Hunting Customs of the Ordos Mongols

Author(s): Joseph Kler

Source: Primitive Man, Vol. 14, No. 3 (Jul., 1941), pp. 38-48
Published by: George Washington University Institute for Ethnographic Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3316448
Accessed: 05-01-2016 00:31 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

George Washington University Institute for Ethnographic Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and
extend access to Primitive Man.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
38 PRIMITIVE MAN

OF THE ORDOSMONGOLS
HUNTINGCUSTOMS
JOSEPH KLER, C.I.C.M.

Ordos,Inner Mongolia

ONE who has passed years among the Mongols of the Ordos
Desert and has lived intimatelywith them, knows that
they are passionately devoted to the chase. Man of the
Mongolian steppes is a hunterby nature.' One has only to
read the ancient Chinese annals on the life of Genghis Khan
and his ancestors2 to see that the Mongols at all times followed
the chase. The Ordos countryis the countryof GenghisKhan.
Many stories are recorded of the hunting exploits of this
national hero,-huntingwith the bow and arrow,with falcons,
and on horseback.
A storyis told that one day GenghisKhan was huntingwith
his falcon in the Ordos country. Wanderinghere and thereand
fatigued he went in search of a spring to quench his thirst.
He founda springwith a pool of water at its side, drewout his
golden cup, and was about to drink of the refreshingwater,
when the falcon which he had on his arm flappedits wings and
dashed the cup to the ground. Genghisagain filledhis cup with
water, and the falcon repeated his previous strategy. A third
time the same thinghappened,at whichGenghisin anger seized
his bow and killed his beloved falcon. But what was his sur-
prise when all of sudden he perceiveda venomousserpentin the
middle of the pool of water. Then he understoodwhy his
falcon had preventedhim fromdrinkingin order to save his
life. And Genghiswept over the death of his falcon.

1 W. Karamisheff (Mongolia and WesternChina: Social and Economic

Studies,Tientsin,1925) is quite correctwhen he says that there is no
huntingon a largescale, or that the preceptsof religionforbidthe killing
of animals,but thatneverthelessthisis not a greatobstacleto hunting;he
is not correctwhen he says a little furtheron that the Mongol is by
naturenota hunterand thathe avoids hunting.
2 Cf. A.
Krause, Cingis Han, Die Geschichteseines Lebens nach den
chinesischenReichsannalen, Heidelberg,1922.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 HUNTING CUSTOMS OF THE ORDOS MONGOLS 39

The Ordos countryis rich in game. One findsthere foxes,

badgers, wolves, gazelles or antelopes of two kinds (Gazella
subgutturosaand G. Prejvalski3), pheasants, quail, hare, wild
sheep (Ovis ammon: argali), "poules de montagne", marmots,
and a great numberof migratorybirds such as the bustard4,
heron,and so forth. Father Gerbillon5, who accomnpanied the
EmperorKanghi to the Ordos in 1697 on a punitiveexpedition
against the Galdang, tells us that the game killed by Kanghi in
the Ordos was a quantity of antelope, wild boar, pheasants,
hare, deer, and so forth. At that period the Ordos not being
yet deforestedas a resultof the innumerableChinese colonists,
the flora (tamarisk, etc.) and the game seemed to have been
more abundant than they are today.
Formerlyto kill their enemies as well as game the Mongols
used-the bow (nomo) and arrow (somo). The presentwriter
has founda numberof bronzearrowheads of quite varied types.
They also had whistlingarrows6 to kill hare. The firstarrow
shot at a sittinghare was a whistlingarrow. This was pur-
posely aimed over the head of the hare to frightenand, so to
speak, immobilizethe animal. The second arrow shot was of
anothertype and this was aimed to kill.
Firearms were introducedlater. Even at the presenttime,
althoughin recentyears the Mongols have had modernrepeat-
ing firearms,the Ordos Mongols still make use of flintlocksin
huntingthe fox and other game, while they use their modern
guns forantelopes.
3 Cf. Prejevalsky,N. Mongolia,the Tangutcountry,
and the Solitudesof
Thibet.
4 It is not easy to approachclose to the bustard. For thisreasonin order
to shoot the bustardthe Mongols drive an ox or an ass with a load of
firewoodon its back close up to the bustardand thus one can shoot it
easily.
5Cf. Du Halde, Descriptionde l'empirede la Chine et de la Tartarie
chinoise,4 v., Paris,1735.
6The Buriatswere usingwhistlingarrowsnot so long ago. The Chfin-
tsfireportsthemlikewiseamongthe ancientChinese. Cf. Br. Adler,Der
nordasiatische
Pfeil,London,1901,32.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 40 PRIMITIVE MAN

The ordinaryflintlockgun (poo) of the Ordos Mongols has

a very shortbutt (15-35cm.) which rests only on the arm. As
the barrel of this primitiveweapon is very long (fig. 1), the
weight is enormousand with its violent kick, it is naturally
lacking in accuracy. Neverthelessthe Mongols are excellent
shotsas is well provenin theirraids against brigandsand against
thieves. They make their own powder and shot or else buy it

":~
.... ... '
. .
? "
.
:?.: - .?? ?':.
? . "

~ ~ . ..
...
~ = ...
::7::i=:!?~i~i~~4~ihi
3- ' ;: " "
?
, . .. '."
...
.7".: ?
... .

!~d
h"::li: i~:ii~~i'?
i :'i
e:?:i ... . .
i~:i:i .
"
.-.

A..
.:?
. . ... . . ... . ?
.
F~: ..??:
.
.~'i~~i~i' ....

t~sl::i~.i..

FIG. 1. Ordos Mongol with long flintlock for hunting fox, hare and
pheasant. Photo by J. Van Hecken.

fromthe Chinese. One importantfeaturein their accuracy at

shootingis their excellent power of vision; for the natives of
these immensesteppes are accustomedfromearly years to scan
the vast horizonforthe purposeof locatinga flockof sheep and
to followstep by step the trail of a runaway horse. Day after
day theycan followsuch a trail in the sand and in theplains and
they always findthe strayed or stolen animal.
The Ordos Mongols also use the trap (kabchwa), and employ
strychninepoison to take foxes. In certain regions they still

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 HUNTING CUSTOMS OF THE ORDOS MONGOLS 41

employ the sjitam, a kind of heavy club two feet long, both
extremitiesof whichare providedwith a great iron ring. This
club they skilfullythrow to take hare. The Djassacks are
renownedfor their skill in this respect. One also finds dogs
trained for hare hunting,for example,among the people of the
bannerof WTisjen.
In the Ordos everybodyis at libertyto hunt whensoeverhe
pleases, and wheresoeverexceptin certainspots wherehistorical
personagesare buried and in the vicinityof lamaseries.
The Mongols have excellentknowledgeof the life,ways and
habits of the various types of game and they use many ruses to
surpriseand outwitgame. In certainplaces they approach the
game slowly on the steppes, lying flat on a primitiveox-cart;
thus they are able easily to approach close to the hare or the
herds of antelopes, which when they see no driver on these
vehiclesare not frightened away and thus are killed.
In other places, such as upon the high plateau, in hunting
antelopes the Mongols dig ditches deep enough to conceal a
man. The earth taken fromthe ditches is leveled over. In
thesetrench-likeshelterssome of the Mongolswill hide withtheir
guns,while a score of otherson horsebackpursuethe antelopes,
encircle them from all points, and gradually drive them into
a small area very close,-within 50 to 70 feet,-to the trenches
wherethe men withtheirguns open firewhen the animals come
withingunshot. Thus the hunterswill at timesbe able to take a
veryconsiderablenumberof the antelopes. There are someexcel-
lent huntersamong the Ordos Mongols who kill up to sixty or
moreof theseantelopeseach year.' The OrdosMongols are very
skilfulat drivingtheseanimalsto a givenpersonor a givenplace
7In northern Mongoliathereis a smallspeciesof antelopecalled oronggo.
The Mongols therekeep the hornsof this antelopein theirhouses as a
charmto give protectionagainst evil spirits. These oronggohornsare
one of the five luck-charmsor amulets called t'abon kalchalakdji. The
otherfourare: long feathersof a speciesof crow.;carapace of a tortoise;
spines of the hedgehog; tusks of wild boar. The Ordos Mongols keep
these five amulets. They even put the tortoisecarapace in theirmillet
granary,for then, they say, the millet will not spoil but will keep
indefinitely.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
42 PRIMITIVE MAN

or behind a small rise in the groundwhere a hunteris hidden.

The presentwriterhimselfhas been witnessof this manytimes.
It is a curiousthingthat the antelopesalways make the same
instinctivemovementwhen a travellersees them. For example,
two riderson horsebackare advancing on theirway across the
steppe. All of a sudden they notice on their right hand (cf.
fig.2) a large herdof antelopeswith a male at theirhead. The

cAUCHF
MOUVrEMH.T Dr . LANTILOPM. .DQOiTr.T

:?
*=, T~ouer~AL
':. Tr-O0QPt.AU
"":.
:
4%
?':
V, 4 t-o P.
":WOft.
%
e, "\
: ..::..
~MAI:.C So.
?
CARA;t
\VH?

bCHA5Vf&UR
.D-"i,:

A'I.A",h
."? I

.,

FIG. 2. Strategyof antelopeherd and Ordos Mongol hunters

herd on seeingthe men,and led by the male, move slowlyin the

same directionas the travellers. So they go perhaps fora kilo-
meterwhen all of a sudden the herd breaks into a gallop and at
breakneckspeed turnsto the leftand crossesthe travellers'trail
to gain the travellers'left. If meanwhileone of the two horse-
men desires to kill an antelope, he will ride offto the left of
his companion,and beforethe herd of antelopeshas crossedthe
trail, he will slip out of the saddle, leaving the care of his horse

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 HUNTING CUSTOMS OF THE ORDOS MONGOLS 43

to his companion who continues his way as if nothing had

happened. Bent down and with short steps the hunter then
goes obliquely towards the left and hides somewherebehind a
rise in the ground. There he waits, and without fail after a
short space of time the antelopes,suspectingnothing,advance
browsingslowly up to withingunshotand are easily killed.
Some such ruse is necessaryas this species of gazelle in the
Ordos desertand in Mongolia is one of the swiftestanimals in
the world. In 1933 the AmericanGeographicalExpeditionex-
ploring the Gobi desert measured the speed of these gazelles.
Seated in a fast automobileseveral membersof the expedition
amused themselvesby pursuinga gazelle foundin a zone close
to the desert. The course ran a distance of fifteenkilometers.
During the firstfive kilometersthe gazelle easily outdistanced
the auto which was making a speed of more than ninety-five
kilometersan hour. Then the animal slowed down to forty
kilometersan hour. It maintainedthis average a distanceof ten
kilometersat the end of whichthe auto had to stop on account
of a breakdown. The gazelle continuedrunning. This was the
firsttime that anyone had even succeeded in measuringthe
speed of a gazelle (G. gutturosa).
One procedurefortakingpheasantsis the following. A quan-
tity of a certainkind of peas (hara bordsjak: a kind excellent
forhorsefodder) is leftto soak in alcohol forsome days. Then
in the eveningthese are scatteredon the edge of the cultivated
fields or steppes. Very early the next morningthe pheasants
comingout at sunriseeat these peas and at once become intoxi-
cated by the alcohol, to such a degreethat they begin to walk
unsteadily and then fall down withoutattemptingto fly. At
this point the hunterscome out and gatherin theirprey.
The Mongols hunt either alone or in groups. Especially in
December,up to fouror fiveskilled hunters,takingtheirhorses
and tent,go offand oftendo not returnuntil aftersome months,
-this is especiallythe case wherethereis questionof fox hunt-
ing. The foxpelt sells forfromseven to twelveMexican dollars.
Wolves are numerous in the Ordos region. The Mongols
say that the wolf in runningalways holds his left forefootin
the air, that is, not touchingthe ground,for fear of dullingthe

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
44 PRIMITIVE MAN

points of his claws, which he always keeps sharpenedin order

betterto tear the fleshof his prey. The Mongol is very much
afraid of wolves because they are a real danger for his flocks.
Our ChristianMongols at timesask that Masses be said in order
that flocksmay be protectedagainst the wolves,who when they
are hungryand runningin packs are rapacious.
Here we may be permitteda slightdigressionupon the tactics
used by the mares in protectingtheir colts against the wolves.
The Mongol horsesare not providedwithfodderor a stable. In
winteras in summerthe inclemencyof the climatehardensthem.
On the high plateau of the Ordos, towards the end of winter,
the young colts being then just born and the mares thin and
weakened by the winter,seems to be the favoriteseason forthe
wolves, at times in packs of fifteento twenty,to attack a herd
of horses. The wolves attack in the followingmanner (fig.3).

-TU
Mt+l] A ow LOUP5

"k ou o ,
~)/
OPOVLAit-45
00 n
o]b ., . r

<x S~ox
0
Y, S. o
o

ao.--.-::
~?Dr-~
OUP5
L-~-~
FIG. 3. Attack by wolf pack on herd of horses

They approach to within one, two or three kilometersof the

horses,who are always in a herdwith a stallion,some geldings8
8 There are certain
auspicious and inauspicious days, the Mongols say,
for the gelding operation. If a person gelds a horse on an inauspicious day,
the horse will die, for, they say, the soul of the horse is on those days in
the testicles. In the Ordos, too, there are certain days of the year when
it is not the custom to sell horses.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 HUNTING CUSTOMS OF THE ORDOS MONGOLS 45

and a dozenor so ofmareswiththeirrespectivecolts. The wolves

then hide behind an elevation in the land while two or three
of their numberapproach the herd of horses to allure them to
battle. The horses on their part use the followingtactics. At
the approach of the wolf they arrange themselvesin a circle
and in order of battle; the mares drive the colts togetherand
surroundand encirclethemin such fashionthat theirhindhoofs
are directedtowardthe outside. The geldingsin turn surround
the mares, and the stallion (or stallions) stand on guard as
sentinels. The marestake the above positionin orderto be able
to strikethe attackingwolves with their hind hoofs. Some of
the wolves come howlingup to the horses to striketerrorinto
the herd and, at the sight of these two or threewolves,the in-
experiencedyoungstallions (the old stallionshave more experi-
ence and never quit theirherd of mares) do not wait until the
two or three wolves have reached them,but go offafterthem,
stamp and neigh,grind their teeth and force a retreaton the
part of the wolves who have feintedthe attack. These young
stallions at the sight of this unexpectedretreatpursue the two
to three decoy wolves, while the pack of wolves to the number
of fifteenor twenty,who are hidden,come suddenlyout of their
hiding,throwthemselvesfuriouslyon the defencelesscolts and
mares and make a good kill.
The Mongol horsesnever lie down at nightfor fear of being
suddenlyattacked by wolves. They lie down duringthe day.
To dressthe pelts of foxes,the Mongols dry themin the open
air and then moistenthem with alcohol. Next the skins are
rubbed with saltpeterand finallyare massaged by hand until
they become soft.
To tan the skins of antelopes and sheep, the Mongols soak
the pelts for a dozen days in water in which has been put
cooked milletor sjara osso (yellow liquid, a decoctionof a cer-
tain tree with yellow wood called sjara modon,that is, " yellow
tree"). Then the skins are massaged and softenedby hand
and these operationsare repeated duringa week. The cooked
millet,it may be added, is betterthan the sjara osso.
Gazelle skinsare used formats or else are hungat the entrance
door of the tent to keep the heat in the tent.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
46 PRIMITIVE MAN

The antelopehornsare used as portmanteaus.

Fox skins are used to line the cloaks of the rich. The tail
is ordinarilyhungon the travelingstick and whenthe Mongol is
on horsebackhe rolls it around his hand to serveas a glove.
Hunting among the Ordos Mongols has its magico-religious
side. Thereare auspiciousand inauspiciousdays. The auspicious
days are called olan.sjidchdgai (" days of the red foot"). These
days are en-cellent forthe huntersfortheywill be able to take a
great deal of game, but they are bad for otherpeople since on
such days one cannot slaughterlivestock or undertake travel
for fear of meetingwith trouble. There is a tutelaryspiritof
huntersto whom the Mongols sometimespray.
The pagan Mongols say that there are certain foxesthat are
possessed by the devil and that there is no known means of
killing such on the hunt. This kind of fox can by contagion
cause the demon to enterinto a man (peut propagerle demon
par contagiona l'homme). Such a man into whom the fox has
caused the demonto enteris thencalled oanige tadgsenk'in (" a
man who is hauntedor pursuedby the fox"). When a fox pos-
sessed by a demon rolls in a pile of ashes, the demon changes
himselfintoa fox. In like mannerwhena man who is possessed
by a demon rolls himselfin a heap of ashes, this man becomes
or is incarnatedin a foxor a wolf. From thiswe have the curse:
Oaden tir en ooli kasghyra, ounisin ter en ounige k'eurbb3
(" May an owl come and hoot beforeyour door,and may a fox
come and roll himselfon yourheap [of excrementor] of ashes ").
When the Mongols have no luck or success in the chase they
believe that theirarms or snares are possessed by an evil spirit
and forthisreasontheyconjuretheseobjects by means of special
prayers (ganga). We give here a fragmentof one of these
formulasused by hunters. During the recitationof the formula,
the object,-gun, snare,or trap,--withwhichthey have had bad
luck, is held over a firein which has been thrownsome artia
(Juniperussinensis L., accordingto Pontanin) and some salt.
After the recitation of the formulathe object is struck with
branchesof xarganak,a kind of bush. In addressingthe object
they say: 9
9 Cf. A. Mostaert, Textes oraux Ordos, Peiping, 1938, 466. My confrere
here gives this text, but without a translation.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 HUNTING CUSTOMS OF THE ORDOS MONGOLS 47

K'odiku xonots'xihu,ganga.10
Giikald'i k'ougenalx'ntsi'hu,ganga.
Alak nox5 si-ts'ixhu,ganga.
Ald2'agar eme alxut.'ixu, ganga.
AlbinI1 d'iidxar orotlihu,ganga.
Artia dabusar argulamoi,ganga.

Hast thou restedthe nightoutside,in the desert,then thou hast

therebysuffered the evil influence!
A betrothedgirlhas caused thee to sprainthy feet!
A motleydog has urinatedon thee!
A woman has stepped over thee!
An evil spirithas enteredinto thy bosom!
Now in purifyingthee withcypressand salt I driveout all these
evil influences!

Anotherformula,a prayerforhunting,is the following, 'during

whichwhen they pronouncethe words " xorufi, xori 'i they hold
in theirhand a fox or rabbit skin and shake it with the gesture
one uses when one summonssomeone. Through the recitation
of this dalalga or imprecatoryprayer the huntershope to kill
a great deal of game en route.

Garbol gand'ugutai
Orobol orodiot'o
Garsan bougoude'gandfugane'ge
Orosan bougoude'orodo ne'ge
T'oolii boroni,ozanige'sarani
D'engne' diirtjr,d'engne'dartir
Uje' kofind'engke dasfzrt'ar
Ure' morrigandzugu darte'r
Xorui, xorfi.
10
Ganga (or kangga) means: (a) an evil influencewhichcauses mis-
fortune,in thesensethatone wouldsay,minipoo gangaradji," my gunhas
suffered an evil influence
"; (b) a rite and prayerto destroythe effectof
the evil influence.
1 Albin: a devil who is seen at nightin the fieldunderthe formof a
will-o'-the-wisp.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
48 PRIMITIVE MAN

Alasan gadiar, arwan xorin

Barisan gadiar, xorin,gbtsin
Soul soule'e dnugat
Soije, soije'jn dagat
Djirdt'i, t'ooliit'ai
Dzidti nagatsinard'ii
Pouri ene mani ajan abada iretugai.
Xorui, xorui.
When one [people] goes offon a journey,it is never without
baggage.
When one comes back home one always bringssomething.
When several people go offto the chase one also takes one's
baggage.
When one conmes back fromthe chase thereare also spoils to be
shared.
If thereis game of greyishcolor,these are then hares.
If thereis game of yellowishcolor,these are then foxes.
One has suchheavyloads, so heavy on the twosides of the saddle,
Which [loads] would cause the strengthof a strongman to
succumb,
In fact all that a horse of threeyears is able to carry.
Xorii, xorii.
There where,with one shot of a gun, one kills one thing,one
would wish to kill ten,twentyof them.
There where one snares one thing, one would wish to snare
twenty,thirtyof them.
Game in such abundance that in the returnload the snouts bite
the tails [touch the tails] and the buttocks touch the
buttocks [hares, etc.].
Antelopes,hares, old and young [with theiryoung].
May we be able to have such luck on the huntingground.
Xorui, xorui.

This content downloaded from 138.253.100.121 on Tue, 05 Jan 2016 00:31:04 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions