard clay
-------Grout injection pipe
Fig. 9. Typical insert pile at Ekofisk site, Phillips Petroleum Company
T
4lm
W.T.: l-2 in. A-
Fig. 10. Typical belled-footing pile at Ekofisk site, Phillips Petroleum Company
heaviest type existing, with an energy of 230 000 ft lb-produced by a 25-tonne hammer fall-
ing 3.5 ft (l-1 m). However, the piles stopped already at a depth of 25-35 ft (7-10 m). At
this depth the bearing capacity of the pile is only a fraction of what is required and further
penetration is therefore required. The solution selected was to drill out the soil plug and then
drill a pilot hole below the tip of the pile. This was done to relieve the soil stresses and permit
re-driving of the pile to the required penetration of 100 ft (30 m). From this depth down to
330 ft (100 m) below mudline the pile is constructed as a 36 in. (O-9 m) grouted insert pile.
The boring is carried out using a three-cone bit. Drilling mud is pumped down through the
rotating drill pipe in order to remove the cuttings and to stabilize the walls of the hole. When
the boring is complete, a 30 in. (0.75 m) pipe pile is inserted in the hole, and through an injec-
tion pipe the annular space between the insert pile and the walls of the hole is grouted. Great
330 L. BJERRUM
Fig. 13. Map of North Sea with distribution of bottom sediments
Dynamometer
t /
Drllllng FluId
‘5:
__
- --z-
-- --
-.z-
I 70
.:
Light Weight . :_ .,.. ‘a I
Dr111 Pipe 3%” ::
.:
:.
f L
7” Dwneter
Wire Line
:..i!Y
..’
Hole
Bit Wath
:
‘. Blade Reamer
8 \:: ‘.. 1. :..:
Drillinq Ready For Sampling
Fig. 14. Wire-line soil sampling: principle used when boring from a boat in deep water
care is required to ensure a proper displacement of the mud by the grout over the full 330 ft
(100 m) length of the pile.
From a geotechnical point of view there are several uncertainties which must be faced in
connexion with the grouted piles. It is a well-established fact that the adhesion along the pile
shaft governing its bearing capacity is very dependent on the construction procedure, including
the soil behaviour during construction. It cannot be determined theoretically, but must be
established empirically from load tests and, unfortunately, little experience is available to
indicate the adhesion between a hard overconsolidated clay and a grouted pile bored with the
use of bentonite mud. Owing to the uncertainties involved in the use of insert piles, Phillips
Petroleum Company has developed alternative solutions. The most promising of these is the
under-reamed pile especially developed for use in the North Sea. The equipment was designed
by Caldwell according to Phillips’ specifications and used by Santa Fe Pomeroy, operator of
the giant construction barge Choctaw, which has been working on the Ekofisk site for more than
a year. Fig. 10 shows the dimensions of the under-reamed piles used at the Ekofisk site. The
procedure starts by driving a 42 in. (I.1 m) pipe pile down to the hard clay encountered at a
depth of about 80 ft (25 m), using the technique described. This clay is a heavily overcon-
solidated very hard clay with an undrained shear strength of the order of 3-8 t/ft” (30-80 t/m”),
and it is in this clay that the bell must be formed. The under-reaming is done with a special
drilling-belling tool with mechanically operated arms. Reverse circulation is carried out
using seawater, or a specially designed relatively light mud which is easily displaced by the
cement grout. The diameter of the bell is selected according to the required bearing capacity,
but for the largest piles which must carry a maximum load of 2080 tons, a diameter of 14 ft
(4.25 m) is necessary. After the drilling a reinforcing cage is lowered on a 5 in. (127 mm)
pipe and the mud is displaced by grouting up the hole with a special high-strength cement
developed by the oil industry and used by the Atomic Energy Commission for cementing large
diameter pipes.
From the constructional as well as geotechnical points of view, there are fewer uncertainties
involved in the under-reamed than in the insert piles. The bearing capacity of the point-
bearing under-reamed pile can be estimated reliably from the undrained shear strength of the
hard clay, and samples are taken from the clay below the pile tip, so that the strength of the
clay can be checked before the level of the bell is finally chosen. If the shear strength of the
hard clay is 4 t/ft” (40 t/m”) and using a N, value of 10, the point resistance of the pile is about
5000 tons. Fig. 11 shows the under-reamer. Fig. 12 shows the barge Choctaw with the
Caldweld rig used for the installation. To give an impression of the size of this barge, I
might mention that when used for the drilling operation, the cost of renting it is of the order of
30 000 US dollars per day, which includes payment of a staff of 120 men. It may describe
the working conditions in the North Sea if I tell you that weather conditions were recently so
bad that during one month the barge could only work for 9 hours.
SOIL CONDITIONS IN THE NORTH SEA
With respect to driving of piles, the soil conditions in the North Sea are not only different
from those in Lake Maracaibo and in the Gulf of Mexico, but from a foundation point of view
are so excellent that, if encountered on land, one would never have thought of using piles for
the foundation of even heavy structures. There are therefore good reasons to consider
alternative solutions for major structures to be placed in the North Sea, and this is exactly
332 L. BJERRUM
Drop Weight 1751bs
Fig. 15. Wire-line drive sampler
what the Phillips engineers have done. But before describing the outcome of these considera-
tions, let me say a few words about the soil conditions in the North Sea.
Until recently knowledge about the soil conditions in the North Sea was limited to the bot-
tom sediments which could be sampled either by a drop sampler or by a grab. Fig. 13 is a
geological map produced on the basis of shallow samples obtained in this way, and it shows
that the majority of the bottom of the North Sea is covered by sand. Scattered over the area,
pockets of coarser material and gravel are found. Other areas are covered with clay, the
largest of these being the Norwegian Channel, a 660-990 ft (200-300 m) deep depression run-
ning north-south along the coast of Norway. From a geological point of view all these forma-
tions are late or post-glacial. About 20 000 years ago, at the peak of the last stage of the ice
age, glaciers from the British Isles and Scandinavia had advanced so far that they most likely
met somewhere in the middle of the North Sea. At this time the water level in the ocean was
about 330 ft (100 m) lower than today. During the retreat of the glaciers there were periods of
colder climate when the glaciers advanced again. The result was the formation of terminal
moraines and areas of coarser material encountered in the North Sea may represent the re-
mains of these moraines. Due to the lower water level of the oceans in those periods, large
OEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN FOUNDATIONS OF STRUCTURES IN THE NORTH SEA 333
Fig. 16. Typical geotechnical profile from Ekofisk field
areas of the North Sea were dry. As the water rose, these areas were attacked by waves and
the fine-grained sands and silty sands were washed away, leaving the coarser material at the
site. The clay deposits were most likely brought out into the sea by melt water from the
glaciers, and left in depressions so deep that they could not be moved on by the currents.
Within the past few years, a number of deeper borings have been carried out, extending
knowledge of the older deposits beneath the upper late- or post-glacial blanket. These borings
are carried out from specially equipped boats-generally of length 130-250 ft (40-80 m)-
which, during the boring, are kept in position by four to six anchors (Noorany, 1971). Fig. 14
shows in principle how the borings are made. A 4-6 in. (100-l 50 mm) casing is lowered from
the boat, being suspended at the top. Its lower end is supplied with teeth so that when
rotated, it will penetrate down into the sediments. The cuttings are removed by pumping
drilling mud down through the casing. The mud flows up the outside of the tube and is lost as
it comes up to the sea floor. Special ‘bumper subs’ or other types of device may be used to
reduce the movement of the casing when the boat heaves in the sea. However, when the
waves exceed lo-16 ft (3-5 m), the borings have to be interrupted.
Sampling is made by a so-called wire-line sampler of the type shown in Fig. 15. A thin-
walled cylinder is driven into the sediments by a hammer suspended from a wire. The samples
obtained in this way have a diameter of about 2-3 in. (50-75 mm) and a length of l-2 ft (0*3-
0.6 m). To prevent a loss of the sample, the sampler is supplied with a ball-check valve.
Obviously, the samples obtained by this procedure are far from being undisturbed. As the
sampling is carried out in a heavy mud, it is usually possible also to retain samples of the sand
layers encountered in the boring, but owing to the uncontrolled driving of the sampler, con-
siderable changes in density may occur. A typical geotechnical profile obtained from a
400 ft (120 m) boring carried out at the Ekofisk field is shown in Fig. 16. Generally speaking,
334 L. BJERRUM
Sand GrWd
Fig. 17. Grain-size distributions of sand samples obtained at shallow depths at different sites in North Sea
PENETRAtlOM- PEI#ETRAllOH- WITI(DR~At

START MAI CLAMP RELEASED
Fig. 18. Method used by Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for carrying out cone penetration tests at Ekofisk
site
the upper deposit is a 80 ft (25 m) thick layer of an extremely uniform sand. Comparing the
results of borings carried out at various locations in the Norwegian with the British parts of
the North Sea, it is surprising to observe the similarity in the composition and density of this
upper fine sand. Fig. 17 shows the grain-size distribution of four sand samples taken at
shallow depths at various locations in the North Sea. As observed, the shapes of the grain-
size curves are astonishingly similar. All sands are extraordinarily uniform in grain size, and
it is surprising to observe that the grain-size distribution falls exactly in the middle of the range
characteristic for sands which are susceptible to liquefaction. The figure shows for compari-
son two dotted curves giving the envelope of 19 curves for sands that have liquefied during
earthquakes in Japan.
Postglacial sand deposits with the same composition and grain size are rather common in
the fjords along the west coast of Norway. All these deposits are characterized by very loose
deposition and several examples of flow slides are known to have occurred in these deposits.
It is therefore an interesting observation that the similar deposits encountered in the North Sea
show in general very dense deposition, being of the order of 100% relative density. Owing to
GEOTBCHNICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN FOUNDATIONS OF STRUCTURES IN THE NORTH SEA 33.5
the uncertainties involved in evaluating the density of samples obtained by the wire-line pro-
cedure, the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute designed a cone penetration device which has
been used at Ekofisk. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 18. The cone is pushed down by
moving the casing up and down, and the point resistance is followed by an electric load indi-
cator based on the vibrating-wire principle. With this device and similar equipment built by
the Dutch company Fugro, cone penetration tests have been made at the Ekofisk and the Frigg
fields. The cone tests demonstrated in both cases that the upper fine sand shows a point
resistance which is of the order of 1000-7000 lb/in2 (70-500 kg/cm2). Calibration tests carried
out in the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute’s laboratory with sand of the same type indicate
that these values correspond to a relative density exceeding 100%.
The explanation of why the fine postglacial sand deposits encountered in the North Sea have
in most cases obtained such an extraordinarily high density may be a consequence of the fact
that they have been deposited under conditions where the sand grains are moved back and
forth by waves and currents. However, the major contribution to its high density is most
likely due to the compaction effect of the waves which have passed over the deposits since
their deposition. As pointed out by Henkel(1970), each time a wave passes a site, an increase
in the pressure on the sea floor occurs below the crest, while beneath the trough there is a pres-
sure decrease. The magnitude of these transient pressure changes, which are in phase with
the wave, depends on the wave length, the depth of water, and the wave height. The differ-
ential loading of the sea floor will impose shear stresses in the underlying sediments, resulting
in displacements the magnitude of which will depend on the shear modulus of the soil. In
Fig. 19 are illustrated the shear stresses and deformations as analysed by the finite element
method, set up when a wave with a height of 100 ft (30 m) passes a site with a depth of water of
400 ft (120 m). As observed, the loads and the areas over which they are acting are relatively
large. The result is that the deformations occurring may be significant. Even in dense sand
and stiff clays of the type encountered, the deformations are of the order of l-2 in. (25- 50 mm).
Although the passage of a wave with a height of 100 ft (30 m) is a unique occurrence, the effect
of the passage of millions and millions of smaller waves has the effect that the sediments are
subjected to cyclic strain reversals. If the sediment is a clay, the effect will be insignificant, but
if it is a sand, the effect is similar to that experienced when placing it on a shaking table. As
the result of the small shear strains, the sand grains will move around until they finally come
to rest in a hole between the underlying grains. The result is that the sand gradually becomes
denser and denser. As can be reproduced by cyclic loading tests with sand samples in the
laboratory, the compaction will continue and, although the rate will decrease with time, an
equilibrium is probably first reached when the density is close to or just above the 100%
relative value.
If this explanation of the high density of the fine sand in the North Sea is correct, an impor-
tant difference between the properties of sand deposits on land and on the sea floor has been
isolated. This finding may furthermore prove useful when evaluating the foundation condi-
tions at the sites in the North Sea, where the quality of the samples obtained frequently leaves
much to be desired. Provided the sand has not been intermittently picked up and moved
around by waves, there are good reasons to believe that it has been subjected to a natural com-
paction by wave action.
The clay layers encountered beneath the sand are of Pleistocene age. These clays, which
form a general base for the post-glacial deposits in the North Sea, have all experienced glacia-
tion. They are therefore heavily overconsolidated and in general are very hard with un-
drained shear strengths of the order of 5 t/ft” (50 t/m”) or more. Only the upper layers of the
clay may locally be somewhat softer. The plasticity of the clay can vary within wide limits
336 L. RJERRUM
Table 1. Typical data of hard clay at Ekofisk
Water content = 19% Plasticity index = 25%

Liquid limit = 44% Undrained shear strength z 40 t/m2
Plastic limit = 19% Sensitivity = l-1.5
and the clay frequently contains bands and layers of silt or silty clay. Some typical data of the
clay are summarized in Table 1.
TANKS AND PLATFORMS PLACED DIRECTLY ON THE SEA FLOOR
The detailed studies of the soil conditions have thus demonstrated that at many locations in
the North Sea it should be possible to place gravity-type concrete platforms and tanks directly
on the sea floor without the use of piles. Structures of this type can be prefabricated and pre-
assembled ashore or in protected waters and, when the weather is good, they can be floated out
and placed on the sea floor. They therefore have the advantage, so important in the rough
waters of the North Sea, that they eliminate the assembly and construction work at the site,
which is, however, required for completion of the jacket-type structures. The first structure of
this type is a one million barrel oil storage concrete tank which has been completed and will be
placed at the Ekofisk field in 1973. Since then, a number of different types of reinforced con-
crete platform have been developed by contractors in various countries.
Figure 20 shows the Doris tank to be placed at the Ekofisk oil field together with five gravity-
type production platforms, accounts of which have been published in technical periodicals.
Except for the Ekofisk tank, no orders have been placed, but experts expect that more than 20
platforms of this type will be built in the 1970s. In order to illustrate the size of structures of
this type, I give a few details of the Ekofisk tank. It has a diameter of about 300 ft (90 m),
and is also about 300 ft (90 m) high. The base of the tank will cover an area the size
of a football field. It is designed by the French company C. G. Doris, and besides
storage of 160 000 cu. m of oil it will be equipped with a steel deck and used as a production
platform.
The first lower part of the tank was built by Norwegian contractors in an excavation made
close to the shoreline on one of the fjords on the west coast of Norway (Fig. 21). When the
bottom slab and the first 20 ft (6 m) of the walls were complete, the construction area was
flooded and the base was floated out in a sheltered area of the fjord (Fig. 22). There the con-
struction continued, using the system of slip forms. As the walls were built higher and higher,
the tank sank deeper into the water, and today, now that it is complete, the bottom is 200 ft
(62 m) beneath the surface and the top 90 ft (28 m) above the water level. In 1973 the tank
will be towed to its location in the North Sea, where the water is 230 ft (70 m) deep. It will be
sunk to the bottom by ballasting the inner compartments with sea water. When in operation
it will always be filled with liquid, either oil or water. As observed from Fig. 23, showing
an artist’s view of the tank at its final location, the inner oil storage compartments are sur-
rounded by a perforated outer wall to reduce the surging waves on the inner part.
It should be mentioned that before the pipeline from Ekofisk to England is completed, this
tank will serve as a reserve reservoir. It is intended for use during severe storms when tankers
cannot be loaded in open sea. Even when the oil field is connected with land through a
pipe line, the reservoir will be needed in order to obtain a continuous production. In
-f !---
xx_--
-- --’
i1 30 m
l2Om
I I Wave Induced pressures
__--- -
- -Displaced position -I 0
ofrhereafloor
‘max. 'P'o
Fig. 19. Stresses and displacements in the soil below sea floor when a 30 m high wave passes the site
C. G.Dxi; McAlpine Taylor Woodrow

SeaTankCo
Kierand Arup Tecnomare S.p.A. A/S Hpyer-Ellefsen
Fig. 20. Doris tank to be placed at Ekofisk site together with different types of structure designed to be placed
directly at the sea floor
addition, Phillips is planning to install production facilities on the deck space which the tank
provides.
GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS OF CONCRETE PLATFORMS

A variety of structures designed to rest directly on the sea floor with the purpose of analysing
the geotechnical problems involved in their design and construction is shown in Fig. 20. Due
to their dimensions, the structures will exert enormous forces on the sea bed. These forces
come from both the weight of the structure and from the waves. The weight of the Ekofisk
tank, for example, is close to 200 000 tons when placed at the site. The biggest wave expected
in 100 years will vary from 80 to 100 ft (24 to 30 m), depending on the location and the depth
of water. Waves of this order of magnitude will exert very large horizontal forces and mo-
ments on the structures. For the Ekofisk tank the horizontal force caused by a 80 ft (24 m)
high wave is about 78 000 tons. During periods of storm, the structure will, in addition, be
subjected to repeated wave loads. The design of structures of this type therefore involves
some very unusual geotechnical problems. The requirements which they should be designed
to meet are, for instance
(a) when subjected to the maximum wave and wind loads, the structure shall show an
acceptable factor of safety against horizontal sliding and against a shear failure in the
foundation soil
(b) when subjected to the maximum wave and wind forces, the displacements should be
acceptable
(c) the factor of safety against a shear failure and the displacement should also be accept-
able after the structure has been subjected to periods of repeated wave forces in severe
storms
(d) the natural frequencies of the structure should differ from those of possibly occurring
wave forces, ensuring that there will be no resonance
(e) the structure should be designed so that a good contact will be obtained between the
base slab and the sea floor, and that it will be maintained when subjected to wave loads
so that undermining by erosion is prevented
cf) when required, precautions should be taken to prevent the foundation from becoming
endangered by scouring caused by currents or wave action
Some of these problems may be solved on the basis of well-known soil mechanics procedures.
Others are, however, of such a special character that no solutions have previously been
developed. It has been one of the main duties of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute to
approach these problems and propose new procedures where none was available. As men-
tioned earlier, we are far from overcoming the problems, but it may be of interest to look at
some of them.
BEARING CAPACITY PROBLEM: DRAINED CASE

The first problem I should like to discuss is the bearing capacity problem. Traditionally,
the factor of safety against a foundation failure for offshore structures has been calculated on
the assumption that the loading corresponding to a wave of a certain height and period can be
regarded as acting statically. In addition, it is a general practice to stipulate the design con-
ditions for a platform for the worst loading event which could possibly take place within the
342 L. RJERRUM
Strip footing. vertical

central’ load
Eccentricity factor F = B(l.29)
I
ShapefactorSy=l-0 4: = iy
Inclined load factor i
Fig. 25. Bearing capacity of shallow footings on sand
useful life of the structure. According to this principle, a platform of the type considered
should be designed against a so-called 50-year or loo-year wave, defined such that over a long
period of time a wave of this magnitude or greater will on the average occur once every 50 or
100 years respectively. The data for a loo-year wave will vary somewhat from site to site.
Typically, the height will be 80-100 ft (24-30 m), the wave length will be of the order of 2000 ft
(600 m), and the wave period about 14-18 seconds. The forces acting upon the platform dur-
ing the passage of a loo-year wave can be calculated on a theoretical basis, but the final values
used in an analysis are measured in model tests performed in a wave flume. Fig. 24 shows the
model of the Ekofisk tank with a 78 ft (24 m) high wave passing by. These model tests were
carried out at the River and Harbour Laboratory at the Technical University in Trondheim,
and they showed that the loo-year wave will exert a horizontal force of 78 600 tons on the
tank, acting at an elevation of 118 ft (35.7 m) above the sea floor. In addition, the wave will
exert a downward drag of about 4200 tons. The horizontal forces acting on the structure are
thus very large compared with what is normally encountered on land. In fact, these forces are
in general so large that it is the requirement governing its design that the structure shall remain
stable when one of these large waves passes by. In order to prevent sliding on the sea floor or
a shear failure in the sand beneath the foundation slab, the structure must exert on the founda- ’
tion soil a vertical pressure which must be a certain proportion of the horizontal force. It is
1000
- Brinch
I Hansen (1970)
- Meyerhof (1963)
101
NY
IC
I
IS0 25’ 35’ 45 -
Fig. 26. Comparison of different proposals for the value of NY (Andersen, 1972)
thus this requirement for stabiiity which governs the weight of the structure, which again has a
considerable bearing on its cost. It is therefore highly desirable from an economic point of
view that the geotechnical analysis of the stability against sliding or shear failure should be very
accurate.
Assuming that the structures are resting on a dense sand, it is a well-established practice in
soil mechanics to calculate the bearing capacity from the following formula (Fig. 25)
qr = PJBL = jy’N,B(l -2e)2s,i,
The first term of the equation, &y’N,B, represents the expression for the bearing capacity of a
strip footing resting on the surface of a cohesionless sand and loaded with a vertical central load.
In this expression NY is the well-known bearing capacity factor which depends on the friction
angle + of the sand. Although there is general agreement about the expression, there is a
variety of proposals made concerning the relationship between C$and N, (Fig. 26). Depend-
ing on which of the curves one chooses to use, the value of N, can vary in the ratio one to two.
In addition, in the range of +-values of actual interest, it is very important to select the correct
value, for a variation in 4 of only 2” may result in a variation in the value of NY of 50%. Most
of the curves plotted in Fig. 26 are derived in a semi-empirical way, being based partly on the
results of loading tests. The loading tests are, however, in most cases carried out with model
footings of very small size, the dimensions generally being of the order of inches, or at the
most one or two feet. Extrapolation of the results to the structures in the North Sea having
dimensions of about 330 ft (100 m) therefore requires careful consideration of the scale effect.
344 L. BJERRUM
I
I5 0 25 0 35 0
+ (trim)
Fig. 27. Experimentally determined values of NY (Andersen, 1972)
Figure 27 presents results of a review of the data from some of the published loading tests,
the NT-values observed in the tests being plotted against the value of + observed in conven-
tional triaxial tests (Andersen, 1972). As observed from the figure, the points show consider-
able scatter. However, if the dimensions of the model footings used are taken into considera-
tion, it is found that the iVY-values decrease with increasing width of the footing. It thus
proved possible to draw contours of NY-values valid for equal sizes of footings, and it was
found that the empirical formula proposed by Brinch Hansen (1970) seems to represent to a
good approximation the contour valid for footings normally used, i.e. with a dimension of
about 3 ft (1 m). This study also demonstrates that if the NY-values proposed by Brinch
Hansen are used for footings exceeding 3 ft (1 m), the resulting value overestimates the actual
bearing capacity. The principal reason for this scale effect is that in a relatively dense sand
the value of 4 decreases when the normal stress increases. As the failure load increases pro-
portionally with the dimension of a footing, the larger the footing, the lower should be the cor-
rect value of 4 to be used to compute the bearing capacity.
For the design of the structures in the North Sea, Brinch Hansen’s NY-value has been
accepted as valid for footings with the dimension 3 ft (1 m) and for larger footings we reduce
the value of 4 by 1-4” each time the dimensions increase by a factor of 10, as proposed by
Graham and Pollock (1972), the +-value used being the value obtained by standard drained
triaxial tests carried out at the correct relative density. The actual magnitude of this reduc-
tion will depend on the ratio between the horizontal and the vertical load acting on the footing.
Referring to the equation for bearing capacity in Fig. 25, the coefficient (1 - 2e)2 represents
Saran. Prakash and Murty Meyerhof
0 0.2 @4 0.6 08 I
l--B--!
---•B=20cm
- - Brinch Hansen 1970

-.- Brinch Hansen 1961
- --- Meyerhof
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 o-8 I.0 0 @2 0’4 06 08 I

n a
iga=v lga=V
Fig. 28. Values of inclination factor, i,, in Fig. 26, found by different series of model tests
a factor corrected for the eccentricity. As the resulting wave force will act at a certain height
above the sea floor, the structure will be subjected to a moment, and the resulting vertical load
on the foundation soil will therefore show a certain eccentricity, e. This eccentricity is in
general taken into account by considering only that area of the footing which is symmetrical
relative to the resulting vertical force. Instead of calculating with the width B, the anslysis is
made with an equivalent footing with the width B'=B(I -2e). The results of available load-
ing tests have been analysed and the conclusion reached that this expression leads to satisfac-
tory results, independent of the shape of the footing. The next coefficient in the expression is
the shape factor. The simple formula we decided to use for the shape factor was proposed also
by J. B. Hansen (1970). The decision to use this expression was made after a review of
available evidence from load tests demonstrating that this expression leads to safe results
(Andersen, 1972).
The final factor i, is the inclined load factor which takes into account the effect of the hori-
zontal load. Whereas the importance of this factor is in general insignificant for structures on
land, for structures in deep water subjected to wave forces this factor is decisive for the bearing
capacity.
In order to obtain an impression of the reliability of the expressions proposed for i,, a
review has been made of the results of available model tests carried out with inclined loading.
The results of 5 series of such tests are shown in Fig. 28 (Andersen, 1972). In the diagrams i, is
plotted as the ordinate against the ratio of the horizontal to the vertical loads at failure. In
the diagrams are shown also curves representing various semi-empirical expressions for i,.
346 L. BJERRUM
The diagrams illustrate that iy is not significantly influenced either by the width of the footing
or by the value of +. The conclusion is drawn that Brinch Hansen’s expression
i, = [ 1 - 0*7(P,/Pv)]5
represents an acceptable approach to the bearing capacity problem of horizontally loaded

footings. In order to illustrate the importance of the horizontal load, I may mention that a
typical value of P,/P, for a North Sea concrete platform subjected to a loo-year wave is O-30.
For this value i, is 0.31, i.e. the effect of the horizontal load is to reduce the bearing capacity to
one-third of the value valid for vertical loading only.
BEARING CAPACITY PROBLEM: UNDRAINED CASE
The procedure for calculating the bearing capacity discussed above is applicable only to such
cases where the foundation soil is a free-draining sand, i.e. the pore pressures set up by the
applied load will dissipate as quickly as they appear. With the soil conditions encountered
in the North Sea this assumption will not always be fulfilled. A wave of the loo-year type
considered has a period which is of the order of 14-18 seconds. This means that the hori-
zontal load will increase from zero to its maximum value within less than 5 seconds. The
permeability of the fine sand deposits encountered in the North Sea is of the order of 10m3
cm/s, and this is so low that with the length of the drainage path existing beneath the largest
structures no significant drainage can be expected to take place during the passage of a wave.
For structures resting on fine sand we are thus facing the problem of predicting the undrained
bearing capacity of footings on sand. To my knowledge this problem has never previously
been tackled in soil mechanics. Our approach to the problem has been as described in the
following.
Immediately before the wave arrives, the effective stresses in the sand beneath the tank
correspond to the stresses resulting from the dead weight of the structure. It is now assumed
that for an undrained increase in load the maximum value of the shear strength which can be
mobilized along any plane is the effective normal stress existing on the plane before the wave
appeared, multiplied by tan 4, where tan + is the coefficient of effective friction. Expressed in
terms of a pore pressure parameter, this assumption corresponds approximately to A = 0.
The relevant value of 4 to be used for an undrained analysis is the value found in undrained
tests with pore pressure measurements. This value is considerably lower than the drained
value. A typical undrained value of 4 observed in triaxial tests on the fine sand from the North
Sea is 34” compared with a value of 43” observed in drained triaxial tests. However, as an
undrained failure will take place under conditions of plane strain, it may be justifiable to
assume a rather higher value of 4, for example 36”, instead of 34”.
The procedure used for making the actual undrained stability analysis was developed in co-
operation with Professor Dr Techn. Bent Hansen at the Danish Geotechnical Institute, who
has specialized in tackling plasticity problems in sand. The effective stresses used in the
stability computations were found by adding those existing in the ground before the tank was
placed to the additional values resulting from the submerged weight of the tank. The most
critical rupture figure was determined by a trial and error procedure, and as an example one of
the rupture figures is shown in Fig. 29. As observed, not only the forces acting on the struc-
ture, but also’ithe change in water pressure at the sea floor on both sides of the structure, are
considered in the analysis.
When a dense sand is sheared under the condition of no change in volume, it will tend to
_ H.78600t I
T I I I I I
c’
Fig. 29. Most critical failure surface found in stability analysis of Ekofisk tank for wave loads applied
under undrained conditions. Analysis carried out by Professor Dr. techn. B. Hansen, Copenhagen
dilate, and negative pore pressures will develop. Provided cavitation can be prevented, a high
effective stress and therefore a high undrained shear strength can be mobilized. Under the
conditions existing in the North Sea, where cavitation is excluded due to the large initial water
pressure, a dense sand will under undrained conditions have a large reserve of undrained
strength beyond the value corresponding to A =0 assumed in the calculations. However,
significant strains are required for a mobilization of this reserve strength. It is therefore con-
sidered justified to specify as a requirement that an analysis of the undrained behaviour of the
structure assuming A = 0 should lead to a safety factor which is greater than 1.0, a requirement
which should also ensure that the deformations during the passage of a wave will be small.
EFFECT OF REPEATED WAVE LOADS

As the crest of a wave moves towards the structure, the force which the wave exerts on it acts
in the direction the wave is travelling, but as the crest of the wave moves past the structure, the
wave force acts in the opposite direction. The forces exerted by the waves will thus act first in
one, and then in the opposite direction. During a storm, the platform will therefore be sub-
jected to hours of cyclic loading, and the soil beneath the structure will experience a series of
shear stress applications alternating between a positive and a negative value of about the same
order of magnitude. The stress conditions are thus comparable to what occurs during an
earthquake, the equivalent earthquake being characterized by accelerations as high as 0*2-
0.4g, and the duration being no less than 3-6 hours, i.e. of a degree of severity which is un-
known in nature.
Experience gained from earthquake areas has shown that some soils, and especially uniform
fine sand, have a tendency to consolidate when subjected to shear reversals. When the soil is
saturated, and if no time is available for the excess pore pressures to dissipate, the stress
reversals will be accompanied by a build-up of pore pressures. The effective stresses will re-
duce correspondingly and ultimately a shear failure may occur. If the sand is loose, there will
348 L. BJERRUM
be a complete loss of strength for straining beyond the peak. The sand will for a while be-
have like a liquid, and heavy objects will sink in. Failures of this type are termed spontaneous
liquefaction failures, and nowhere were they better illustrated than in Niigata, Japan, where a
number of buildings and apartment blocks tilted over during the earthquake of 19 June, 1964
(Seed and Idriss, 1967).
Turning our attention to the North Sea gravity structures they are, as mentioned, frequently
placed on a fine sand with a grain size distribution which is characteristic for sands which have
liquefied during earthquakes. In addition, the dimension of the zone of sand beneath the
structures which are subjected to the shear reversals is so large and the permeability of the sand
so low (about 10V3 cm/s) that the rate of dissipation of pore pressures is relatively low com-
pared with the rate at which they are generated. At least for storms with a duration of a few
hours, we may have to base our evaluation on the assumption that the sand is practically
undrained. Taking into consideration the magnitude of the forces, the character of the sand
and the lack of drainage, it is easy to reach the conclusion that it is out of the question to place
a gravity structure on a site where the foundation soil consists, completely or partly, of fine
sand which has been loosely deposited and therefore susceptible to liquefaction, i.e. if its
relative density is less than about 50%. It is more difficult to predict what will happen to a
structure which is placed on a relatively dense sand when it is subjected to a severe storm-and
it is this problem which is of real interest at most locations in the North Sea. This question of
behaviour of dense sands when subjected to cycles of shear reversal is a problem which is now
of much concern in the United States. The reason for this interest is that this problem
governs the safety factor during an earthquake of a number of atomic power plants to be built
on relatively dense river sands. Those who listened to Professor Arthur Casagrande’s talk at
the Institution of Civil Engineers (Green and Ferguson, 1971), will be aware of the fact that
there is no accepted approach to this problem and that certain disagreements exist between
experts. A considerable number of studies of this problem is, however, available and refer-
ence should be made to the list of relevant papers given in this Paper. The approach accepted
at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute was reached after detailed studies of a large number
of cyclic loading tests carried out with the North Sea sand. Cyclic triaxial tests were performed
for McClelland Engineers Inc. by Professor K. Lee at the University of California in Los
Angeles, whereas cyclic direct shear tests were carried out at the Norwegian Geotechnical
Institute. From these tests, supplemented by published results of cyclic loading tests on other
types of sands (see the selected bibliography given in this Paper), the following has been
learned about the behaviour of medium dense and dense sands when subjected to series of
shear stress reversals.
A dense sand will tend to consolidate when subjected to shear stress reversals, and this holds
good for even the densest sand. The volume reduction for each cycle is, however, much smaller
than for loose sand, and it decreases rapidly as the density increases. Under undrained con-
ditions, the effect of each cycle of stress reversal is a small but consistent net rise in pore pres-
sure. Fig. 30 shows a set of typical results of a cyclic loading constant volume simple shear
test on a dense North Sea sand, illustrating how the pore pressure continues to increase at a
constant rate when the sample is subjected to a series of shear stress reversals. In a dense
sand the effect of cyclic loading is thus not a catastrophic failure occurring after a single or a
few shocks as in loose sand. To reduce the effective stress to a critical value requires
perhaps hundreds or thousands of stress applications. As seen from the figure, there is a
relatively rapid rise in pore pressure at the start of the test, when the very first stress reversals
are applied. This initial rise in pore pressure varies from test to test, and it is believed to be
the result of what might be called ‘bedding-errors’. Furthermore, as pointed out by Castro
GEOTECHMCAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN FOUNDATIONS OF STRUCTURES IN THE NORTH SEA 349
Test No. 4
I.5
I.0
05
-05
- I.0
-15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Number of load cycles: N
0 5 IO 15 20 25
Time: rnin
Fig. 30. Typical result of constant volume, cyclic loading

test on a dense North Sea sand, carried out in NGI direct
simple-shear apparatus (Andersen and Moussa, 1973)
(1969) and Casagrande (1971), when a medium-dense or dense sand is subjected to shear
reversals leading to strains exceeding l-2%, the sand will have a tendency to develop a redis-
tribution of its water content. Even in undrained tests, zones of the sample will expand,
whereas others will consolidate, the bulk volume remaining unchanged. Taking these errors
into consideration, it was concluded that the only reliable parameter which can adequately
describe what happens when a dense undrained sand is subjected to shear stress reversals, is
the rise in pore pressure observed at small strains before any redistribution of the water con-
tent has occurred. This is illustrated in Fig. 30, showing how the rise in pore pressure per
cycle can be determined from the test results. If the rise in pore pressure per cycle is divided
by the effective vertical stress existing at the start of the test, a parameter /I is defined which
tells directly what proportion of the total stress is thrown on to the pore water each time a
cycle is applied. It is this parameter which will be used hereafter for evaluating the effect of
cyclic loading in practice.
350 L. BJERRUM
::~~~~~~~~~~~~{
00 0.1 0.2 @3 04
Shear stress level: 7

H/O&
Fig. 31. Pore pressure rise per cycle observed in undrained simple shear
with cyclic loading on fine sand samples prepared with relative densities
of 80% (Andersen and Moussa, 1973)
The test results showed, furthermore, that the pore pressure rise per cycle increased very
rapidly with the shear stress level applied during the cyclic loading. This fact is illustrated in
Fig. 3 1 which shows the results of a series of undrained cyclic simple shear tests carried out at a
relative density of approximately 80% (Andersen and Moussa, 1973). In the diagram the
abscissa shows the shear stress level applied during the cyclic loading, being expressed as the
ratio of the applied horizontal shear stress to the effective vertical stress at the beginning of
the test. /3 is plotted as ordinate, the pore pressure increase per cycle expressed as a percentage of
the effective vertical stress at the beginning of the test; a logarithmic scale has been used here.
The cyclic loading tests also showed a second finding of considerable importance. The
gravity structures in the North Sea will not be subjected to a single storm only, but to a series
of storms interrupted by relatively quiet periods during which all excess pore pressures will
dissipate. It is therefore of interest to follow what happens if a sand is subjected to a series of
shear reversals in between which consolidation is permitted. In Fig. 31 the results from two
series of tests have been given : tests without preshearing and tests with preshearing. The pre-
shearing consisted of 100 undrained load cycles applied four times. The samples were
allowed to drain after each group of 100 cycles, and a shear stress level of 0.04 was used. From
Fig. 3 1 it is observed that this preshearing has reduced the generation of pore water pressures,
and thereby the liquefaction potential, by a factor ranging from 20 to 50.
At the outset it was believed that this beneficial effect of prior cyclic loading followed by dis-
sipation of the excess pore pressure was the result of the densification, i.e. the reduction in void
ratio. However, the settlements accompanying the dissipation of the excess pore pressures
were small and could only partly explain the very significant change in behaviour of the sand.
The increased resistance against shear reversals is believed mainly to be the consequence of the
development of a structural arrangement of the sand grains which makes them better suited to
withstand stresses of the applied type. Without any significant change in void ratio the sand
grains will, by a process of gradual elimination of potential instabilities, obtain a structure with
an improved stability so that the number of failures at grain contacts occurring during sub-
sequent shear reversals is reduced. As pointed out by Finn, Bransby and Pickering (1970),
the resistance of a sand to cyclic shear reversals is not uniquely determined by the void ratio and
the confining pressure, but is also governed by the stress reversals to which it has been sub-
jected in the past. The test results referred to above were obtained using a modified NGI
simple shear device. However, similar results were obtained by Professor K. Lee using
triaxial equipment. After this review of the behaviour of sand when subjected to cycles of
shear stress reversals, it may be appropriate to illustrate how the results may be applied to the
design of a gravity structure. The first step in such a design is the choice of what might be
called a ‘design storm’. Based on a statistical analysis of available observations of waves in
the North Sea, it is possible to give an approximate description of a severe storm. Such a
description is based on a Rayleigh distribution, and it will indicate that a storm of a certain
duration will contain so many waves of this or that height. Based on such a statistical
analysis, one can define and describe a ‘design North Sea storm’, which is so severe that with
respect to length and intensity it will only occur, for instance, once every 100 years and that, in
addition, it will contain the loo-year wave against which the structure should be designed.
As an example, the wave height and the duration of such a storm are shown in Fig. 32. The
wave heights are described, as is usual in wave statistics, by the significant wave height, this
being defined as the average of the one-third highest waves occurring in the storm. Concern-
ing the duration, the storm is assumed to build up gradually over a period of 6-9 hours. The
fuil-storm period will be of a length of about 3-9 hours and the degradation will continue for
another 6-9 hours. Table 2 shows an example presenting in detail the number of waves of
different heights which, according to the statistics, will occur within the worst 6 hours of such a
100-year storm.
As the increase in pore pressures resulting from a single wave is a function of the shear stress
occurring in the foundation sand-which again depends on the wave height-a calculation
of the accumulated rise in pore pressure requires that the effect be evaluated separately for
each wave and then added together; such a calculation has been made in Table 2. For
each wave height the shear stress level has been calculated assuming that the horizontal
force acting on the structure is proportional to the wave height, and that a 82 ft (25 m) high
. .
wave will give a ratio ~~/a,, equal to 0.30. Based on the diagram shown in Fig. 31, the rise in
pore pressure per cycle has been determined for each height of the wave. In the example, the
test results for the presheared samples were used. By multiplying these figures by the number
of waves and adding up the contributions, the accumulated effect is determined. In total, the
1394 waves contained in the 6 hour wave train proved to result in an increase in pore pressure
of 31.1% of the effective vertical stress prior to the storm. From the numbers presented in
Table 2 it is possible to calculate the ‘equivalent’ wave height, i.e. the height of the wave that
repeated 1394 times would generate the same excess pore water pressures as the real wave
train
Pore pressure generated per cycle: 31-l/1394 = 0.0223%
Corresponding shear stress level from Fig. 31: 0.15
Equivalent wave height: 25*0/0*30 (0.15) = 12.5 m
This equivalent wave is thus somewhat lower than the 50 ft (15 m) high significant wave.
Based on a calculation like the one shown in Table 2, it is thus possible to predict the reduc-
tion in effective stresses in the sand beneath the structure at the end of the storm period. It
352 L. BJERRUM
30 - ~-Height ofa 100 year- wwe
E 20-
;;
4
:
u
$
IO -
I , I I I
4 8 I2 16 20
Storm duration: hours
Fig. 32. Definition and description of design storm containing the 100 year wave
Table 2. Example of the accumulated effect of a loo-year storm

- -
Height of
waves: m
Number of
waves, N
rs:y
From Fig. 31)
+v% YC
_-
4-8 485 0.07 0.006
8-12 471 0.12 0.013
12-16 282 0.17 0.030
16-20 121 0.22 0.065
2&24 32 O-26 0.150
24-26 3 0.30 0.300
Total 1394 31.1
-
remains then to verify that the structure is able to sustain with an adequate margin of safety
the force from the maximum wave which can occur at this time. A conservative assumption
would be that this maximum wave occurring at the end of the storm has the height of the IOO-
year wave against which the structure should be designed. For simplicity it is assumed that
the critical mode of failure is a horizontal sliding of the structure. The factors of safety prior
to and at the end of the storm period will be proportional to the effective stresses beneath the
structure. From the numbers presented in the foregoing it then follows that the factor of
safety against a failure by horizontal sliding has been reduced by a factor of approximately 0.7
during the 6 hour storm period.
It should be mentioned finally, when considering the cyclic loading, that the beneficial effect
of the negative pore pressure which appears when a dilating sand is strained beyond failure has
been ignored. There are two reasons for this decision. In the first place, although a higher
undrained shear strength may be mobilized in a dilating sand than assumed above, its mobiliza-
tion requires a straining beyond what is believed to be acceptable for a structure of this type.
In the second place, if a dilating sand is strained well beyond failure, there may be a risk of an
expansion of the most severely stressed zones at the same time as nearby less strained zones will
consolidate. Such a redistribution of the water content would thus lead to the development
of zones of lower density which at the next storm would offer a reduced resistance against
shear straining, similar to what has been observed in tests in the laboratory (Finn et al., 1970).
At several sites in the North Sea heavy deposits of clay are present, and in many cases they
are found so close to the surface that the change in strength of the clay during cyclic loading is a
problem of real interest. If the clay is of the normally consolidated type which is sensitive to
disturbance, it will behave rather similarly to a loose sand. Its presence may therefore rule
out a gravity structure directly founded on the sea floor. However, if the clay is not of the
soft sensitive type, it will be its shear strength and the change in shear strength with time which
govern the chances of placing a gravity structure at the site. The effect of repeated loading on
a clay is, as in sand, the cumulative rise in pore pressure leading to a gradual decrease in effec-
tive stress and thus of frictional resistance. Tests carried out at various laboratories (Larew
and Leonards, 1962; Sangrey et al., 1969), have shown that if the shear stress level which is
applied repeatedly is above a certain critical level, then each cycle of loading will produce cumu-
lative increases in pore pressure and deformations, and that ultimately a failure will occur,
although the shear stresses are lower than the undrained shear strength observed in conven-
tional shear tests. It was also found that if the shear stresses did not exceed this critical level
of repeated stress, a state of non-failure equilibrium was reached in which the stress-strain
curves followed closed hysteresis loops and no further increase in pore pressure occurred.
This critical shear stress level may be assumed to be a certain fraction of the undrained shear
strength measured in conventional static tests. For one of the clays tested, the critical level of
shear stress was found to be two thirds of the undrained shear strength. The procedure to
follow in a given case is to carry out special cyclic loading tests with the purpose of determining
experimentally the critical shear stress representing the upper stress level at which a non-
failure equilibrium condition can be established.
A few words should be said about the change with time of the strength of the clay. If the
clay is slightly overconsolidated, the long-term net effect of the cyclic loading will be a con-
solidation and thus a gain in strength. If the clay is heavily overconsolidated, however, the
long-term net effect of a sequence of shear stress reversals will be a reduction in pore pressure
followed by a swelling and thus a loss in strength. The rate at which this process will occur
depends very much, however, on how large the shear stress level is compared with the initial
strength of the clay.
RESONANCE
The frequency of the wave forces to which a structure will be subjected is of the order of
l/5-1/20 cycles per second. In order to avoid resonance, the undamped natural frequencies
of the structure and the supporting foundation soil for the different types of motion should not
coincide with these values. A reasonable requirement would be that the natural frequencies
of the structure should either be greater than twice, or smaller than one half, of the range of
frequencies resulting from the waves. The undamped frequencies of the structure are, apart
from the mass distribution within the structure itself, dependent on the elastic reaction of the
foundation soil. These frequencies can be established by the method described by Barkan
(1962). The ‘spring constants’ of the foundation for different types of motion can, however,
be advantageously determined from a finite element analysis as described below.
SETTLEMENTS AND DISPLACEMENTS
The settlement of a structure and the rocking motion it will experience in a storm can be
calculated using the finite element method, taking into account the nonlinear behaviour of the
sand and the clay on which the structure is resting. The calculations on the Ekofisk tank, for
354 L. FJJERRUM
instance, indicated that the tank will settle about 8 in. (200 mm) when placed, of which 63 in.
(170 mm) is seated in the lower clay and only l+ in. (30 mm) in the upper 86 ft (26 m) thick
layer of dense sand. Under the biggest wave expected in 100 years, the calculation indicated
that one side will move down an additional 6 in. (15 cm), while the opposite side will move up
about 6 in. (15 cm), the differential settlement being 12 in. (30 cm). Simultaneously, the
tank will move horizontally back and forth by about 6 in. (15 cm). What is important,
however, is that even during the biggest wave the edge of the tank will not be lifted off its
foundation. There will, at all stages, be a positive pressure between the bottom of the tank
and the sand on which it rests. It should be mentioned that these calculations include the
effect of the change in water pressure at the sea floor as the wave passes by, which effect con-
tributes to the rocking motion.
LOCAL CONTACT PRESSURES

The gravity structures will be placed directly on the sea floor, without any preparation of the
soil surface. It is therefore necessary to consider the possibility that, immediately after it has
been installed, the structure is only supported on a few local contact areas, and to evaluate the
magnitude of the contact pressures that can be developed between the bottom slab and the
supporting soil. These pressures may govern the design of the bottom slab. These contact
pressures will be determined by the geometrical shape of the local high areas on the sea floor,
by the shape of the slab, and by the stress-strain properties of the upper soil layers. For
simplicity, let us consider the example shown in Fig. 33. A concrete structure is to be installed
in an area with a horizontal sea bed consisting of sand. However, under the centre of the
structure there is a local conical ridge of height dH and diameter D. Using the theory of
elasticity, one finds that the average contact pressure, q, remains constant as the structure is
lowered. The value of the contact pressure will be given by the equation
AH
q=a---
D
where C(is a modulus value reflecting the stiffness of the soil. The modulus a! can be expressed
approximately as
CL= constant@/1 -p2)
where E is the Young’s modulus, ELis the Poisson’s ratio, and the constant reflects the influence
of the geometry.
From this equation it will be seen that the steeper the side of the cone, the higher the contact
pressure. The upper limit of the contact pressure must clearly be the ultimate bearing capa-
city of the soil, defined by the theory of plasticity
q = -&y’DN,s,G, = ,BD
For a given value of the height of the conical ridge, AH, these two equations will define how the
average contact pressure q depends upon the bottom diameter D of the ridge. This relation-
ship has been indicated on Fig. 33. It is seen that there is a certain critical value of D leading
to a maximum value of the contact pressure. A small increase or decrease of D will lead to a
significant reduction in contact pressure. Assuming the height AH to be 1.5 ft (0.5 m), it was
found that the maximum value of q could be more than 280 Ib/sq. in. (200 t/m”) when the
supporting soil was dense sand. The critical value of the bottom diameter was 26.5 ft (8 m),
corresponding to a slope of 7”. This very simple example clearly demonstrates the importance
of knowing the detailed topography of the sea floor where a gravity structure is going to be
placed.
GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN FOUNDATIONS OF STRUCTURES LN THE NORTH SEA 355
(Oq- fit - g (theoryofelasticity)
(2) 4 6 B * D (rheoryofplasticity)
(dHassumed)
Y
D
Fig. 33. Local contact pressure due to uneven sea floor
SCOUR
The danger of scouring due to currents and waves will in many cases prove to be a major
problem for the large gravity-type structures placed directly on the sea floor. As mentioned,
a major part of the sea floor of the North Sea is covered with a layer of fine, uniform sand of a
type which is highly susceptible to erosion. It is unfortunate that relatively little is known
about the problem of scour, as it appears when a structure of this type is placed on the sea
floor and is then subjected to periodic currents and the effect of waves. Although model tests
may be useful for estimating the velocities of water particles next to the base, their use for the
prediction of scour is limited. Obviously, it will be of great interest to follow what happens
with respect to scour when the Doris tank has been placed at the Ekofisk site in summer 1973.
To reduce the danger of scour, several of the structures have been designed with some form
of protection, like a skirt or apron. Such a skirt has a second advantage, as it cuts off free
communication of water between the sea and a possible gap between the structure and the sea
floor. Another form of protection will be a layer of riprap or gravel placed on the sea floor
around the structure.
CONCLUSION
The development being experienced in the North Sea at the present time is a challenge to
contractors, consulting engineers, and not least to the geotechnical communities in the coun-
tries involved. As mentioned in the introduction, the study of many of these problems has
just started. Much pioneer work has to be done before one can reach a quality level in soil
exploration, soil testing, and design procedures which is in proper proportion to the importance,
costs, size, and risks involved in these structures. It would be highly desirable if the oil
industry, which will have to live with these structures in the decades to come, could join the soil
engineers in an effort to tackle the problems. It is only with their support that it will become
possible to collect experience about the behaviour of the structures after they have been placed
356 L. BJERRUM
in the North Sea, an experience which is vital for reaching adequate solutions to the geo-
technical problems involved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express his gratitude to the following companies which have given sup-
port to the work going on at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute and have permitted material
to be used in this Paper. British Petroleum Company, C. G. Doris, Det norske Veritas, Elf
Norge A/S, As Hoyer-Ellefsen, Norsk Hydro A/S, Parsons Brown and Harris, Phillips
Petroleum Company.
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BJERRUM,L. (1973). G6otechnique 23, No. 3, 319-358.

Geotechnical problems involved in foundations of

l Lecture to have been presented at Imperial College, London, 1 March, 1973.

BORING PLATFORMS IN LAKE MARACAIBO

BORING PLATFORMS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO

EKOFISK TEMPLATE TYPE STRUCTURES

+ 42 in. primary pile

+ 30 in. insert pile

Fine sand -+ 36 in. drilled hole

-------Grout injection pipe

Fig. 9. Typical insert pile at Ekofisk site, Phillips Petroleum Company

W.T.: l-2 in. A-

Fig. 13. Map of North Sea with distribution of bottom sediments

Dr111 Pipe 3%” ::

Drillinq Ready For Sampling

SOIL CONDITIONS IN THE NORTH SEA

Drop Weight 1751bs

Fig. 15. Wire-line drive sampler

Fig. 16. Typical geotechnical profile from Ekofisk field

PENETRAtlOM- PEI#ETRAllOH- WITI(DR~At

Table 1. Typical data of hard clay at Ekofisk

Water content = 19% Plasticity index = 25%

TANKS AND PLATFORMS PLACED DIRECTLY ON THE SEA FLOOR

C. G.Dxi; McAlpine Taylor Woodrow

Kierand Arup Tecnomare S.p.A. A/S Hpyer-Ellefsen

GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS OF CONCRETE PLATFORMS

BEARING CAPACITY PROBLEM: DRAINED CASE

Strip footing. vertical

Eccentricity factor F = B(l.29)

Inclined load factor i

Fig. 25. Bearing capacity of shallow footings on sand

Fig. 27. Experimentally determined values of NY (Andersen, 1972)

Saran. Prakash and Murty Meyerhof

- - Brinch Hansen 1970

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 o-8 I.0 0 @2 0’4 06 08 I

represents an acceptable approach to the bearing capacity problem of horizontally loaded

BEARING CAPACITY PROBLEM: UNDRAINED CASE

EFFECT OF REPEATED WAVE LOADS

Fig. 30. Typical result of constant volume, cyclic loading

Shear stress level: 7

30 - ~-Height ofa 100 year- wwe

Table 2. Example of the accumulated effect of a loo-year storm

SETTLEMENTS AND DISPLACEMENTS

LOCAL CONTACT PRESSURES

(Oq- fit - g (theoryofelasticity)

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