1- Reflexivity

Hauser, (1996, p.225) says that in both human and animal language, reflexivity refers
to a human being's capacity to consider their own thoughts, sensations, deeds, or
experiences. It entails having the ability to reminisce on oneself, be aware of myself,
learn about and react to one's own ideas or acts.
Despite we often regard communication to be the main purpose of human language,
there is not a distinctive feature. Any living thing can send correspondence, even if
they don't do so openly. And we imagine those other living creatures have no thought
reflecting to how they structure their meanings or judging if it act (or do not). That is
to say that it is unlikely that a barking dog will advise another yelling dog to do a thing
like "Hey, you ought to lower your bark and make it sound more dangerous.
Yule, (2010, p.4-15) indicates that “They won't be barking in complaint of barking. It
is obvious humans are capable of reflecting on language and how it is used ("I wish he
wouldn't use all those specialized jargon"), this is self-reflection. One of the most
distinctive features of humans is a capacity to use word to ponder about things and talk
about word itself. This ability is also referred to as reflexivity, or "reflexiveness." In
fact,lacking this basic skill, we couldn't analyze or recognize any of the other
distinctive traits of human language; five others will be addressed in detail: duality
profitability, movement, inconsistency, and the transfer of culture.
Routledge, (1996, p.83) asserts that within the scope of humanity's words, flexibility
refers to the utilization of sentences to discuss myself, one's feelings, concepts, or
behaviors It involves having the capacity to speak about one's own experiences or
mental states and to acknowledge oneself as a unique individual. The capacity for
referring to self in language is designated as reflexivity or self- reference. It is unique
to modern spoken language and not visible in other mammals' communication
networks, enables people to make use of languages for word-related thoughtand
debate whereas humans are undoubtedly able to reflect on language use
And the overabundance of technical language. For human: One of those features that
sets human language special is the ability to think and communicate about language
itself. Not like an animal.
Humans make use of language to think and talk about language itself, or the capacity
to use communication to discuss the system, as defined by Yule (2010:11).
Lana, (2012, p.16) declares that for example, when someone remarks, "His accent is
awful events; I cannot comprehend what he says!" It is evident that they are talking
about language itself using sentences, Or when we dispute why our usage of the
present perfect (e.g., "I went to the hospital yesterday") is proper.
We use language to think at language itself in situations such as these By way of
example, reflexivity can be demonstrated in human language in a number of ways:
Metalinguistic Awareness: People are able to talk about language, including its syntax,
semantics, and rules They are ready to appraise and offer criticism on both their own
and other people's speech. Abstract Concepts: Talking concerning the past, present, or
imaginary surroundings is one form of the ways abstract and hypothetical emotions
are capable of beingarticulated by human language, The capacity to converse about
abstract ideas increases the tongue's reflexivity Self-Reference: Using pronouns such
as "I," "me," or "myself," persons have the capability to use the word themselves in
words and practice introspection or self- reflection.
Framkn, (2011, p.298) maintains that While a few creatures show evidence for self-
awareness or self-recognition by actions, it isstill up for questions among scientists to
what extent animals truly experience critical thinking, especially as it concerns
language use equivalent to that of humans, we think that other living creatures aren't
looking into or reflecting on how they construct their communicative signaling.
Animals, on the other hand, use a range of means to interact methods, such motions,
gestures, and actions, but their systems usually lack the intricate reflexivity found in
humanlanguage, Instead of focusing on abstract or self-referential ideas, animal
communication generally concentrates on pressing needs like nutrition, danger, or
mating sounds. While exhibiting modes of communication that might carry knowledge
concerning current events or sentiments, animals' reflexivity lacks the intricacy and
versatility of human language, their communication usually feels more instinctive and
focused on their immediate demands for survival.

2- Displacement

Hauser, (2004, p.303-380) Declares that in the context of psychology and human
behavior, the displacement property refers to a defense mechanism identified in
Freudian psychoanalytic theory, It involves redirecting an individual's emotions,
impulses, or behaviors from their original source to a substitute target that may be
less threatening or more acceptable.
For instance, if a person experiences anger or frustration towards their boss but feels
unable to express those feelings directly due to fear of consequences, they might
displace those emotions onto someone or something else.
This displacement can occur in various forms such as directing anger towards a
family member, becoming irritable with friends or even engaging in activities like
aggressive sports as a way to release pent-up emotions.
Newport, ( 2001,p.53-54) asserts that Displacement doesn't necessarily resolve the
underlying issue causing the emotions but can serve as a temporary coping
mechanism to manage immediate stress or anxiety associated with the original
source.
It's important to note that while displacement can provide short-term relief,
unresolved emotions may resurface later, and continually relying on displacement as
a primary coping mechanism might hinder addressing the root cause of the emotional
distress, Therapeutic approaches often focus on helping individuals understand and
work through their underlying feelings and conflicts to develop healthier coping
strategies.
Mehler, (2010, p.191) claims that the displacement property in animals refers to the
ability of an animal to move or adjust its behavior in response to changes in its
environment. This property allows animals to adapt to new or altered conditions by
shifting their usual activities or habitats.
Padden, (1982, p. 542) suggests that animals display displacement behavior when
they encounter conflicting motivations or stress-inducing situations, These behaviors
can manifest as redirected actions that are not directly related to the immediate
stimulus causing stress. Displacement behaviors can include actions like grooming,
scratching, yawning, or other seemingly irrelevant actions that occur out of context.
Hopkins, (1996, p.346) according to that For instance, if an animal faces a stressful
situation such as conflict within its social group or encounters a threat it can't
confront directly, it might engage in displacement behaviors. These behaviors serve
as a way to alleviate tension, reduce stress, or cope with conflicting emotions.
Observing displacement behaviors in animals can provide insights into their
emotional state, environmental stressors, or social dynamics.
Studying these behaviors helps researchers and animal behaviorists understand how
animals adapt and cope with changes in their surroundings and social interactions.

3- Arbitrariness

Marcus, (2013, p.104) proclaims that the "arbitrariness property" is a concept often
examined in the field of linguistics and evolutionary psychology. It refers to the idea
that the relationship between a linguistic sign (e.g., a word) and its meaning is
arbitrary.In other words, there's no inherent connection between the sound or symbol
of a word and the concept it represents.
For instance, there's no inherent reason why the word "dog" represents the animal it
does. Different languages use different sounds or symbols to represent the same
concept (e.g., "chien" in French, "perro" in Spanish), demonstrating the arbitrariness
of the relationship between the word and its meaning.
Liszkowski, (2009,p.660) implies that This concept of arbitrariness is not limited to
language; it can also be applied to various human constructs and behaviors,
illustrating that many aspects of human culture, social norms, symbols, and customs
are often arbitrary in nature, For example:
Cultural Practices: Certain customs or traditions within different societies can be
considered arbitrary, the way people greet each other, celebrate events, or conduct
rituals can vary greatly between cultures without any inherent reason behind these
differences.
Social Conventions: Norms governing behavior within a society can be arbitrary. For
instance, the concept of personal space, etiquette, or social hierarchies may vary
significantly across different cultures without any inherent or logical basis.
Symbols and Meanings: The significance attached to certain symbols, colors, or
objects can be arbitrary, for example, the meanings associated with different colors,
flags, or symbols can vary widely across cultures and time periods.
Fashion and Trends: Trends in clothing, style, or aesthetics often change arbitrarily
over time, without any inherent reason or logic behind the shifts.
Value Systems: Societal values and beliefs can also be seen as arbitrary. What one
society values as important virtues or moral principles might differ significantly from
another society's values.
Manser, (2013, p.77) claim that Understanding the arbitrariness property helps
explain the diversity and flexibility of human behavior, culture, and language. It
highlights how these aspects are not universally predetermined but are rather shaped
by historical, social, and cultural contingencies.
An expression's meaning and its linguistic form are not "naturally" connected. For
instance, the meaning of the word "bread" has nothing to do with it.
Nevins, (2009,p.671) his claims that in the context of animal behavior and
communication, the concept of "arbitrariness" may not directly apply in the same
way it does to human language. While animal communication systems can be
complex and varied, they often lack the same level of arbitrariness found in human
language.
Animal communication tends to be more limited and often relies on innate or
instinctual signals that have evolved over time. Many animal signals are directly tied
to survival needs, such as warning of danger, mating calls, marking territory, or
signaling food sources.
These signals are often more directly linked to their specific meanings and are less
arbitrary compared to human language.
Newport, (2004, p.127) contends that however, there are instances where some
Aspects of animal communication could be seen as exhibiting arbitrary elements:
Species-Specific Signals: While certain animal signals might be more directly tied to
specific meanings, there can be variations within species or across different species.
For example, variations in bird songs or dialects among certain animal groups could
be considered arbitrary in terms of their differences.
Context-Dependent Signals: Some animal signals might change meaning or function
based on context.
For instance, body postures or vocalizations in certain animals might convey
different messages based on the situation, resembling a form of arbitrary association.
Cultural Transmission: In a few cases, some animals might exhibit learned behaviors
or signals passed down through social learning rather than being purely instinctual. In
these cases, there might be a degree of arbitrariness in the sense that the signals are
not strictly predetermined by genetics but influenced by social interactions and
environmental factors.
Petitto,(2005,p.307-313) states that However, compared to human language, the
concept of arbitrariness in animal communication is less prominent, Animal signals
tend to be more closely tied to specific functions and evolutionary adaptations,
whereas human language demonstrates a much higher degree of flexibility,
abstraction, and arbitrariness in the relationship between symbols (words) and their
meanings.
Reid, (2011, p.184-195) There does seem to be a direct correlation between the
message being conveyed and the signal used to convey it in the majority of animal
signals. The idea that animal communication is not random may have its roots in the
observation that each animal has a limited repertoire of signals with which to
communicate.

4- Productivity

Watanabe, (2011, p.1067) his claims that the ability to adapt is among the most
productive traits of humans. Humans are remarkably adaptive to a wide range of
circumstances, difficulties, and environments. People with this adaptability are able
to grow, solve problems, and come up with fresh approaches to challenging issues,
which promotes advancement and development across a range of industries.
Arnold, (2006, p.303) assertions that Humans also possess qualities that increase
productivity, such as curiosity, creativity, resilience, and teamwork. Exploration and
the search for knowledge are motivated by curiosity, which results in breakthroughs
and innovations. People with creativity are able to come up with new
concepts,methods, and inventions, People who possess resilience are able to
overcome obstacles and disappointments, which promotes tenacity and development.
By utilizing the strengths of different people, collaboration promotes teamwork and
the combining of skills and viewpoints to accomplish shared objectives.

Zuberbühler, (2008, p.203) maintains that in the end, these qualities—adaptability,

curiosity, creativity, resilience, and teamwork—contribute greatly to the
advancement of society and human productivity.

Jarvis, )2013 , p.96) contends that The ability of animals to effectively produce goods
or services that are valuable to humans is referred to as productivity. This can cover a
range of topics, including labor, materials, food production, and other outputs.
Numerous factors, such as genetics, diet, environment, health, management
strategies, and breeding practices, all have an impact on animal productivity.
Zhou, (2012, p.14) maintains that Here are some instances of animal productivity in
various settings:
Livestock Production: To produce meat, milk, eggs, wool, and other products, farm
animals such as pigs, sheep, chickens, and cows are bred and raised. Metrics like
weight gain, milk yield, egg production, and feed conversion ratios are used to
measure productivity in this context.

Work and Labor: Historically, some animals—like horses, oxen, and dogs—have
been employed for labor-intensive tasks like field preparation, cargo transportation,
livestock herding, and security. In this instance, the effectiveness and efficiency with
which they complete these tasks is used to gauge productivity.
Animal Products: The quantity and quality of the material produced by animals, such
as silkworms for the production of silk and bees for the production of honey,
determine their productivity.
Biomedical Research: To test medications, comprehend illnesses, and expand
medical knowledge, scientists employ animals such as mice, rats, and other
organisms in their studies. The number of successful trials carried out or the
significance of the data collected may be used to gauge productivity in this situation.
Conservation and Ecological Restoration: To preserve biodiversity or repair
ecosystems, some animals are kept captive or reintroduced into the wild. Population
growth, rates of successful reintroduction, or the ecological impact of their presence
can all be used to measure productivity.

Berwick, (2013, p.85) asserts that A variety of tactics are frequently used to increase
animal productivity, such as selective breeding for desired traits, improving nutrition
and feeding procedures, offering appropriate housing and management systems,
putting in place health and disease management procedures, and making use of
cutting-edge technologies like genetic engineering and precision farming.
In order to guarantee that animals are not mistreated and are treated humanely while
accomplishing effective production goals, it is imperative to strike a balance between
animal productivity and ethical and animal welfare considerations. In order to protect
the welfare of animals as well as their productivity, ethical frameworks and laws
frequently control how they are treated and used in various industries.

5- Cultural Transmission

Bohn, (2013, p.1485) insists that the process through which ideas, beliefs, behaviors,
customs, traditions, and knowledge are passed down from one generation to the next
within a society is referred to as cultural transmission. Numerous techniques, such as
language, imitation, observation, storytelling, education, and different forms of
communication, are used to transmit this information.

Bosch, (1997, p.33) affirms that the complex and varied ways in which humans
transmit culture set them apart from other animals. Important facets of human
cultural transmission include the following:
Language: The transmission of culture depends heavily on language. It makes it
possible for people of different generations to communicate intricate concepts,
values, and beliefs. Stories, myths, rites, customs, and knowledge are transmitted
through language.
Humans pick up new skills through seeing and copying the actions of others.
Youngsters, in particular, pick up a lot from watching adults and senior citizens in
their community. This knowledge encompasses cultural norms and values in addition
to practical skills.

Education: The purpose of formal education systems, which include colleges,

universities, and schools, is to transfer cultural knowledge and competencies.
Education facilitates the transfer of organized knowledge and information from one
generation to the next.
Socialization: The transmission of cultural norms and values is largely facilitated by
families, communities, religious organizations, and other social groups. People learn
acceptable behaviors, societal norms, and cultural practices through socialization
within these groups.
Media and Technology: The expansion of cultural transmission through a variety of
media, including books, television, movies, the internet, and social media platforms,
has coincided with the advent of technology and media. These platforms are now
effective tools for disseminating cultural knowledge throughout the world.

Cultural Evolution: Cultural evolution is the result of interactions between cultures

and the sharing of concepts, values, and customs. As new ideas converge with
preexisting ones, cultural norms and customs may change over time.
Adaptation and Change: Cultures are dynamic and constantly changing in response to
social, technological, and environmental shifts. Cultural transmission is the process
of keeping the essential elements of a tradition while modifying it to suit changing
conditions.

Doupe, (2002, p.351) his challenge that declares that Cultural transmission is an
essential component of human societies because it permits cultural diversity and
innovation to coexist with the preservation and generational sharing of knowledge,
beliefs, and practices.

Cantalupo, (2001, p.505) argues that in animals, "cultural transmission" is the

transfer of acquired habits, customs, or knowledge from one member of a species or
social group to another. Rather than through genetic inheritance, this transmission
typically happens through observation, imitation, teaching, or social learning.

A number of animal species show evidence of cultural transmission, meaning they

can transmit behaviors and knowledge to their peers or offspring. Among the
noteworthy instances are:
Primates: By teaching one another how to use tools, such as sticks to remove termites
or stones to crack nuts, chimpanzees, bonobos, and other primates demonstrate
cultural transmission. They also exhibit communication styles and social behaviors
that they have picked up from other members of their group.
Cetaceans: Whales and dolphins are renowned for having sophisticated social
structures and behaviorally-based means of communication. Their social interactions,
vocalizations, and hunting techniques are examples of cultural transmission.
Birds: Certain species, such as crows, parrots, and certain songbirds, exhibit cultural
transmission through the generational transfer of particular vocalizations, songs, or
foraging strategies. For example, some bird species have developed regional dialects
in their songs that they have acquired from nearby communities.
Elephants: These creatures display cultural communication behaviors, like distinct
calls for different circumstances, as well as generation-to-generation transmission of
migration routes and foraging strategies.
Bats: Certain bat species exhibit cultural transmission through their roosting habits,
whereby they exchange knowledge about appropriate roost locations, areas for food,
and migration paths.
Fish: In behaviors linked to foraging, migration, and predator avoidance, some fish
species show signs of social learning and cultural transmission. For example, certain
fish pick up the best ways to forage or migrate from their parents or other fish.
6- Duality
Hopkins, (2001, p.414) arguments that The idea that people have contradictory or
opposing traits, attributes, or behaviors within them is known as the concept of
duality in humans. Contradictory elements coexist within a single person, reflecting
the inherent complexity and multifaceted nature of human beings.
Chomsky,(2011,p.263) proposes that Here are some examples of how human nature
exhibits duality:
Good vs. Evil: People frequently struggle with opposing urges or motivations; they
may display generosity, compassion, and kindness at times, or they may display
negative traits, hostility, or selfishness.
Emotion vs. Rationality: Emotional reactions and logical reasoning are constantly
interacting. Even when their actions go against logical thought processes, people can
act on the basis of their emotions, intuition, or gut feelings.
Weaknesses vs. Strengths: Every person has both weaknesses and strengths. They
may struggle in some areas while flourishing in others, demonstrating their dual
aptitudes.
Introversion vs. Extroversion: People frequently display a combination of introverted
and extroverted traits; they may occasionally enjoy being around people and seeking
companionship, but other times they may prefer to be alone and reflect.
Truth vs. Deception: People are capable of both being truthful and lying. They might
exhibit moments of total honesty and integrity mixed with deceit or manipulation.
Insecurity vs. Confidence: A person may be both insecure and confident at the same
time. In some circumstances, they may appear confident, but in others, they may be
hiding uncertainties or insecurities.
Reichard, (2006, p.10) implies that Being human involves having to navigate and
understand these dualities within oneself. Recognizing these inconsistencies and
working toward self-awareness, balance, and personal development are crucial.
Developing empathy, comprehension, and acceptance of oneself and others is made
possible by accepting the complexity of human nature.
Fragaszy,(2018,p.18) statements that When we talk about animal duality, we usually
mean the existence of opposing or complementary traits within the same species or
individual. This can show up in a number of ways:
Behavioral Duality: Aggression and nurturing tendencies are examples of dualistic
behaviors exhibited by certain animals. A mother bear, for example, can exhibit both
nurturing and aggressive behavior when it comes to her cubs—the former being
fiercely protective of the latter.
Physical Duality: Some animals have evolved physical traits or adaptations that fulfill
two roles. For example, the octopus can change its color and texture to better blend in
with its surroundings, which helps it both hunt and act as a defense mechanism.
Ecological Duality: Within their ecosystems, animals may play the dual roles of
predator and prey. For instance, wolves and other similar species may hunt prey for
sustenance while simultaneously facing attacks from larger predators.
Symbolic Duality: Animals can represent opposing ideas such as good and evil, light
and dark, or life and death in a variety of mythologies and cultures. For instance, the
raven may be a symbol of both cunning and wisdom in some cultures.
Animals that experience metamorphosis or life cycles in which they assume distinct
forms at various times are said to exhibit life cycle duality. As an illustration of the
duality of life stages, consider the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies.
Adaptation Duality: Certain animals have evolved traits that allow them to perform
two different tasks. For example, a bird's wings can be used for both flight and
display during mating rituals.
Crist,(2004,p.43) believes that These dualities are evolved traits that help animals
overcome obstacles, adapt to changing environmental conditions, and maximize their
chances of survival. The diversity and adaptability of livestock in their environments
is frequently reflected in the existence of these opposing features within a species or
individual, comprehending animal duality can offer valuable understanding of the
intricacy and adaptability of their behaviors, roles within ecosystems, and changes,
thereby highlighting the many different aspects of the animal kingdom.