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Problems of Seed Setting and it’s Management in

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 Advanced Research
and Review in
HORTICULTURE
SCIENCES
Volume - 2

Chief Editor
Prof. Dr. Zahoor Ahmed Dar
Professor, Plant Breeding Dryland Agriculture Research Station, Rangreth,
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of
Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Co-Editor
Dr. Rifat Bhat
Junior Scientist, Division of Fruit Science, Faculty of Horticulture,
SKUAST-K, Shalimar, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India

Bright Sky Publications TM

New Delhi
 Chapter - 4
Problems of Seed Setting and it’s Management in
Sunflower

Authors
Y. Yernaidu
Department of Agronomy, Navsari Agricultural University,
Navsari, Gujarat, India
T. Sreelatha
2
Department of SS& AC, Agricultural Research Station,
ANGRAU, Lam, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Sharad V. Gosavi
Department of Agronomy, Navsari Agricultural University,
Navsari, Gujarat, India
T. Sunil Kumar
Department of Agronomy, Navsari Agricultural University,
Navsari, Gujarat, India
N. Vikram
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agriculture, Visva-
Bharati, West Bengal, India

Page | 53
Page | 54
 Chapter - 4
Problems of Seed Setting and it’s Management in Sunflower
Y. Yernaidu, T. Sreelatha, Sharad V. Gosavi, T. Sunil Kumar and N. Vikram

Abstract
In sunflower, grown for the oil-rich seeds, empty achenes may reduce
yield considerably. Empty achenes consist of a pericarp (fruit wall), testa
(seed coat), endosperm and a rudimentary embryo, if present at all.
Incomplete seed development is frequently found in the capitulum centre.
However, the physiological basis of seed set is poorly understood. The
sensitive period for seed number determination lasts from floral initiation to
first stages of seed filling, corresponding approximately to an interval
between 30 days before and 20 days after the beginning of anthesis. This
period covers a major part of the life span of the sunflower, including
different simultaneous and sequential processes of ontogeny: Leaf
differentiation and expansion; root and stem development; floret
differentiation, sporogenesis, flowering, pollination, fertilization, early
stages of embryogenesis and seed filling. Thus, not surprisingly, several
factors influence seed development. Floral initiation determines the
maximum number of florets and seeds that can be produced. The number of
floret primordia depends on the availability of nutrients) and water,
temperature, radiation and day length. Empty achenes result from disturbed
growth following floral initiation. Defective fertilization due to extreme
temperatures, self-incompatibility or the lack of pollination increases the
percentage of empty achenes directly. In contrast, water supply, mineral
nutrients, radiation, hormones and plant growth regulators have multiple
effects on whole plant physiology, influencing seed development indirectly.
Keywords: Achene, Rudimentary embryo, Primordia, sporogenesis and
Plant growth regulators
Introduction
The cultivated oilseed sunflower is a diploid species having 2n=34
chromosomes. The sunflower was introduced from Mexico to Europe and
USSR (Heiser, 1951). Russian breeders were the pioneers in sunflower

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improvement research, notably V.S. Pustovit, who transformed the original
sunflower from America by reducing the thickness of husk and increasing
the oil content. Wide adaptability or wide-ranging agro climatic conditions
and soil type. Short duration (90-100 days) which enables fitting in different
cropping systems. Photo-insensitivity which enables its cultivation in rainy,
post-rainy and spring/summer seasons. Availability of varieties/hybrids with
diverse duration and high yield potential which enables the crop to fit into
multiple and intercropping systems. Easy cultivation and crop management.
High seed multiplication ratio of more than 1:80. Drought tolerance and the
ability to revive rapidly after prolonged period of drought. Ideal crop for
contingency plans. Remunerative market price. Good quality oil with high
polyunsaturated fatty acids and non-cholesterols properties.
Problems faced in sunflower cultivation
The study revealed that labour, irrigation, marketing of sunflower oil,
seed, animal disturbance, pest attack, threshing, fertilizer and pesticide were
the problems faced by the sunflower farmers. They were put in order of
importance.
1. Labour problem
It was the most prevalent problem for sunflower cultivation. Almost
90% farmers reported that farmer’s high charge was the major labour related
problem. This might be due to good income source from other sectors. About
45% farmers stated that farmers are indifferent to labour work due to their
involvement in other business such as construction, driving auto rikshaw and
so on. About 18% farmers reported that labour raise expectation of
hospitality such as provision of (breakfast, dinner). Almost 23% farmers
stated that lack of labour in proper time of sunflower cultivation (sowing,
irrigating, harvesting and so on). This might be during the peak period of
cultivation labour scarcity prevails due to other agricultural cultivation.
2. Irrigation problem
Irrigation problem was the second most important problem. Almost 25%
farmers indicated that due to canal drying irrigation had become a major
problem. This might be due to lower rate of rainfall in coastal areas. About
15% farmers stated unavailability of irrigation machine at proper time. This
might be due to the scarcity of machine during peak period of agricultural
operations as most the farmers did not have machine of their own. Distance
of water source from field reported by 27% farmers. About 25% farmers
stated unavailability of rainfall after seed sowing. High cost of machine was

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a problem reported by 38% farmers. The reasons behind this most of the
farmers are poor and so they cannot buy machine. Lack of modern
machinery reported by 30% farmers. Almost 10% farmers stated lack of
sweet water. This might be due to falling of patuakhali district in coastal
region. Lack of deep tube well reported by 14% farmers. This might be due
to the large number of small and marginal sunflower farmers.
3. Marketing problem
Almost 75% farmers reported that low market price than production cost
is one of the major marketing problem. This might be due to poor
transportation facilities they can’t contact with remote markets and had to
sell sunflower oil in local markets. Lack of oil marketing opportunity stated
by 25% farmers. This may be due to communication gap with markets.
4. High price of seed
It is the major constraint mentioned by 70% farmers. This might be due
to huge price of sunflower seeds than other crops which costs Tk 1,500 to Tk
2,000 a kilogram at the local market. About 45% farmers reported
unavailability of seed at proper time. This might be due to lack of proper
supply of seed in the local markets. About 15% farmers reported that they
need to bring the sunflower seed from distant place. This might be due to
inaccessibility of sunflower seed in local markets. Failure of seed to
germinate stated by 20% farmers. The reason is due to attack by different
pests and diseases. Problem in seed collection (buying) stated by 24%
farmers. This might be due to the lack of quality seed in markets or farmers
using own cultivating seeds which have poor quality. Improved variety seeds
were not available in the local market mentioned by 65% farmers.
5. Birds and animals
Forty three percent farmers reported parakeet bird attack, 83%
mentioned dove bird while only 13% stated bulbul bird. Sunflower farmers
also faced the problem of animal attack. Thirty percent farmers reported goat
while13% mentioned man.
6. Insects and diseases
Amongst insects and diseases 34% farmers reported virus attack, 73%
farmers reported stem rot. Black spot of leaf was also reported during
cultivation by 13% of the farmers. It was observed that farmers did not have
sufficient knowledge about pest management. This might be due to lack of
training facilities of sunflower farmers.

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7. Threshing problem
About 38% farmers reported lack of oil processing machinery as a major
problem. This might be due to the unavailability of machinery in the locality.
They need to go remote places for oil processing.
8. Other constraints
Almost 36% farmers stated high price of fertilizer and 30% reported
high price of pesticide which ultimately increases production cost. About
80% farmers reported salinity problem. This might be due to being coastal
region. Among sunflower farmers 65% reported lack of technical
knowledge. The reason behind this many farmers are not aware of the
improved methods of oilseed cultivation leading to lower yield. They
cultivated oilseeds on the basis of their acquired knowledge because they
have no formal training on oilseed cultivation. Seventy two percent of the
farmers reported lack of proper training. Almost 34% farmers reported
scarcity of soil test. This may be due to lack of extension service in many
areas.
Seed setting constraints
The main reasons for poor seed setting are
 Use of impure and qualities seed.
 Due to less population of honey bees impairs cross pollination.
 Due to heavy rains at flowering stage and high humidity pollen
grains are washed off.
 Because of high temperatures prevailed at the time of pollination
the pollen grains will be dried up.
 Due to lack of sufficient soil moisture at seed setting.
 Due to deficiency of phosphorus and micro nutrient and insect,
disease and bird damage.
 In sunflower, seed setting starts from periphery to centre of flower,
which normally completes in 10 days. As seed setting is progressing
the non-availability of both macro and micro nutrients is required
proportions is one of the reason for poor seed setting.
 Poor seed setting is a major and two-dimensional problem in
sunflower. First is the occurrence of hallow or sterile achenes,
especially at the centre of capitulum and second is the presence of
large number of partially filled seeds in the capitulum resulting in
low specific seed weight.

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Following are major factors causing seed setting and filling problem in
sunflower
Genetic
 Low autogamy (Protandrous nature)
 Self-incompatibility (Combining ability)
% seed set under autogamous pollination
Autogamy % = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100
% seed set under open pollination
(Autogamous pollination is pollination under just covering the head).
% seed set under assisted self-pollination
Self-incompatibility % = ------------------------------------------------- x 100
% seed set under open pollination
Low autogamy
Low autogamy is one of the genetic reasons for poor seed setting and
filling in sunflower. Therefore, evaluation of hybrids and their parental lines
for their autogamy becomes necessary before releasing any genotype or
hybrid. Rathod et al. (2002) in one of the autogamy study in sunflower
reported that hybrid produced significantly more autogamous seeds over
better parent. Therefore, it suggested that one should grow hybrids for
commercial cultivation of sunflower.
Self-incompatibility
Self-incompatibility is the inability of fully functional pollen grains to
fertilize and seed set on self-pollination. Self-incompatibility of sporophytic
nature is reported in sunflower that is major cause for poor seed setting in the
crop. Identification of self-fertile lines is one of the means for improving
seed setting and productivity in sunflower. Prasad et al. (2006) in one of this
type of study reported that hybrids are generally more vigorous, uniform,
self-fertile and resistant to many pests and diseases.

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Breeding on the basis of character association

Seed yield is a complex character governed by several contributing

characters. Hence, character association study becomes useful to assess the
relationship among yield and its components for enhancing the usefulness of
selection criterion to be followed while developing varieties. Ravi et al.
(2006) reported a strong positive association of seed yield with filled
seeds/plant, seed set percentage, head diameter and harvest index. They
suggested that selection for high number of filled seeds/capitulum, moderate
capitulum diameter, more test weight, medium plant height with more leaf
area and high total drymatter/plant would be effective for improving the seed
yield in sunflower.
Physiological
 Poor vascularization.
 High photorespiration.
 Uneven distribution of photoassimilates.
 Decreased translocation of photosynthates to sink.
 Light micrograph of sunflower capitulum.
 After staining with Safranin red/Fast green, the darkened vascular
bundles are readily visualized.
Vascularization
 Several possible physiological reasons may be responsible for
empty achenes in the capitulum of sunflower.

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  Goffner et al. (1988) illustrated the 14C partitioning in developing
sunflower seeds and reported that peripheral seeds were more
developmentally mature than intermediary and central seeds.
 This developmental gradient is due to the poor vascularization of
the central flower head. There are no vascular bundles present in the
centre of the flower head. Therefore, intermediary and centrally
located seeds must receive solutes indirectly by horizontal transport
from peripherally located vascular bundles.
 Beltrano et al. (1994) applied foliar spray of gibberellic acid (GA)
and benzyladenine (BA) for enhancing vascular connections
between the outer and inner parts of the capitulum and to increase
grain yield by reductions in the percentage of empty achenes in the
inner portion of the capitulum.
 They reported that BA 150 mg/l + GA 150 mg/l applied at 40 days
after emergence significantly reduced the percentage of empty
achenes and increased achene weight.
High photorespiration
 Though sunflower is C3 plant there is a degree of wastage of photo
assimilates due to photorespiration which can otherwise be utilized
for building yields.
Sectorial photo-assimilate distribution pattern
 Photo assimilate distribution patterns demonstrated in sunflower
generally reflect the functional relationships between the phyllotaxy
of source leaves and the position of sinks in developing
inflorescences.
Effect of source-sink ratio
 The effect of source-sink ratio on seed set was always strongest in
the center, whereas peripheral whorls were not affected. Achene
mass was affected in all parts of the capitulum.
 Source limitation was a major cause for empty achenes in sunflower
plants grown under non-stress conditions.
Physiological approaches to improve seed setting and filling in
sunflower
 Based on several studies and reports Nanja Reddy et al. (2003)
proposed a schematic figure for improving HI in sunflower.

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 In which the possible approaches are:
a) Reducing thalamus weight,
b) Increasing post anthesis biomass production and
c) Increased partitioning of biomass to sink by improving sink
characters
Environmental factors and their management
1. Moisture stress
Productivity of sunflower is often affected by various environmental
stresses, of which moisture stress is the most important one. Mohan Reddy et
al. (2003) reported that there was maximum decline in LAI and dry matter
accumulation in sunflower subjected to moisture stress at flowering stage
resulting reduction in yield.
2. Intercepted solar radiation
A reduction in intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
during a short period of seed filling could affect weight per seed in
sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)
3. Season
 The mean seed set under self-pollination was highest in rabi,
followed by spring and kharif.
 Under open pollination, it was highest in kharif followed by spring
and rabi.
 The high percentage of seed filling during kharif under open
pollination may possibly be due to the abundance pollen production
and bee activities coupled with high temperature and bright
sunshine hours at reproductive phase.
Influence of environmental factors on pollinators
 The weather conditions have evident influence on sunflower
inflorescence visit by honeybees or other pollinators. Total daily
visit of the bees depended on weather conditions.
 Puskadija et al. (2007) reported that the most frequent visits by
honeybees were estimated at 20 to 25 degrees centigrade and
humidity at 65-75%. Precipitation had negative impact on
honeybees visit.
 Higher humidity, heavy rainfall, wind and low temperature had
negative influence on sunflower inflorescences visits.

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Agronomic management
Pre sowing treatments
 Seed invigoration treatment helps to improve the germination and
vigour of the seed and ultimately it establishes a good field stand
and yields higher.
 Shivanker et al. (2003) reported that Trichoderma harzianum is the
antagonistic agent which suppresses the growth of many fungi
found on seed and in soil.
 Thus, the protection given by Trichoderma harzianum helped in
germination of poor vigour sunflower seeds and subsequently
increased the yield. Another seed treatments like KCl (0.5%),
MnSO4 (0.5%), GA3 (50 ppm), Thiram are also effective in
increasing seed yield of sunflower.
Planting time and planting design
 Vyakaranahal et al. (2002) observed a significant increase in the
seed yield due to early planting (July/December) for both the
seasons (Kharif or Spring) over late planting (August/January). The
increase in seed yield was due to increase germination percentage
and seedling vigour, which subsequently increased the yield
components and yield.
 Sinha and Atwal (2000) reported that sunflower crop sown in the
month of December flowered between March-April and since
during these months honeybee activity was maximum, which
resulted in better pollination and thus good seed setting.
 Seed setting is not only affected by planting time but planting
design also.
 Yadav et al. (2006) reported that there was decline in seed setting as
distance from pollen source was increased due to planting design.
Staggered sowing
 The problem of non-synchrony is generally observed in sunflower
hybrids. The male parent flowers later than seed parent. To avoid
this problem sowing male parent early to female parent was
suggested.
Fertilization
 Sulphur plays vital role in the formation of chlorophyll, amino acids
viz., cystine, cysteine and methionone. It increases seed yield due to

Page | 63
 more accumulation and translocation of amino acids and amide
substances to the reproductive organs.
 Boron plays a major role in membrane integrity and cell wall
development and it helps in pollen tube growth. It is also known to
play an important role in translocation of sugars. Hence, application
of boron is beneficial in sunflower. Nanja Reddy et al. (2003)
reported that soil application of boron (2 kg/ha) at ray floret stage
increased the seed yield by 53%.
Pollination management
 Being entomophilous, the pollination of sunflower to large extent is
determined by honeybees (Apis spp.). The environmental conditions
prevailing during flowering period, spraying of bee attractant like
Bee-Q and sugar, which attract the bees, are the deciding factors for
ensuring effective bee population.
 The role of boron is also important in sunflower as it helps to
increase the pollen viability use of borax as filler material helps in
uniform spreading of pollen on the stigma and thus increase the
seed set and filling in sunflower
Practices to improve seed setting in sunflower
 Hand pollination with white cloth after flower opening for 8-10
days between 8-11 AM, this increases seed yield by 20-25%.
 Spray Borax @ 0.5% at star bud stage, which increases yield and
quality of seed.
 Keep five bee (Apis millifera) hives per hectare (at 10% flowering)
to increase the pollination which increase the yield by 10-15%.
 Use only pure and quality seed of high yielding varieties or hybrids.
 Follow only recommended fertilizer schedule.
 Avoid excess use of nitrogen,
 If sunflower is grown as rainfed rabi crop in heavy soils grow
nearby fields of safflower or safflower as intercrop so that the
activity of honey bees can be increased.
 During flowering period spray insecticides mostly during evening
periods.
 Spray cycocel 50 ppm at 40 and 60 days age of crop to increase
yield through better seed setting.

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  Rub the flower with smooth cloth or cotton at flowering time
between 8-11 AM on every day or on alternate days for 10-15 days
to increase cross pollination. This operation give 25% higher yield.
 Honey bees are attracted by yellow flowers and the honey dew
available in flowers of Niger.
 Hence grow Niger around the field of sunflower so that fertilization
can be improved.
 Establish more plant population per unit area otherwise large sized
flowers are produced because poor seed setting in the centre of the
flower.
 Grow the crop if possible east to west to avoid shading of one row
on the other.

Conclusion
 Low autogamy and self-incompatibility are two major genetic
reasons for poor seed setting and filling in sunflower. Breeding
plants for the characters directly associated with seed setting and
filling, producing the self-fertile lines and growing hybrids can
improve the yield in sunflower.
 Poor vascularization in the capitulum, high photorespiration
wastage, uneven distribution of photoassimilate and source
limitation are the major physiological causes for poor seed setting
and filling in sunflower. Reducing the source-sink or sink-sink
competition by physiological manipulation such as reduction in
thalamus weight, increasing post anthesis dry matter accumulation
and clipping of old leaves would help in better seed set and filling
in sunflower.

Page | 65
  Directed application of TIBA to head has resulted in increased
filling and test weight by way of increased translocation of
photosynthates to sink hence, use of growth regulator like TIBA
would be beneficial.
 Maintaining optimum plant stands recommended for the region is
desirable. Very less plant population per unit area produced large
sized flower head, which remained unnourished due to source
limitation and ultimately caused poor seed setting particular in the
centre of the flower head.
 Providing supplemental pollination, either by hand pollination or
through increasing pollinators (bees) activity has increased the seed
set and filling percent in sunflower
 Following only recommended fertilizer schedule for the region is
beneficial. Sunflower responds profitably to the use of secondary
and micronutrient boron. Boron application at ray floret opening
stage improved seed set and filling percentage. Hence, application
of boron at this stage is suggested.
 Moisture stress at bud formation, flowering and milking stages
drastically reduced the growth and yield attributes. Therefore,
avoiding moisture stress at these stages would be helpful in
improving seed yield of sunflower.
 Environmental factors greatly influence the seed setting and filling
in sunflower by way of not only affecting crop itself but pollinators
also and thus pollination. Continuous rains and cloudy weather or
very high temperature affects seed set and yield. Therefore,
optimum seeding period should be decided in such a way that the
flowering should not coincide with extremes of temperature, heavy
rainfall, fog and cloudy weather.
References
1. Akhtar M, Zubair M, Saeed M, Ahmad R. Effect of Planting Geometry
and Water Stress on Seed Yield and Quality of Spring Planted
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Pak. J. Agri. Sei, 1993, 30(1).
2. Beltrano J, Caldiz DO, Barreyro R, Vallduvi GS, Bezus R. Effects of
foliar applied gibberellic acid and benzyladenine upon yield components
in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Plant Growth Regulation.
1994;15(2):101-106.

Page | 66
3. Goffner D, This P, Delseny M. Effects of abscisic acid and osmotica on
helianthinin gene expression in sunflower cotyledons in vitro. Plant
science. 1990;66(2):211-219.
4. Puskadija Z, Stefanic E, Mijic A, Zdunic Z, Paradikovic N, Florijancic
T et al. Influence of weather conditions on honey bee visits (Apis
mellifera carnica) during sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) blooming
period. Poljoprivreda. 2007;13(1):230-233.
5. Ram M, Davari MR. Seed setting and filling problem in sunflower and
its management–A. International Journal of Agronomy and Plant
Production. 2011;2(2):33-56.
6. Rauf A, Maqsood M, Ahmad A, Gondal AS. Yield and oil content of
sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) as influenced by spacing and reduced
irrigation condition. Crop Production. 2012;1(1):41-45.
7. Shekhawat K, Shivay YS. Effect of nitrogen sources, sulphur and boron
levels on productivity, nutrient uptake and quality of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus). Indian Journal of Agronomy. 2008;53(2):129.
8. Siddiqui MH, Oad FC, Abbasi MK, Gandahi AW. Effect of NPK,
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