GROUPE SCOLAIRE NOTRE DAME DE LA PAIX CYANIKA(GSNDP CYANIKA)

SOUTHERN PROVINCE, NYAMAGABE DISTRICT, CYANIKA SECTOR

P.O.BOX.18 GIKONGORO, E-mail: gsndpcyanika2010@yahoo.fr,

Tel: 0788611099

MODULE TITLE: DESIGN AND COMMUNICATION GRAPHICS(D.C.G.)

DEPARTMENT: SENIOR 5 CONSTRUCTION

ACADEMIC YEAR :2016

PREPARED BY MUHIRE Alexis

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Contents
CHAP 1: THEORY OF PROJECTION.............................................................................................................6

1.1. Introduction:.....................................................................................................................................6

1.1.1. Pictorial projections...................................................................................................................7

1.2. Orthographic projection...............................................................................................................10

1.2.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................10

1.2.2. Types of plane of projections...................................................................................................11

1.2.3. Types of views..........................................................................................................................12

1.2.4. Methods of obtaining views....................................................................................................13

1.2.5. Orthographic projection methods...........................................................................................15

1.2.6. Projections of lines...................................................................................................................19

1.2.7. Orthographic Projections representation................................................................................26

1.2.8. Conventions used for lines in orthographic projection...........................................................28

1.2.9. Intersecting Lines in Orthographic Projections.......................................................................28

CHAPTER II: PICTORIAL PROJECTIONS....................................................................................................33

2. 1: Creation of isometric projection....................................................................................................33

2. 1.1. Principles of isometric projection...........................................................................................33

2.1.2. Isometric projection of plane figures......................................................................................37

2.1.3. Isometric projection of solids..................................................................................................42

2.2. CREATION OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION..........................................................................................53

2.2.1.Principles of oblique projection................................................................................................53

2.2.2. Oblique Projection of Simple solids.........................................................................................53

2.3: CREATION OF PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION....................................................................................55

2.3.1. Principles of perspective projection........................................................................................55

2.3.2. Definition of Terms.................................................................................................................56

2.3.3. Orthographic Representation of Perspective Elements............................................................57

2.3.4. Methods of Perspective Projection...........................................................................................58

2.3.4. 1.Visual ray method.................................................................................................................58

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 a. Perspective Projection of Points.................................................................................................58

b) Perspective Projection of Straight Lines.....................................................................................59

c) Perspective Projection of Plane Figures.....................................................................................61

d) Perspective Projection of Solids.................................................................................................62

2.3.4.2. Vanishing Point Method.......................................................................................................63

1.One-point perspective creation.....................................................................................................64

2.Two-point perspective creation.....................................................................................................67

REVIEW EXERCISES...........................................................................................................................70

CHAPTER 3:CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS...............................................................................................72

3.3.1. Architectural drawings...........................................................................................................73

1. Location drawings and general arrangement drawings...............................................................74

Site Location Plan..............................................................................................................................74

Site Plan.............................................................................................................................................75

FLOOR PLANS....................................................................................................................................77

Section Drawing................................................................................................................................80

ELEVATION DRAWINGS...................................................................................................................82

FOUNDATION PLAN.........................................................................................................................83

Roof Plan............................................................................................................................................85

iii. Drawing of Hip roof plan.............................................................................................................87

2. ASSEMBLY DRAWING:..................................................................................................................89

3. COMPONENT DRAWING.............................................................................................................91

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CHAP 1: THEORY OF PROJECTION

1.1. Introduction:

In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-

dimensional media. The act of obtaining the image of an object is termed “projection”. The

image obtained by projection is known as a “view”. A simple projection system is shown in

figure 1.In order to represent the true shape and size of the object, different straight lines are

drawn from the various points on the contour of the object on the plane of paper

PROJECTION: The figure or view formed by joining, in correct sequence, the points at which

these lines meet the plane is called the projection of the object. (It is obvious that the outlines of

the shadow arc the projections of an object).

Types of projection

In engineering practice, the followings are the common types of projections:

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1.1.1. Pictorial projections
The projection in which the length, breadth and height of an object are shown in one view is

known as pictorial projection. This type of projection has the advantage of conveying an

immediate impression of the general shape of the object, but does not necessarily show the

exact dimensions.

The pictorial projection is: perspective projections, axonometric and oblique projection.

a) Axonometric projection
If the object is turned and then tilted so as that three faces are inclined to the plane of

projection, the resulting projection is a special type of orthographic projection known as

axonometric projection. Note that the projectors from the plane to the object are perpendicular

to the plane. This axonometric or pictorial view shows three of the object’s sides in one

projection and therefore is called a one plane projection. There are three subdivisions of

axonometric projection:

1. Isometric: Three sides of the object are shown on one projection plane and are equally

inclined.

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2. Dimetric: Three sides of the object are shown on one projection plane and two of the three

sides are equally inclined

3. Trimetric: Three sides of the object are shown on one projection plane and are inclined

differently.

b) Oblique
Another form of one plane projection is the oblique projection. This is not an orthographic

projection because, although one face is imagined to be parallel to the plane of projection, the

projectors are not perpendicular to it. Oblique projection provides an easy way of turning an

existing orthographic view into a pictorial view.

The oblique projection is further discussed as under:

i) Cavalier oblique projection: when the projection lines make angle of 450 with the plane of

projection, the projection is called a cavalier projection.

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ii) Cabinet oblique projection: When the angle that the projecting lines make with the plane of

projection is such that the scale on the reading axis in the drawing is about one half as long as

the two axes, the result is called a cabinet projection.

iii) Clinographic or general oblique projection: In cavalier and cabinet projections the principal

face of the object is made parallel to the plane of projection. For some cases it may be desirable

to turn the object at an angle with respect to the plane of projection and is known as

Clinographic projection.

C) Perspective projection:
The projection obtained on a plane when the projectors converge to a point is known as

perspective projection. There are three kinds of perspective projections.

i) Parallel or one point perspective: if the principal face of the object is parallel to the plane of

projection and there is only one vanish point; the projection is known as parallel or one point

perspective.

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ii) Angular or two point perspective: When the two faces of the object are at an angle with

plane of projection, where the third face is perpendicular to it, the two principal vanish points

occur and the projection is known as angular or two points perspective.

iii) Oblique or three point perspective: If the three principal faces of the object are inclined to

the plane of projection, the projection obtained is known as an oblique or three points

perspective.

1.2. Orthographic projection

1.2.1. Introduction
Buildings, and the materials and components of which buildings are constructed, are three

dimensional (3-D).That is to say they have length, width and height. It is possible to draw a

picture of a building or object to show these three dimensions. Generally, however in

construction drawing the method used to describe buildings or objects pictorially is

orthographic projection.

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This method uses views termed PLANS, ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS which have only two

dimensions.

As definition:

“Ortho means right-angle and „Ortho-graphic‟ means right-angled drawing. When the

projectors are parallel to each other but perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is

obtained, it is known as Orthographic Projection”

While drawing the

orthographic projections, the following items should invariably exist:

1. The object to be projected

2. The projectors: The imaginary lines or rays drawn from the object to the plane.

3. The plane of projections: imaginary transparent plane on which the projections are drawn

4. The observer’s eye or station point.

1.2.2. Types of plane of projections

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 a) VERTICAL PLANE(V.P): The plane which is vertical is called vertical plane and is

denoted by V.P. Vertical plane is also known as frontal plane since front view is

projected on this plane

b) HORIZONTAL PLANE (H.P): The plane which is horizontal but at right angle to

the V.P

c) AUXILIARY PLANE(A.P): Any other plane, placed at any angles to the principle

planes

d) PROFILE PLANE(P.P): The plane which is at right angles to the two principle

plane is called auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P) PP

1.2.3. Types of views

An object in space may be imagined as surrounded by six mutually perpendicular planes.

So, it is possible to obtain six different views by viewing the object along the six directions,
normal to the six planes.
1. Front view or elevation: a view projected on VP

2. Rear view

3. Top view or plan: view projected on hp

4. Bottom view

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 5. Right view

6. Left view or Side view or Side elevation or profile view: a view projected on pp.

7. Auxiliary view: The object is projected on an auxiliary plane

1.2.4. Methods of obtaining views

i. Transparent box method

Assume that the object is placed in a transparent box, the faces of which are orthogonal to
each other. Here we view the object faces normal to the three planes of the transparent box.

a) Method of Obtaining Front View

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Extend the rays or projectors further to meet a Vertical (Transparent) Plane (V.P) located

behind the object. Join the points at which the projectors meet the plane, in correct sequence.

The resulting view (Fv) is called the Front View of the object which is shown in fig. Front view

shown only two dimensions of the object i.e. Length (L) and Height (H). It does not show the

breadth (B). Thus one view or projection is insufficient for the complete description of the

object.

b) Method of Obtaining Top

View

Look at the object from the top. The

projection of the top surface T is TH.

TH is the Top View of the object. Both T and TH are of exactly the same shape and size. Thus TH

gives the Length (L) and Breadth (B) of the block but not the Height (H).

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 c) Pattern of planes and views

After obtain the views from glass box, the cube is unfolded so that it lies in a single

plane. The three views of the object are now visible on the same plane in space. When

the glass cube is unfolded:

1.2.5. Orthographic projection methods

In an orthographic projection, the object is oriented in such a way that only two of its
dimensions are shown. The dimensions obtained are the true dimensions of the object.

1. Principal planes of projection

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Universally either the 1st angle projection or the third angle projection methods is followed for

obtaining engineering drawings. The principal projection planes and quadrants used to create

drawings are shown in figure 16. The object can be considered to be in any of the four

quadrants.

Figure 16. The principal projection planes and quadrants for creation of drawings.

When the planes of projections are extended beyond their line of intersection, they form Four

Quadrants. These quadrants are numbered as I, II, Ill and IV in anti clockwise direction when

rotated about reference line XY.

i. First Angle Projection

When the object is situated in First Quadrant, that is, in front of V.P and above H.P, the

projection obtained on these planes is called First angle projection.

 The object lies in between the observer and the plane of projection.

 The front view is drawn above the XY line and the top view below XY. (Above

XY line is V.P and below XY line is H.P).

 In the front view, H.P coincides with XY line and in top view V.P coincides with

XY line.

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  Front view shows the length (L) and height (H) of the object and Top view shows

the length (L) and breadth (B) or width (W) or thickness (T) of it.

ii. Third Angle Projection

In this, the object is situated in Third Quadrant. The Planes of projection lie between the object

and the observer. The front view comes below the XY line and the top view about it.

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A summary of the difference between 1st and 3rd angle projections is shown if Table 1.

Table 1. Difference between first- and third-angle projections

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 1.2.6. Projections of lines

i. Straight line

A line is a geometric primitive that has length and direction, but no thickness. Straight line is

the Locus of a point, which moves linearly. Straight line is also the shortest distance between

any two given points. The location of a line in projection quadrants is described by specifying

the distances of its end points from the VP, HP and PP. A line may be:

 Parallel to both the planes.

 Parallel to one plane and perpendicular to the other.

 Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other.

 Inclined to both the planes.

Projection of a line

The projection of a line can be obtained by projecting its end points on planes of projections

and then connecting the points of projections. The projected length and inclination of a line,

can be different compared to its true length and inclination.

ii. Classification of Lines in Orthographic Projections

In orthographic projections lines can be classified based on their parallelism with the picture

planes, type and direction.

A. Classification based on Parallelism

A line that is parallel to a principal plane is called a principal line, and is true length in the

principal plane to which it is parallel. Since there are three principal planes of projection, there

are three principal lines: horizontal, frontal and profile.

♦ A horizontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the horizontal plane and appears true

length in the horizontal view.

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♦ A frontal line: is a principal line which is parallel to the frontal plane and appears true length

in the frontal view.

♦ A profile line: is a principal line which is parallel to the profile plane and appears true length

in the profile view.

B. Classification Based on Direction

♦ Vertical line: A vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, and appears true length

in the frontal and profile views and as a point view in the horizontal views.

♦ Level line: any line that is parallel to the horizontal plane is a level line. Level lines are

horizontal lines.

♦ Inclined lines: Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal or profile planes and at angle to the

horizontal plane and appears true length in the views where it is parallel to a principal plane.

C. Classification based on Type

♦ Oblique: oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes and therefore will not appear

true length in a principal view.

♦ Foreshortened: lines that are not true length in a specific view appear shortened than their

true length measurement.

♦ Point view: a point view is a view of a line in which the line is perpendicular to the viewing

plane (the line of sight is parallel to the line).

♦ True length: a view in which a line can be measured true distance between its end points

shows the line as true length and appears true length in any view where it is parallel to the

plane of projection

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CASE 1. Line parallel to a plane

When a line is parallel to a plane, the projection of the line on to that plane will be its true

length. The projection of line AB lying parallel to the Vertical plane (VP) is shown in figure 1

as a’b’.

Figure 1. Projection of line on VP. Line AB is parallel to VP.

CASE 2. Line inclined to a plane

When a line is parallel to one plane and inclined to the other, the projection of the line on the

plane to which it is parallel will show its true length. The projected length on the plane to

which it is inclined will always be shorter than the true length. In figure 2, the line AB is

parallel to VP and is inclined to HP. The angle of inclination of AB with HP is being θ degrees.

Projection of line AB on VP is a’b’ and is the true length of AB. The projection of line AB on HP

is indicated as line ab. Length ab is shorter than the true length AB of the line.

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Figure 2. Projection of line AB parallel to VO and inclined to HP.

CASE 3. Projection of a line parallel to both HP and VP

A line AB having length 80 mm is parallel to both HP and VP. The line is 70 mm above HP, 60

mm in front of VP. End B is 30 mm in front of right PP. To draw the projection of line AB,

assume the line in the first quadrant. The projection points of AB on the vertical plane VP,

horizontal plane HP and Right Profile plane PP is shown in figure 3(a). Since the line is parallel

to both HP and VP, both the front view a'b' and the top view ab are in true lengths. Since the

line is perpendicular to the right PP, the left side view of the line will be a point a΄΄(b΄΄).

After projection on to the projection planes, the planes are rotated such that all the three

projection planes lie in the same planes. The multi-view drawing of line AB is shown in Figure

3(b).

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Figure 3. Projection of line parallel to both HP and VP.

CASE 4. Line perpendicular to HP & parallel to VP

A line AB of length 80 mm is parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP. The line is 80 mm in front

of VP and 80 mm in front of right PP. The lower end of the line is 30 mm above HP. The

projections of line AB shown in figure 4 can be obtained by the following method.

Draw a line XY which is the intersection between VP and HP. Draw the front view a'b' = 80 mm

perpendicular to the XY line, with the lower end b' lying 30 mm above the XY line. Project the

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top view of the line which will be a point a(b) at a distance of 60 mm below XY line. Since the

line is 70 mm in front of the right PP draw the X 1Y1 line at a distance of 70 mm on the right-

side of the front view.

Through O the point of intersection of XY and X 1Y1, lines draw a 45° line. Draw the horizontal

projector through a(b) to cut the 45 degree line at m. Draw the horizontal projectors through

a' and b' to intersect the vertical projector drawn through m at a΄΄ and b΄΄. a΄΄b΄΄ is the left

view of the line AB.

Figure 4. Projections of a line AB perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP.

LINE PARALLEL TO ONE PLANE AND INCLINED TO THE OTHER

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CASE 5. Line parallel to VP and inclined to HP

A line AB, 90 mm long is inclined at 30° to HP and parallel to VP. The line is 80 mm in front of

VP. The lower end A is 30 mm above HP. The upper end B is 50 mm in front of the right PP. The

projections of line AB shown in figure 5 can be obtained in the following manner.

Mark a', the front view of the end A, 30 mm above HP. Draw the front view a΄b΄ = 90 mm

inclined at 30° to XY line. Project the top view ab parallel to XY line. The top view is 80 mm in

front of VP. Draw the X1Y1 line at a distance of 50 mm from b'. Draw a 45° line through O.

Draw the horizontal projector through the top view ab to cut the 45 ° line at m. Draw a

vertical projector through m. Draw the horizontal projectors through a' and b' to intersect the

vertical projector drawn through m at a” and b”. Connect a΄΄ b΄΄ which is the left side view.

Figure 5. Projections of line AB parallel to VP and inclined to HP.

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1.2.7. Orthographic Projections representation

Lines are used to construct a drawing. Various types of lines are used to construct meaningful

drawings. Each line in a drawing is used to convey some specific information. The types of

lines generally used in engineering drawing are shown in Table-1.

Table -1. Types of lines generally used in drawings

All visible edges are to be represented by visible lines.

 The boundary of the object

 Intersection between two planes.

All hidden edges and features should be represented by dashed lines.

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Figure 1 show the pictorial view and front view of the object when the middle stepped region is

(a) hidden and (b) visible.

Figure 2 shows the front view of a solid and hollow cylindrical object. The front view of the

solid cylinder is seen as a rectangle (figure 2(a)).

For the hollow cylinder in addition to the rectangle representing the boundary of the object,

two dashed lines are shown to present the boundary of the hole, which is a hidden feature in

the object.

Figure 2-1: shows the pictorial view and front view of (a) a hollow cylindrical object and (b)

solid cylindrical object.

Figure 2-2: shows the pictorial view and front view of sectioned part of (a) a hollow

cylindrical object (b) solid cylindrical object and (c) solid cylinder split in to two unequal

parts.

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 Figure 4 shows the centre lines for cylindrical objects

Figure 5. Showing TV, FV and RHSV of an object showing the three types of lines mentioned

above. The pictorial view of the object is shown at the top height hand side.

1.2.8. Conventions used for lines in orthographic projection

In orthographic projections, many times different types of lines may fall at the same regions. In

such cases, the following rules for precedence of lines are to be followed:

 Visible lines take precedence over all other lines

 Hidden lines take precedence over center lines

 Center lines have lowest precedence

When a visible line and a hidden line are to be drawn at the same area, it will be shown by the

visible line only and no hidden line will be shown. Similarly, in case of hidden line and centre

line, only hidden line will be shown. In such case, the centre line will be shown only if it is

extending beyond the length of the hidden line.

1.2.9. Intersecting Lines in Orthographic Projections

Some orthographic projections of solids showing the different lines and their precedence are

shown as examples below.

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The 3-D view of the respective objects is also shown in the figures with the direction of arrow

representing the line of sight in the front view.

A few examples of the projections showing the conventions in drawing are presented below.

Creation Orthographic Projections

In creating the orthographic projections, normally you will be starting by drawing the Front

View. In class exercises, the Front View is indicated by an arrow however when it is not given

or during design it is a good practice to choose the view that will reveal most of the details

about the object. This view will be the one showing the object in its natural position and be the

one having less hidden parts. Draw the remaining views ensuring dimensional consistency.

Let us do it through an example:

You will create the First Angle Projection of the following object showing its Front, Right and

Top View.

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 1. Start by drawing the front view leaving enough space for other views.

2. Draw the Right Side View. By projecting the construction lines draw the second

view (the Right side view in our example). Construction lines ensure quick

dimensional consistency as well as alignment of views.

3. Draw the Top View.

 Draw a vertical line (V in the example) between the Front side view and the Right side

view.

 Draw a horizontal line (H in our example) below the Front side view.

 Draw an inclined line at 450(I in the example) where the vertical line and the

horizontal line meet.

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 Project vertical construction lines from the Right Side View edges to meet the inclined

line.

 Where those vertical lines meet the inclined line, draw horizontal lines.

 Project vertical construction lines from the Front Side View edges to meet the horizontal

lines stated above.

 Where horizontal lines from the Right Side View meet the vertical lines from the Front

view, construct the top view.

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CHAPTER 2: PICTORIAL PROJECTIONS
The projection in which the length, breadth and height of an object are shown in one view is

known as pictorial projection. This type of projection has the advantage of conveying an

immediate impression of the general shape of the object, but does not necessarily show the

exact dimensions.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER:

By the end of this chapter, the trainee will be able to:

 Identify and describe properly various types of pictorial drawings.

 Explain clearly the differences in the three types of axonometric projection.

 Make accurately cavalier, normal, and cabinet oblique drawings.

 Create appropriately one-point and two-point perspective drawings.

2. 1: Creation of isometric projection

2. 1.1. Principles of isometric projection

The isometric projection of an object is a one plane view drawn with the object so placed with

respect to the plane of projection that all the three principal axes appear to be inclined to each

other at an equal angle of 120°.

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It is seen that all the edges and faces of the rectangular prism are equally inclined to the plane

of all the edges and faces of the cube are equally inclined to the plane of projection. Hence the

rectangular faces are seen as similar and equal rhombuses. The three lines AB, AD and AE are

meeting at A.

These edges are mutually perpendicular to each other in the solid. Since all these edges are

equally inclined to H.P, they are making and angle of 120o with each other in the plane of

projection; also they are equally foreshortened. This leads us to the problem of selecting an

isometric scale.

Isometric Axes

The lines AB, AD and AE meeting at a point A and making an angle of 120o with each other are

termed „isometric axes‟

Isometric Lines:

The lines parallel to the isometric axes are termed isometric lines. The lines CD, CB etc are

examples of isometric lines.

Non-isometric Lines

The lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are termed non-isometric lines. The BD is an

example.

Isometric Planes

The planes representing the faces of the rectangular prism as well as other planes parallel to

these planes are termed isometric planes.

Isometric scale

Isometric projection is drawn using isometric scale, which converts true lengths into isometric

lengths (foreshortened)

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Construction of isometric scale:

 Draw a horizontal line PQ.

 From A draw a line PM at 45 o to represent actual or true length and another line PA at

30° to the horizontal line to measure isometric length.

 On PM mark the point 0, 1, 2 etc to represent actual lengths.

 Dr aw the vertical projection of all the points of true length from PM to PA.

 Complete the scale with the details as shown in the figure.

The lengths shown at the line PA are the isometric lengths to be used to draw the

isometric projection.

Isometric Plane and Non-isometric Plane:

Isometric Planes are marked as 1 and Non-isometric Planes are marked as 2

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Isometric Projections and Isometric drawings are represented on the plane paper or sheet by

drawing isometric axes, isometric lines and isometric planes.

2.1.2. Isometric projection of plane figures

A. RECTANGULAR PLANE
Example 1:

Draw the isometric projection of a rectangle of 100mm and 70mm sides if its plane is (a)

Vertical and (b) horizontal.

1. Draw the given rectangle ABCD as shown in Fig.9.10(a).

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Note:

(i) In the isometric projection, vertical lines are drawn vertical and the horizontal lines are

drawn inclined 30° to the base line.

(it) As the sides of the rectangle are parallel to the isometric axes they are fore-shortened to

approximately 82% in the isometric projections.

Hence AB = CD = 1000 x 0.82mm = 82mm. Similarly, B C = A D = 57.4mm.

(a) When the plane is vertical:

2. Draw the side A D inclined at 30° to the base line as shown in Fig.9.10b and mark A D

=57.4mm.

3. Draw the verticals at A and D and mark off A B = D C = 82mm on these verticals.

4. Join B C which is parallel to A D.

ABCD is the required isometric projection. This can also be drawn as shown in

Fig.9.10c.Arrows show the direction of viewing.

(b) When the plane is horizontal.

5. Draw the sides AD and DC inclined at 30° to be base line and complete the isometric

projection ABCD as shown in Fig.9.10d.

Arrow at the top shows the direction of viewing.

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Exercise in classroom: To draw the isometric projection of a square plane.

 Case 1 Vertical plane

 Case 2 Horizontal plane

B. PENTAGONAL PLANE
(i) when the surface is parallel to V.P and (ii) parallel to H.P.

1. Enclose the given pentagon in a rectangle 1234.

2. Make the isometric drawing of the rectangle 1234 by using true lengths.

3. Locate the points A and B such that 1a = lA and 1 b = IB.

4. Similarly locate point C, D and E such that 2c = 2C, 3d = 3D and e4 = E4.

5. ABCDE is the isometric drawing of the pentagon.

6. Following the above principle of construction 9.12c can be

Exercise in classroom:

Draw the isometric view of a pentagonal plane of 30mm side when one of its sides is parallel to

H.P, (a) When it is horizontal and (b)vertical.

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C. Circular plane

i. Using the method of points

Problem: Draw the isometric view of a circular plane of diameter 60mm whose surface is

(a) Horizontal,

(b) Vertical.

Step 1. Enclose the circle in a square 1-2-3-4 and draw diagonals, as shown in Fig. 9.1Sa. Also

draw lines YA horizontally and XA vertically.

To draw the isometric view of the square 1-2-3-4 as shown in Fig.9.l5b.

Step 2. Mark the mid points of the sides of the square as BDF and H.

Step 3. Locate the points X and Y on lines 1-4 and 1-2 respectively.

Step 4. Through the point X, draw A X parallel to line 1-2 to get point A on the diagonal 1-3.

The point A can be obtained also by drawing Y A through the point Y and parallel to the line 1-

4.

Step 5. Similarly obtain other points C, E and G

Step 6. Draw a smooth curve passing through all the points to obtain the required isometric

view of the horizontal circular plane.

Step 7. Similarly obtain isometric view of the vertical circular plane as shown in Fig.9.1Sc and

d.

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ii. Using four-centre method
Draw the isometric projection of a circular plane of diameter 60mm whose surface is (a)

Horizontal and (b) Vertical

Step 1 Draw the isometric projection of the square 1-2-3-4 (rhombus) whose length of side is

equal to the isometric length of the diameter of the circle = 0.82 x 60.

step 2_ Mark the mid points AI, BI, CI and 01 of the four sides of the rhombus. Join the points 3

and AI. This line intersects the line 2-4 joining the point 2 and 4 at MI. Similarly obtain the

intersecting point N.

Step 3_ With centre M and radius = MA draw an arc A B. Also draw an arc C D with centre N.

Step 4_With centre 1 and radius = 1C, draw an ace B C. Also draw the arc A D.

40
Step 5_The ellipse ABC D is the required isometric projection of the horizontal circular plane

(Fig.9.l6a).

Step 6_Similarly obtain the isometric projection in the vertical plane as shown in Fig.9.16b & c.

2.1.3. Isometric projection of solids

1) Positioning of solid
The solids are mostly drawn by placing them as per their specific position with respect to

vertical plane (V.P.) and horizontal plane (H.P.), as discussed earlier in orthographic

projections.

If not specified then they are drawn by placement in such a position which describes the shape

of the object in best manner. Here after drawing the isometric projection we can observe the

two planes i.e. vertical plane and profile plane on two sides of the object, so to specify the

direction of viewing we mark an arrow towards the assumed Front of object as per conditions.

41
 2) Steps to draw the isometric projection of solids
Step- 1.

Draw the base of the solid "with isometric scale" as per specified condition with respect to V.P.

and H.P. as per the rules of orthographic projection. It is called Helping Figure.

Step-2.

Draw the centre of the helping figure and enclose the helping figure in a suitable rectangle.

Transfer the co-ordinates of centre to the sides of the enclosing rectangle with centre lines.

Step-3.

Draw the three principal axes at 30°, 90° and 30° to the horizontal base line.

Step-4.

Copy the length of sides of helping figure's rectangle on the respective principal axis and the

height or length of the object on the third principal axis. It will give a box in which the object

will be perfectly/snugly fitted.

Step-5.

Copy the co-ordinates of centre and the vertices of the base on this box.

Step-6.

Join the visible edges by thick lines and Axis line by the centre line.

42
Step-7.

Complete the isometric projection with dimensioning and direction of viewing.

Here we will study to draw the isometric projection of single regular solids.

A. Prisms
Prisms are the solids with two(2) bases and rectangular faces. They can be kept horizontal by

resting on face or Vertical by resting on base. Let us consider some examples to understand it

better.

Example

A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and height of 70 mm resting on its base on H.P. with

two of its base side parallel to V.P.

Steps

(i) Draw the hexagon with isometric length of 30 mm.

(ii) Complete the helping figure by enclosing hexagon in snugly fitted rectangle and

centre lines of hexagon.

(iii) Draw the isometric box with OA length at the side of direction of viewing, OB

length at the opposite side and OC equal to 70mm, is length of height of prism on

vertical line.

(iv) Copy all the points of hexagon and centre on the box.

(v) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by centre lines.

(vi) Complete the isometric projection of hexagonal prism with dimensioning and

direction of viewing.

43
Example2:

A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and height of 70 mm resting on its face on H.P. with

two of its bases are parallel to V.P. Then the isometric projection will be drawn as under.

Steps

(i) Draw the hexagon with isometric length of 30 mm.

(ii) Complete the helping figure by enclosing hexagon in neatly fitted rectangle and

centre lines of hexagon.

(iii) Draw the box with OA length at the side of direction of viewing, OB length on the

vertical line and OC length equal to isometric length of height of prism on the third

principal axis.

(iv) Copy all the points of hexagon and centre on the box.

(v) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by centre lines.

44
(vi) Complete the isometric projection of hexagonal prism with dimensioning and

direction of viewing

An equilateral triangular prism of 50 mm base side and 70 mm long resting on one of its face

on H.P. with axis of it perpendicular to V.P. Draw its isometric projection.

Steps (i) Draw the helping figure of triangle with iso 50 mm length with one of its base edge

in H.P.

(ii) Draw the isometric box with OA on the horizontal line towards the direction of viewing,

OB on the vertical line and OC equal to isometric 70 mm on another horizontal line.

(iii) Copy the points of triangle and co-ordinates of centre to isometric box.

(iv) Join the visible edges by thick lines and axis by centre line.

45
(v) Complete the isometric projection with dimensioning and direction of viewing.

Application: on gable roof

A Pentagonal prism of base side of 25 mm and axis length of 55 mm is resting on its face with

its axis parallel to both H.P and V.P. Draw its isometric projection.

B. Pyramids
Pyramids are the solids with a base and slant triangular faces. These faces meet at a point

called apex of the pyramid. In pyramids if they are kept on their base then they are called

upright / vertical pyramids but if they are kept on their vertex on H.P. then they are called

inverted pyramids.

Steps

(i) Draw the pentagon with iso 30 mm and one of its base edge parallel to V.P. and nearer to

the observer.

(ii) Complete the helping view figure by enclosing rectangle and center lines of pentagon.

46
(iii) Copy the dimensions of helping figure i.e. OA and OB on the horizontal line as shown and

draw the center lines of Pentagon in it.

(iv) Draw the vertical axis in upright position from the center of pentagon equal to iso 60 mm.

(v) Join the visible edges, starting from the vertex to base corners by thick lines.

(vi) Complete the isometric projection of pentagonal pyramid with direction of

viewing and dimensioning.

C. Cylinder and Cone

Cylinder and cone are the solids in which base is a circle. In our earlier class we have studied

that the circle is drawn in isometric projection by different methods. We can use the "four

centre method" or "circular arc method" to draw the circle in isometric projection. The

cylinders and cones are drawn with the same steps of prism and pyramids except one

additional step for drawing the circle.

APPLICATION: SHELL ROOFS AND CONICAL ROOF , BARREL VAULT

47
Example

Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder of height of 75 mm and diameter of 50

mm resting on its base keeping the axis parallel to V.P.

Draw the isometric projection of cone of diameter 40 mm and axis of 60 mm

resting on its base perpendicular to H.P.

48
Example

Draw the isometric projection of a cylinder of diameter 40 mm and axial length of 70 mm

lying on the H.P. keeping its axis parallel to H.P. and V.P. both.

Steps

(i) Draw the isometric box of a square prism of 40 mm base side and 70 mm axis by

keeping the axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P.

(ii) In the two rhombuses draw the ellipse by four center method.

(iii) Draw two common tangents to the two ellipses.

(iv) Draw the visible lines and curves by thick lines.

(v) Complete the isometric projection of cylinder with dimensioning and direction of

viewing.

D. Spheres and Hemispheres

Spheres are the solids without any edge or vertex. When they are visualized from any direction

they look like a circle. Due to this unique characteristic of sphere, they have only one point of

contact with the plane of rest. This point of contact will not be visible in isometric projection of

sphere.

APPLICATION: DOMED ROOF

49
Example

Draw the isometric projection of a sphere of diameter 50 mm.

Steps

(i) Draw isometric projection of square in horizontal plane with side of iso 50 mm length.

(ii) Draw the center lines of this square.

(iii) Take a point O in vertically upward direction equal to iso 25 mm i.e. Isometric

length of radius of spheres from the center of the square drawn in step 2.

(iv) Taking this point O as a center and true 25 mm as the radius, draw a circle.

(v) This drawn circle is the isometric projection of the given sphere.

Note:

Isometric view of a sphere is always a circle of true radius whose centre is obtained with

isometric radius height.

Example

Draw the isometric projection of a hemisphere of 60 mm diameter resting on its

curved surface on H.P.

50
Steps

(i) Draw the isometric projection of a circle of 60 mm diameter i.e. ellipse by four center

method in H.P.

(ii) Draw an arc with O as center and half of the major axis of ellipse as radius towards lower

half of the ellipse.

(iii) Complete the hemisphere with dimensioning, center lines and direction of viewing. Using

conventional lines.

REVIEW EXRERCISES

1.Draw an isometric projection of a triangular prism having base edge of 65 mm and axial

height of 85 mm, resting on one of its rectangular faces on H.P. keeping its base perpendicular

to V.P.

2. Draw an isometric projection of a pentagonal prism of base side of 35 mm and axial length

of 60 mm kept on one of its face on H.P. with one rectangular face parallel to H.P. on top and

axis is perpendicular to V.P.

51
3. A square pyramid is resting on its base, having base edge 60 mm and axial height of 70 mm

with its base edge parallel to V.P. Draw its isometric projection.

4. Draw an isometric projection of a hexagonal pyramid having base edge 35 mm and axis of

65 mm resting on its base on H.P. Keep two of its base side perpendicular to V.P.

5. Draw an isometric projection of a frustum of hexagonal pyramid of shorter base side of 25

mm and longer base side of 45 mm and height of 75 mm resting on its larger base on H.P. with

two of its base sides parallel to V.P.

6. Draw an isometric projection of a hemisphere of 50 mm diameter kept with circular face

on H.P.

2.2. CREATION OF OBLIQUE PROJECTION

2.2.1.Principles of oblique projection

Projection plane at any angle different from ninety degrees-as opposed to orthographic

projectors which always strike a plane of projection at ninety degrees.

 2 dimensional view of an object with forced depth

 Drawn at a half-size to receding axis to avoid distortion

 Cavalier: Receding axes are same as true length

 Cabinet : receding axis are half of the true length

 General: receding axes are greater than half and less than full size of the true length

For each type, the angle of receding axes from the horizontal can be at any angle

between 0 and 90 degrees.

52
2.2.2. Oblique Projection of Simple solids

a) Oblique Projection OF Rectangular Prism

Step 1.Draw the front or side view of the object.

Step 2.All measurements drawn backwards are half the original measurement

Step 3.45degrees is the angle for all lines drawn backwards.

b) Oblique projection of Cylinder

Step-1: Draw a vertical and horizontal centre lines to indicate the centre of a circle, then use a

compass to draw the circle itself.

Step-2: Draw a 45 degree line to match the length on the cylinder. At the end of this line draw

vertical and horizontal centre lines.

Step-3: Draw the second circle with a compass.

53
Step-4: Draw two 45 degree lines-to join the front and back circles.

Step-5: Go over the outline of the cylinder with a fine pen or sharp pencil. Add shade-if

required.

Note:

The major advantage of an oblique is that circular features can be drawn as true circles on its

frontal plane.

2.3: CREATION OF PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

2.3.1. Principles of perspective projection

A perspective drawing is a three-dimensional representation of an object as it looks to the eye

from a particular point (see Figure 12-12). Of all pictorial drawings, perspective drawings look

the most like photographs. The distinctive feature of these drawings is that in perspective, lines

on the receding planes that are actually parallel are not drawn parallel, as they are in isometric

and oblique drawing. Instead, they are drawn as if they were converging, or coming together.

As with isometric and oblique drawing, you should understand how to draw the geometry in a

perspective drawing before you begin to draw one. The techniques for inclined surfaces,

circles, and arcs are described in the following paragraphs:

54
 i. Inclined Surfaces
Plot inclined surfaces in perspective by finding the ends of inclined lines and connecting them.

This drawing method is shown in Figure 12-54.

ii. Circles and Arcs

See Figure 12-55 for a two-point perspective of an object with a cylindrical surface. Points on

the front and top views are located first and then are projected to the perspective view. A path

is formed where the projection lines meet. The perspective arc is drawn along the path using a

French curve or an ellipse template.

2.3.2. Definition of Terms

Figure 12-13 illustrates terms used in perspective drawing. The following definitions refer to

the card that appears on the picture plane.

 visual rays The sight lines from points on the object that converge at the observer’s eye.

 picture plane (PP) _The plane on which the object (a card in this case) is drawn.

 line of sight (LS) _The visual ray from the eye perpendicular to the picture plane.

 station point (SP) _The point from which the observer is looking at the card.

 horizon line (HL) The line formed where a horizontal plane that passes through the

observer’s eye meets the picture plane.

 ground plane The plane on which the observer stands.

 ground line (GL) The line formed where the ground plane meets the picture plane.

 center of vision (CV) The point at which the line of sight pierces the picture plane.

Figure 12-14 shows how the projectors, or receding axes, converge in perspective drawing.

The point at which they meet is the vanishing point.

Figure 12-14 also shows how the observer’s eye level affects the perspective view. This eye

level can be anywhere on, above, or below the ground. If the object is seen from above, the

view is an aerial, or bird’s-eye, view. If the object is seen from underneath, the view is a

55
ground, or worm's eye, view. If the object is seen face on, so that the line of sight is directly on it

rather than above or below it, the view is a normal view.

The view in Figure 12-13 is a normal view.

NOTE: Two factors affect how an object looks in perspective. The first is its distance from the

viewer, and the second is its position, or angle, in relation to the viewer.

Fig. Types of perspective views

2.3.3. Orthographic Representation of Perspective Elements

Figure. 10.12 shows orthographic views of the perspective elements in Third Angle Projection.

Top View:
GP, HP and AGP will be rectangles, but are not shown. PP is seen as a horizontal line. Object is
above PP. Top view SP of station point is below PP. Top view of center of vision is CV
Line CV-SP represents the Perpendicular Axis CP

Front View:
It shows GL and Ill- representing GP and HP respectively. CV, SP coincide each other on HL.CP
is seen as a vertical line through SPI. PP will be seen as a rectangle, but is not shown.
Perspective projection, when drawn, will be seen above / around GL. Mark any convenient
distance between PP and GL, i.e., greater than (x + y) as shown.

56
2.3.4. Methods of Perspective Projection

2.3.4. 1.Visual ray method

In this method, points on the perspective projection are obtained by drawing visual rays from
SP to both top view and either front view or side view of the object. Top and side views are
drawn in Third Angle Projection.
Perspective projection of a line is drawn by first marking the perspective projection of its ends
(which are points) and then joining them. Perspective projection of a solid is drawn by first
obtaining the perspective projection of each comer and then joining them in correct sequence.

a. Perspective Projection of Points

Example:
Draw the perspective projection of a point. A situated 20 mm behind the picture plane and 15
mm above the ground plane. The station point is 30 mm in front of the picture plane, 40 mm
above the ground plane and lies in a central plane which is 35 mm to the left of the given
point.

Top view
1. Draw a horizontal line pp to represent the top view of the picture plane.
2. The point A is 20 mm behind PP. Hence mark a 20 mm above PP.

57
 3. Station point SP lies in a central plane CP which is 35 mm to the left of point A.
Therefore, draw a vertical line to represent the top of CP at 35 mm to the left of a.
4. SP is 30 mm in front of PP. Therefore on CP, mark sp 30mm below PP.
5. Join a and sp to represent the top view of the visual ray. It pierces the PP at A.

Front view
6. Draw a horizontal line GL at any convenient distance below PP to represent the ground line.
7. To avoid over lap of visual rays and get a clear perspective, select GL such that HL lies below
sp1
8. sp1 is 40 mm above GP. Therefore draw HI... 40 mm above GL.
9. Further CP also represents front view of the CP Hence mark sp 1 at the intersection of CP with
HL
10. Join a1 sp1the front view of the visual ray.
11. From the piercing point a1 sp1point A, which is the required perspective projection.

b) Perspective Projection of Straight Lines

In Visual Ray Method, perspective. projection of a straight line is drawn by first marking the
perspectives of its end points and then joining them.

Example
Draw the perspective projection of a straight line AB, 60mm long, parallel to and 10 mm above
the ground plane and inclined at 45 to PP. The end A is 20 mm behind the picture plane.
Station point is 35 mm in front of the picture plane and 45mm above the ground plane and
lies in a central plane passing through the mid-point of AB.

58
Top View

1. Draw PP and mark a 20 mm above it.

2. Draw ab= 60 mm (True length of AB) inclined at 45° to PP
3. From the mid-point of ab erect a vertical line to represent the CP
4. Along the central plane mark sp 35 mm below pp.
5. Join an and b with sp to represent the top view of the visual rays.
6. Mark the piercing points a and b on asp and bsp respectively.

Front View
7. Draw GL at any convenient distance below PP.
8. Draw a1b1 parallel to and 10 mm above GL.
9. Draw HL 45 mm above GL.
10. Mark Sp1at the intersection of CP & HL.
11. Join Sp1with a
12. From a1 and b1 and b (piercing points) erect verticals to intersect Sp 1a1 and Sp1 b of the
visual rays) at A and B respectively.
13. AB is the required perspective projection.

59
 c) Perspective Projection of Plane Figures

Example

A square lamina of 30mm side lies on the ground plane. One of its corners is touching the PP
and edge is inclined at 60° to PP. The station point is 30mm in front of PP, 45mm above GP and
lies in a central plane which is at a distance of 30mm to the right of the corner touching the
PP. Draw the perspective projection of the lamina.

 Top View
1. Draw the top view of the lamina as a square 000mm side that the corner b is touching PP
and the edge bc inclined at 60° to PP.
2. Draw CP, 30 rnrn from b on right side. Along CP mark sp 30 rnrn below PP.
3. Join sp with all the four corners of the square lamina in the top view.
4.Obtain the corresponding piercing points on PP.
 Front View
5. Draw GL and obtain the front view of the lamina on it (a1d1b1c1)
6. Draw HL 45 rnrn above GL and obtain Sp1 on it.
7. Joint Sp1 with all the corners of the lamina in the front view.
 Perspective Projection
8. Since the comer b touches the picture plane, its perspective will be in its true position.
9. Since the lamina lies on the ground plane, b 1 is on GL and is also the perspective projection
of B
10. From al draw vertical to intersect a1 Sp1 at A.
11. Similarly obtain B, C and D.
12.Joint ABCD and complete the perspective projection.

60
 d) Perspective Projection of Solids
Example
A square prism, side of base 40 mm and height 60 mm rests with its base on the ground such
that one of its rectangular faces is parallel to and 10 mm behind the picture plane. The station
point is 30 mm in front of PP, 88 mm above the ground plane and lies in a central plane 45
mm to the right of the centre of the prism. Draw the perspective projection of the square prism.

Top View
1. Draw the top view of the prism as a square of side 40 mm such that ab is parallel to and 10
mm above PP.
2. Locate sp and draw the top view of the visual rays.
3. Mark the piercing points.
Front View
4. Draw front view of the prism for given position.
5. Locate sp· and draw front view of the visual rays.
6. From piercing points erect vertical lines to cut the corresponding visual rays in the front
view.
Thus obtain all comers in the perspective projection.

61
To mark the visible and invisible edges in the perspective
7. Draw the boundary lines as thick lines.
8. The faces ab (b1) (a1) and bc (c1) (b1) are nearer to s and visible. Hence draw BB1, BA and
BC as thick lines.
9. Edge d(d1) is farther away from sp. Hence draw DD1., D1 A1 and D1C1. as dashed lines.

2.3.4.2. Vanishing Point Method

Vanishing Point: It is an imaginary point infinite distance away from the station point. The
point at which the visual ray from the eye to that infinitely distant vanishing point pierces the
picture plane is termed as the Vanishing Point.
When the observer views an object, all its parallel edges converge to one/two/three points
depending on the locations of the object and the observer.

62
1.One-point perspective creation
Refer to Figure 12-56, which shows an object in multiview and isometric drawings. Figure 12-

57 shows how to draw the same object in a one-point, bird’s-eye perspective view.

Follow these steps:

1. Decide on the scale to be used and draw the top view near the top of the drawing sheet

as in Figure 12-57A. A more interesting view is obtained if the top view is drawn

slightly to the right or left of center.

2. Draw an edge (top) view of the picture plane (PP) through the front edge of the top

view.

63
 3. Draw the horizon line (HL). The location depends on whether you want the object to be

viewed from above, at, or below eye level.

4. Draw the ground line. Its location in relation to the horizon line determines how far

above or below eye level the object will be viewed. See Figure 12-57A.

5. To locate the station point (SP), draw a vertical line (line of sight) from the picture plane

toward the bottom of the sheet. Draw the line slightly to the right or left of the top view.

Set your dividers at a distance equal to the width of the top view. Begin at the center of

vision of the picture plan and step off 2 to 3 times the width of the top view along the

line of sight, to locate the station point. See Figure 12-57B.

6. Project downward from the top view to establish the width of the front view on the

ground line. Complete the front view.

7. The vanishing point is the intersection of the line of sight and the horizon line. Project

lines from the points on the front view to the vanishing point (see Figure 12-57C).

Establish depth dimensions in the following way: Project a line from the back corner of

the top view to the station point. At point A on PP, drop a vertical line to the perspective

view to establish the back edge. Draw a horizontal line through point B to establish the

back top edge.

8. Proceed as in the previous step to lay out the slot detail (see Figure 12-57D).

9. Darken all necessary lines and erase construction lines to complete the drawing.

In Figures 12-58 and 12-59, the object is drawn in one-point perspective in the other two

positions. Notice that in all three cases, one face of the object is placed on the picture plane

(thus the name parallel perspective). Therefore, this face appears in true size and shape. True-

scale measurements can be made on it.

64
65
2.Two-point perspective creation
Refer to Figure 12-60 for an object shown in multiview and isometric drawings. See Figure 12-

61 for the method to draw this same object with a two-point bird’s-eye perspective view.

1. Draw an edge view of the picture plane (PP). See Figure 12-61A. Allow enough space at the

top of the sheet for the top view. Draw the top view with one corner touching the PP. In this

case, the front and side of the top view form angles of 30° and 60°, respectively. Other angles

may be used, but 30° and 60° seem to give the best appearance on the finished drawing. The

side with the most detail is usually placed along the smaller angle for a better view.

2. Draw the horizon line (HL) and the ground line (GL).

3. Draw a vertical line (line of sight) from the center of vision (CV) toward the bottom of the

sheet to locate the station point.

4. Draw line SP-B parallel to the end of the top view and line SP-C parallel to the front of the

top view (see Figure 12-61B). Use a 30°-60° triangle.

5. Drop vertical lines from the picture plane to the horizon line to locate vanishing point left

(VPL) and vanishing point right (VPR). Draw the front or side view of the object on the ground

line as shown in Figure 12-61B.

6. Begin to block in the perspective view by projecting vertical dimensions from the front view

to the line of sight (also called the measuring line) and then to the vanishing points. See Figure

12-61C.

7. Finish blocking in the view by projecting lines from points 1 and 2 on the top view to the

station point. Where these lines cross the picture plane, drop vertical lines to the perspective

view to establish the length and width dimensions. Project point 1' to VPL and point 2' to VPR.

8. Add detail by following the procedure described in steps 6 and 7. See Figure 12-61D.

9. Darken all necessary lines and erase construction lines to finish the drawing.

66
Figure two-point bird’s-eye perspective view.

67
Example

Fig above shows isometric view of an object. Draw the angular perspective of it when the object
is resting on the ground plane keeping the face F inclined 30 0 to and the edge QR 20mm
behind the picture plane. The station point is 120 mm in front of the picture plane, 80mm
above the ground plane and lies in the central plane which passes through the edge QR.

68
 REVIEW EXERCISES

1. A point P is situated 15 mm behind the picture plane and 10 mm above the ground
plane. The station point is 25 mm in front of the picture plane, 20 mm above the ground
plane and lies in a central plane 10 mm to the right of the point. Draw the perspective
projection of the point P.

2. A straight line AB 60 mm long haw has its end A 15 mm above GP and 25 mm behind
PP. It is kept inclined 350 to PP and parallel to GP. The station point in 70 mm in front of
PP and 50 mm above GP and lies in the central plane which passes through the midpoint
of the line AB. Draw the perspective projection of the line.

3. Draw the top view of the object, station point (S.P.) and the vanishing points (V.P.R) ;
And (V.P.L.) on the picture plane (P.P.); Draw the ground line (GL.) and the horizon line
(H.L.). and Mark the front views of the vanishing points (V.P.R) and (V.P.L.) on H.L.

4. A square lamina of 30 mm side rests on one of its sides on the ground touching the
picture plane. The station point is 40 mm above the ground plane, 30 mm in front of
picture plane and lies in a central plane 20 mm to the right of the center of the square.
Draw the perspective projection of the square.

5. A circular lamina of diameters 50 mm in lying on the ground plane touching the

picture plane. The station point is 50 mm above the ground plane, 60 mm in front the
picture plane and Contained in the central plane which passes at a distance of 40 mm
from the central of the circle. Draw the perspective projection of the circle.

6. Draw the perspective projection of a rectangular block of 300 mm x 200 mm x 100

mm resting on a horizontal plane with one side of the rectangular plane making an angle
45o with VP. The observer is at a distance of 600 mm from the picture. Assume eye level as
100 mm.

69
7. A square prism of 30 cm side and 50 cm length is lying on the ground plane on one of
its rectangular faces, in such a way that one of its square faces is parallel to an 10 cm
behind the picture plane. The station point is located 60 cm in front of the picture plane
and 40 cm above the ground plane. The central plane is 50 cm away from the axis of the
prism towards the left. Draw the perspective projection of the prism.

8. A cube of edge 30 mm rests with one of the faces on the ground plane such that a
vertical edge touches the picture plane. The vertical faces of the cube are equally inclined
to the PP and behind it. A station point is 40 mm in front of the PP, 50 mm above the
ground plane and lies in a central plane 15 mm to the right of the axis of the cube. Draw
the perspective projection of the cube.

9. A rectangular pyramid, sides of base 55 mm x 20 mm and height 60 mm rests with its

base on the ground plane such that one of the longer edges of the base is parallel to and 20
mm behind the picture plane. The station point is 40 mm in front of the picture plane, 60
mm above the ground plane and lies in a central plane which passes through the axis of
the pyramid. Draw the perspective projection of the cube.

10. As the object is placed behind P.P., in the perspective view no edge of the object will
have true size. To obtain the reduced size, extend the plane containing anyone of the
principal faces to the P.P. In the top view, the face F is represented by the line pq. Extend
pq to intersect the P.P. at s, the piercing point. Draw a vertical line from s to meet the GL. at
S11 Mark true height of the object on this line. Points showing the true heights can be
easily located by drawing horizontals from the front view drawn at a convenient place on
GL.

11. Join S11and S21 with (V.P.L.)' Draw a vertical from ql to intersect the above lines at RI and
Q1 respectively. The line R 'Q' represents the perspective view of the vertical edge QR
Proceed further as explained in the Figure 10.11 to obtain the required angular
perspective View of the object.

70
 CHAPTER 3:CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS

3.1.Introduction
The building of any structure is described by a set of related drawings that give the builder a
complete, sequential, graphic description of each phase of the construction process. In most
case , a set of drawings begins by showing
 The location boundaries,
 Contours, and
 Outstanding physical features of the construction site and
 Its adjoining areas.

So, succeeding drawings give instruction for the excavation and disposition of existing
ground; construction of the foundation and superstructure; installation of utilities such as
plumbing, heating, lighting, air conditioning, interior and exterior finishes; and whatever
required to complete the structure.

3.2. Definition
"Construction Drawings" are set of drawings used in a building construction project those
will include not only architect's drawings but structural and service drawings. For this
purpose different types of drawing used in building construction.

3.3. Types of construction drawings

 Architectural drawing: this type of drawing gives a complete view of building. it describes
the location of a building and where to place every parts of building etc. it holds many other
drawing sheets of different names. such as plan, elevation, section etc.
 Structural drawing: its name describes about it. it explains everything about structure such
as strength of different part of structure, structural material, placement, grade and size of
reinforcement etc. it also contains many other different named drawing sheets inside it.
 Plumbing and sanitary drawing: this type of drawings show the location of sanitary and
water supply piping and fixture and how to connect every fixture etc.

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 Electrical drawing: this kind of drawings describe the location and details of electrical
wiring, fixtures and sub-station etc. it also shows the electrical load calculation.
 Finishing drawing: it includes all drawing about finishes and out looking of building such as
tiles, marble granite etc. sometimes this type of drawing included with architectural drawing.

3.3.1. Architectural drawings

This type of drawing gives a complete view of building. it describes the location of a building
and where to place every parts of building etc. it holds many other drawing sheets of
different names. such as plan, elevation, section etc.

Architectural drawings are logically subdivide into:

 Location Drawing and General Arrangement Drawing

 Assembly Drawing
 Component Drawings

1. Location drawings and general arrangement drawings

The information shown on a location drawing will be overall sizes, levels and references to
assembly drawings. they are intended to show the location of the works, not detail. Typically,
location drawings will include:
 Site Location Plans.
 Site Plans.
 Floor Plans.
 Foundations Plans.
 Roof Plans.
 Section through the entire Building.
 Elevations

a) Site Location Plan

Site location plan is the view from above that usually show the sitting of the project in relation

to ordnance survey maps. conventions are used to depict boundaries, roads and other details.

recommended scales are:1 : 2500,1 : 1250,1 : 500.

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content:
 At least two named roads(to identify the location)
 Direction of north
 Location of the site using thick line

Figure: Site Location Plan

b) Site Plan
Definition:
A site plan drawing is a top view, bird’s eye view of a property that is drawn to scale drawn to
an identified standard metric scale, typically 1:500, 1:200 or 1:100.
It shows the Position of the building in relation to the site surroundings i.e. adjoining buildings,
roads, boundaries, etc. Provision of access, Drains and main sewer. Shows North point
A site plan drawing include all of the items in the following checklist (where relevant), making
sure to label each feature and show all relevant dimension(s) of each:
 Property lines (show length of each line) when break lines are used, indicate the length
on each side of the break.

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 Critical areas and/or critical area buffers (label and show all dimensions)
 water features, streams, drainage swales and buffers
 Existing structures (show and label all buildings and other structures)
 Proposed structures (show and label all buildings, additions, remodel areas, etc.,
indicating length and width for each)
 Setback and separation distances (indicate distance from property lines)
 Driveways (label and show width and connection to existing road for both existing and
proposed)
 Septic system components (show and label septic tank, primary drainfield, reserve
drainfield area and pipelines, with dimensions and distances from buildings and
property lines)
 Sewer service (line and connection)
 The layout of external service runs including drainage, water, gas, electricity, telephone,
(line and connection)
 Topographical contour lines
 Fencing, walls and gates.
 Propane, gasoline, diesel or heating oil tanks
 street(s) adjacent to the property,
 North arrow and Scale indicator
 The location of neighboring building

A site plan drawing does not show the following:

Interior floor plans, furniture placement and interior dimensions

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 c) FLOOR PLANS
Floor plans usually show the layout of rooms, key dimensions and levels, and may also use

conventions and symbols to show materials and locations of fittings and appliances.

recommended scales are:

 1 : 200
 1 : 100
 1 : 50
Information that can be included in Floor Plans:
 Walls
 Size and shape of the building
 Main openings in walls (i.e. doors and windows)
 Partitions
 Main openings in partitions (doors)
 Door swing
 Room names and numbers(to show the use of room)
 Stairs (in outline)

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 Fixed furniture
 Sanitary fittings
 cupboard
 North point
Items which tend to be included, but should not be:
 Dimensions Indications
 Annotations
 Details Of Construction – E.G. Cavity Wall Construction
 Hatching And Shading
 Section Indications

NORTH
ARROW

STAIR
INDICATION

SECTION
INDICATION

DIMENSIONS
ROOM
NAME

Example of floor plan

walls and partitions

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  Thick lines should be used to define the inside and outside faces of external walls, and
both faces of internal partitions
 Where Cavity walls form part of the construction , the cavity may be indicated by thin
lines but is suggested you to omit this detail on the 1:50 floor plan
 Hatching is often used, particularly on larger scale plans. where floor plans show
existing walls, they are often filled in solid

Windows

 Window will be positioned laterally on the floor plans. their position within the wall
thickness will be shown on the assembly drawings if these are provided. however,
where the scale on the floor plan is 1:50 or larger, it is sensible to locate the windows in
approximately their correct positions relative to the wall faces.
 It is usual practice to number each window-w1, w2, w3 etc
 Doors should be also be numbered d1,d2,d3 etc
 At each door position it should be made clear which way the door is hung.

Other items

 Sanitary fittings, cupboards and other fittings should be shown in outline on floor plans,
it is important however not to repeat information which is given on other drawing,
such as assembly and component drawings. if too much information is provided, the
drawing will become confusing and difficult to read.

Hierarchical dimension placement on floor plans

 Dimension lines are placed hierarchically in 2 to 3 levels of overall dimensions; wall
dimensions; and opening dimension.
 Overall dimensions are outermost dimension lines, and measure from outside edge to
inside edge.
 Wall dimensions are the next dimension lines towards the plan, showing exterior wall
or interior partition locations
 The closest dimension lines to the plan, opening dimensions, indicate window, door, and
other opening locations.

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 d) Section Drawing
Definition:
Building section drawing is a orthographic view of a building that shows a view at an
imaginary line cut through the building vertically, indicating the buildings structural and
construction elements. The building section drawings expose and identify the construction
elements of the roof, walls, partitions, floors, ceilings, and foundations.
Purpose:

The general purpose of the section, is to give vertical view of the building and provide overall
vertical dimensions and levels.

Types:

The number of sections required of a building will depend on its complexity and size.
generally, there will be at least two sections-

 Cross-Section across the width of the building

 Longitudinal section along the length of the building

Content:
Drawing requirements for the building section drawings include, but are not limited to, the
following:
 Title and scale
 Room use names
 Top of finish grade elevation
 Height dimensions
 Top of floor elevation(s)
 Material size & type

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  Bottom of footing elevation
 Roof slope/pitch
 Building components (walls, roof, floors, foundations, etc.)

Walls and Partitions

 Thick lines should be used to define the inside and outside faces of external walls, and
both faces of the internal partitions
 Where cavity walls from part of the construction the cavity is often indicated by thin
lines
 Hatching is often used, particularly on the larger scale sections

Other structural elements

 Thick lines should be used to define both faces of concrete floor and roof slabs
 Thick lines should also be used to define the faces of other structural elements, such as
foundations and beams, when these are viewed in sections

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 e) ELEVATION DRAWINGS
Definition:
Building elevation drawing is an orthographic view of a building or objects you get if you look
in a horizontal direction at the vertical side or face of a building.
It shows the exterior appearance of the building, for each building face. The drawings show
height relationships and exterior finish information.
It is drawn by taking the horizontal dimensions from the plans and the vertical dimensions
from the sections.
Purpose:
The general purpose of a location elevation is to:
a) Show the external appearance of the building; and
b) Locate the door and window openings and other features on the building.
Content:
Elevations should include the following:
 Scale not less than (1:50)
 Exterior cladding - finish details and material of exterior
 Floor levels elevations indicated as well as height above and below finished grade
(basement/cellar heights) including below grade patio and window wells
 Elevation at the top of wall under the eaves is required to calculate exposed building
face
 Proposed building envelope-primary and secondary (measured from the lowest of the
four corner elevations of the proposed building)
 Dimensions of any exterior guards and guard details
 Indicate location of bay windows, window wells, chimneys including height to roof
ratio
 Existing and proposed grade elevation numbers
 Eave overhang dimensions including gutters
 Indicate location and sizes of all windows, doors and skylights including safety glass
where required
 Elevation of proposed top of concrete around the perimeter of the building

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  Roof pitch and roofing material

f)FOUNDATION PLAN
Definition

The foundation plan is a top view drawing, in section, showing the location and size of
footings, piers, columns, foundation walls, and supporting beams.

Purpose:

The general purpose of the foundation plan is to:

a) Show the shape and dimensions of the foundation

b) Show the outside foundation walls as the location of any piers and interior columns
if a slab floor is to be poured, the foundation plan will often indicate the location of
plumbing fixtures so that the plumbers can get the pipes in the right place.

Content:

A foundation plan ordinarily includes the following:

 Footings for foundation walls, piers, and columns (hidden lines)
 Foundation walls
 Piers and Columns
 Dwarf walls (low walls built to retain an excavation or embankment)
 Partial walls, doors, and bath fixtures if the house has a basement

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  Openings in foundation wall such as windows, doors and vents
 Beams and pilasters
 Direction, size, and spacing of floor joists or trusses
 Details of foundation and footing construction
 Complete dimensions and notes

Recommendation:
 The foundation plan is drawn from information presented on the floor plan, plot plan,
and elevation plan drawings.
 Before drawing the foundation plan, examine the floor plan to determine the type of
exterior walls specified. for example, a 4” brick ledge is required for the brick veneer
house. this adds 8” to the length and width of the foundation

Steps of drawing a foundation plan (all items will not apply to every situation):
1.Select the scale for the drawing.
2.Locate the outline of the foundations walls from the floor plan.
3.Draw the foundation walls, piers and columns and the foundation for a chimney.
4.Indicate breaks in the foundation wall for windows, doors, access holes, and vents.
5.Layout and draw the footings for the foundation walls. use hidden lines.
6.Draw the footings to be used for the piers and columns.
7.draw the footings for the fireplace and chimney.
8.Locate the supporting beam if one is required. draw the beam using a thick centerline
symbol.
9.Show the size, spacing, and direction of floor Joist or trusses.
10.Identify the location of sections and all other additional information.
11.Draw the necessary sections and dimensions.
12.Determine the location of dimensions needed to show the size of all aspects of the
foundation. the length and thickness of all foundation wall segments must be
dimensioned. piers are dimensioned to the center rather than to the edge.
13.Draw dimensions.
15.Shade foundation wall drawings.
16.check drawing.

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 g) Roof Plan
Definition:

A drawing in plan view of the roof area showing the features and items on the roof.

Roof Plans Terms & Definitions

• Flat roof – common in areas with little rain or snow

• Shed roof – offers the same simplicity and economical construction methods as a flat
roof but does not have the drainage problems associated with a flat roof

• Gable roof – one of the most common roof types in residential construction; constructed
with two sloping sides that meet to form a ridge

• Gambrel roof – a traditional shape that dates back to the colonial period; the lower level
is covered with a steep roof surface, which connects into the upper roof system with a
slighter pitch

• Mansard roof – similar to a gambrel roof with the angled lower roof on all four sides
rather than just two

• Dutch hip roof – a combination between a hip roof and a gable roof

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i. Drawing of Gable Roof

The gable roof framing plan is the simplest to develop. Fig.

1. Lay out the outline of the building(A)

2. Determine the direction in which the rafters will run.
3. Draw the centerline at right angles to this direction(B). The centerline determines the
location of the ridge line(C). This corresponding to the location of ridge beam or board.
4. Determine the distance between the rafters and lay out the roof framing plan(D).

ii. Drawing of Gable and Valley Roof

A gable and valley roof is simply two gable roofs that intersect. In the majority of cases they
intersect at a 90o angle. The intersection creates two valleys. Fig.

1. Lay out the outline of the building(A)

2. draw the centerline of larger rectangle(B, arrow 1)
3. draw the centerline of the smaller rectangle(B, arrow 2)
4. draw 45o lines from the interior corners of the building to where the centerlines
intersect(C)
5. draw the ridge lines(D)
6. determine the distance between the rafters and lay them out on the roof framing plan(E)

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iii. Drawing of Hip roof plan

The angle at which extends from each corner is usually 45o, but other angles are possible

1. Lay out the outline of the building(A)

2. Locate and draw a centerline(B)
3. Starting at each corner, draw a 45o line from the corner to the centerline(C). this
establishes the location of the hip rafters
4. Draw the ridge line between the intersecting points of the hip rafters(D)
5. Determine the distance between the rafters and lay them out on the roof framing
plan(E)

iv. Drawing of Hip and Valley Roof plan

A hip and valley roof can be quite complex. It is created when one or more hip roofs intersect
at 90o angles. Fig.

1. Lay out the outline of the building(A)

2. Outline the largest rectangle inside the building outline(B)
3. Draw centerlines forevery rectangle formed inside the building outline(C)

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 4. Draw a 45o line from each inside and outside corner. Extend these lines to intersect
with the centerlines(D). the lines indicate the location of the hip rafters on outside
corners and valley rafters on the inside corners.
5. The centerlines drawn in (C) connect the hip and valley rafters. Draw these as solid
lines where the ridges will be located(E).
6. Figure the distance between the rafters and lay them out on the roof framing plan(F)

2. ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS:
Assembly drawings can be used to represent items that consist of more than one component.

They show how the components fit together and may include, orthogonal plans, sections and

elevations, or 3 dimensional views, showing the assembled components, or an exploded view

showing the relationship between the components and how they fit together.

They may be used to show how to assemble parts of a kit such as furniture, how to assemble a

complex part of a building (an assembly) or to show the relationship between a number of

details.

Assembly drawings may include instructions, lists of the component parts, reference numbers,

references to detail drawings or shop drawings, and specification information. However, they

should not duplicate information provided elsewhere, as this can become contradictory and

may cause confusion. They may also include dimensions, notation and symbols. It is important

that these are consistent with industry standards so that their precise meaning is clear and can

be understood.

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 Assembly drawings may be referred to as:

 General assembly drawings, showing an overall assembly.

 Outline assembly drawings, showing the exterior shape.

 Diagrammatic assembly drawings, representing the assembly with the use of symbols.

 Unit assembly or sub-assembly drawings, showing in more detail a part of the overall

assembly.

 Fitted assembly drawings, showing the completed assembly.

 Exploded assembly drawing, showing the relationship between the separated parts.

Some assembly drawings will show:

 Substructure section
 External wall details
 Wall openings such as head, sill and jamb sections, plans
 Eaves details
 Internal walls
 Stair details
These drawings are very important to the builder. They show in detail how the architect

requires the construction to be constructed and what materials should be used .The scales

usually used for these drawings are 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 and should be fully dimensioned and

annotated.

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 3. COMPONENT DRAWING
A component drawing is a type of drawing that shows individual component in the unfixed
state.

 it provides detailed information about the nature and manufacture of a specific item
incorporated in a building.
 enables a self-contained elements(e.g. windows, door sets) to be fabricated in a
workshop and delivered to site complete and ready for installation
 provides information which cannot be conveniently given on location drawings
 provides detailed information about the nature and manufacture of a specific item
incorporated in a building.
 show the nature, shape, assembly method and further details of components.
 These show the basic sizes of standard components such as doors, windows and kitchen
fitments. scales most commonly used are 1:100, 1: 50, 1: 20

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Components include things such as skirting and lintels as well as larger item fabricated off site
such as windows, kitchen cupboards, roof trusses and cladding panels.

Thus, a window is clearly a component, as is a manhole cover, a door, a section of pre-cast

concrete coping, a mirror. so, for that matter, is a brick. (a brick wall would be an assembly.)
two types of component should be distinguished:

1 .There is the manufacturer’s product, available off the builders’ merchant’s shelf, for which

no descriptive drawing need be prepared. such items as standard windows, sanitary fittings

and proprietary kitchen units may be described uniquely by the quotation of a catalogue

reference.

2.There is the special item requiring fabrication—the non-standard timber window, the

reception desk, the pre-cast concrete cladding panel—and in order that someone may make it

as required, it is necessary for the architect to define quite precisely what it is he wants and (in

many instances) how he wants it to be made.

Classification of component drawings

components drawings are further classified as :

Range Drawing

 They show the basic sizes , reference and appearance of standard components such as
doors and windows
 Drawings of windows can be obtained from any manufacturer's literature with their
references i.e. w1,w2,w3 etc from floor plans.

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 DETAIL DRAWING:

 These drawings will include every detail required to make the product.
 The information from these details is used to manufacture various components .
 These drawings are usually produced by the architect and are produced in scales
ranging from 1:1, 1;5, or 1:10.

The typical component details are:

 Wood window head detail
 Special door construction
 Sill
 Coping stone

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