Chapter 2

Two dimensional wave equations and wave characteristics

Waves on the surface of a natural body of open water are the result of disturbing forces that
create a deformation, which is restored to equilibrium by, gravitational and surface tension
forces. Surface waves are characterized by their height, length, and the water depth over which
they are traveling. Figure 1 shows a two-dimensional sketch of a sinusoidal surface wave
propagating in the x-direction. The wave height, H, is the vertical distance between its crest and
leading trough. Wavelength, L, is the horizontal distance between any two corresponding points
on successive waves and wave period is the time required for two successive crests or troughs to
pass a given point. The celerity of a wave C, is the speed of propagation of the waveform (phase
speed), defined as C = L/T. Most ocean waves are progressive; their waveform appears to travel
at celerity C relative to a background. Standing waves, their waveforms remains stationary
relative to a background, occur from the interaction of progressive waves traveling in opposite
directions and are often observed near reflective coastal features. Progressive deep ocean waves
are oscillatory meaning that the water particles making up the wave do not exhibit a net motion
in the direction of wave propagation. However, waves entering shallow-water begin to show a
net displacement of water in the direction of propagation and are classified as translational. The
equilibrium position used to reference surface wave motion, (Still Water Level SWL) is z = 0
and the bottom is located at z = –d (Fig. 1). The free surface water elevation, η, for a natural
water wave propagating over an irregular, permeable bottom may appear quite complex.
However, by assuming that, viscous effects are negligible (concentrated near the bottom), flow is
irrotational and incompressible, and wave height is small compared to wavelength. This
simplification, referred to as linear, small-amplitude wave theory, is extremely accurate and easy
to use in many coastal engineering applications. Furthermore, the linear nature of this
formulation allows for the free surface to be represented by superposition of sinusoids of
different amplitudes and frequencies.
 Figure 1: Definition skeetch of free surfface wave paraameters for a liinear progressiive wave. Show
wn also are the fluid
particcle velocities an
nd acceleration
ns associated w
with each portioon of the wavee.

The equaation for the free surface displacemen

nt of a progrressive wavee is

  a coss(kx  t ) (1)
where
a wave amplitude (HH/2)
η water surface elev
vations abov
ve the still waater level
L wave length (the horizontal
h diistance betw
ween two succcessive cressts or troughss)
T wave period (the time
t intervall between thhe passage off two successsive crests ppast a
fixed point)
x space coordinate
t time
2
k wave number
L
2
 angulaar frequency y
T
The exprression relatiing individuaal wave prop
perties and w
water depth, d, to the proopagation
behavior of these waves is the dispersion relaation,

 2  gk tanh(kd
t ) (2)
where g is the gravitational acceleration. From Equation (2) and the definition of wave celerity
(C) it can be shown that;

 gT
C  tanh( kd ) (3)
k 2

and

gT 2 2d
L tanh( ) (4)
2 L

Wave parameters which are necessary to describe the waves are called basic wave parameters.
These are wave height, wave period, wave length and wave depth. A relationship exists among
the wave length, the wave period and the water depth as given in Equation (4). Either the wave
length or the wave period alone can be considered as a basic parameter. Note that if the wave
period T and water depth d are known, than it is a trial and error procedure to determine the
wavelength L and wave celerity C. In order to avoid this trial and error procedure; special tables
like Gravity Wave Table (GWT) and graphs are available. Wave characteristics (example: wave
length, height, celerity etc.) vary as the wave progresses in water of the gradually changing
depths. The only wave characteristic, which does not change with depth, and is therefore a
convenient reference parameter, is the wave period.

Classification of water waves according to relative depth

The ratio of d/L is called the relative depth. For the small amplitude wave theory, the equations
expressing the various wave characteristics are greatly simplified if the ratio d/L lies within
certain ranges. The simplifications can be made in the various wave equations by replacing the
hyperbolic functions by their asymptotes for particular range of relative depth. Hyperbolic
functions and asymptotes of hyperbolic functions for certain ranges of (d/L) and (kd) ratios are
given below.

Hyperbolic functions

1 x
sinh x  (e  e  x )    sinh x  
2
1
cosh x  (e x  e  x ) 1.0  cosh x  
2
(e x  e  x )
tanh x  x  1.0  tanh x  1
(e  e  x )

If d/L is equal or below 1/20, then the depth is small in comparison with the wave length and the
waves are termed “shallow water” waves (also long waves). If d/L is equal or greater than 1/2,
the waves are called “deep water” waves (also called short waves). For 1/20<d/L<1/2, the waves
are called “intermediate depth” waves, and for this range the wave equations do not simplify.
Range of d/L Types of wells
0 to 1/20 “shallow water” waves (long waves)
1/20 to 1/2 “intermediate depth” waves
1/2 to ∞ “deep water” waves (short waves)

Basic wave equations for shallow and deep water

If the sea is sufficiently deep, then the water depth does not affect the wave motion. For this
special case, the numbers of basic wave parameters are only two (i.e. H and T). All
characteristics of the wave motion can be computed in terms of the basic parameters.

The hyperbolic function tanh kd approaches useful simplifying limits of 1 for large values of kd
(deep water) and kd for small values of kd (shallow water). Applying these limits to basic wave
equations results in expressions for deep water of

gT 2
Lo   1.56T 2 (5)
2

where the wave celerity C, is equal to the ratio of wave length to wave period as,

Co  1.56T (6)

using asymptotic values (tanhkd≈1), wave celerity equation in shallow water becomes

C  gd (7)

therefore, the wave length in shallow water becomes

L  T gd (8)

Therefore, the C and L for deep water conditions are independent of depth d and for intermediate
depth the general equations are used to define wave celerity and wave length.

Gravity wave table (GWT)

In the solution of basic equations, most generally Gravity Wave Table is used. Hyperbolic
functions used in wave equations given in GWT are defined in terms of d/Lo or (d/L) for shallow
and intermediate depths. Since d/L≥0.5 defines deep water where tanhkd≈1, GWT is not used for
deep water conditions where L=Lo and C=Co. In the GWT, the first column is relative depth d/L.
For relative depth defined in terms of d/Lo, the limits for shallow water (d/L≤1/20) and deep
water (d/L≥0.5) are obtained by using asymptotic values. Some useful functions for calculating
wave properties at any water depth, from deep water wave properties are,
C L 2d
  tanh( ) (9)
Co Lo L
Where of d/L can be calculated as a function of d/Lo by successive approximations by
multiplying both sides by d and dividing both sides by L and Lo.

d d 2d
 tanh( ) (10)
Lo L L
Gravity Wave Table (Lyngby, 1974)
d 2d d 2d 2d 2d
Lo
tanh sinh cosh Ks
L L L L L
0.00 0.000 0.0000 0.000 0.000 1.000 ‐
0.01 0.248 0.0403 0.253 0.256 1.032 1.440
0.02 0.347 0.0576 0.362 0.370 1.066 1.230
0.03 0.420 0.0714 0.448 0.463 1.102 1.120
0.04 0.480 0.0833 0.523 0.547 1.140 1.060
0.05 0.531 0.0942 0.592 0.627 1.180 1.020
0.06 0.575 0.1040 0.655 0.703 1.222 0.993
0.07 0.614 0.1140 0.716 0.779 1.267 0.971
0.08 0.649 0.1230 0.774 0.854 1.315 0.955
0.09 0.681 0.1320 0.831 0.930 1.366 0.942
0.10 0.709 0.1410 0.886 1.007 1.419 0.933
0.11 0.735 0.1500 0.940 1.085 1.475 0.926
0.12 0.759 0.1580 0.994 1.166 1.536 0.920
0.13 0.780 0.1660 1.050 1.254 1.604 0.917
0.14 0.800 0.1750 1.100 1.336 1.669 0.915
0.15 0.818 0.1830 1.150 1.421 1.737 0.913
0.16 0.835 0.1920 1.200 1.509 1.811 0.913
0.17 0.850 0.2000 1.260 1.621 1.905 0.913
0.18 0.864 0.2080 1.310 1.718 1.988 0.914
0.19 0.877 0.2170 1.360 1.820 2.076 0.916
0.2 0.888 0.2250 1.410 1.926 2.170 0.918
0.21 0.899 0.2340 1.470 2.060 2.290 0.920
0.22 0.909 0.2420 1.520 2.177 2.395 0.923
0.23 0.918 0.2510 1.580 2.324 2.530 0.926
0.24 0.926 0.2590 1.630 2.454 2.650 0.929
0.25 0.933 0.2680 1.680 2.590 2.776 0.932
0.26 0.940 0.2770 1.740 2.761 2.936 0.936
0.27 0.946 0.2850 1.790 2.911 3.078 0.939
0.28 0.952 0.2940 1.850 3.101 3.259 0.942
0.29 0.957 0.3030 1.900 3.268 3.418 0.946
0.30 0.961 0.3120 1.960 3.479 3.620 0.949
0.31 0.965 0.3210 2.020 3.703 3.835 0.952
0.32 0.969 0.3300 2.080 3.940 4.065 0.955
0.33 0.972 0.3390 2.130 4.148 4.267 0.958
0.34 0.975 0.3490 2.190 4.412 4.524 0.961
0.35 0.978 0.3580 2.250 4.691 4.797 0.964
0.36 0.980 0.3670 2.310 4.988 5.087 0.967
0.37 0.982 0.3770 2.370 5.302 5.395 0.969
0.38 0.984 0.3860 2.420 5.578 5.667 0.972
0.39 0.986 0.3960 2.480 5.929 6.013 0.974
0.40 0.988 0.4050 2.540 6.300 6.379 0.976
0.41 0.989 0.4140 2.600 6.695 6.769 0.978
0.42 0.990 0.4240 2.660 7.113 7.183 0.980
0.43 0.991 0.4340 2.720 7.557 7.623 0.982
0.44 0.992 0.4430 2.790 8.110 8.171 0.983
0.45 0.993 0.4530 2.850 8.615 8.673 0.985
0.46 0.994 0.4630 2.910 9.151 9.206 0.986
0.47 0.995 0.4720 2.970 9.720 9.772 0.987
0.48 0.995 0.4820 3.030 10.324 10.373 0.988
0.49 0.996 0.4920 3.090 10.966 11.011 0.990
0.50 0.996 0.5020 3.150 11.647 11.689 0.990
Particle velocities and orbits
Sinusoidal wave is an oscillatory wave and in case of oscillatory waves water particles follow
closed or nearly closed orbits. In other words water particles come back nearly to their original
locations at the end of a cycle and induce either very small or zero net displacement of the fluid
particles. Water particles move up and down as waves travel through the water. If the small
objects floating on water are carefully watched, it can be seen that the water does not move up
and down but also forward and backwards. It moves forward on the crest of a wave and
backward at the trough.
For simple sinusoidal waves propagating in x-direction, the water particle motion has two
components.
Horizontal velocity component (in the direction of wave propagation)
Vertical velocity component (in the vertical direction)

The horizontal component of particle velocity beneath a wave is

H cosh k ( d  z )
u  cos( kx  t ) (11)
2 sinh kd

The corresponding acceleration is

u H 2 cosh k ( d  z )
ax    sin( kx  t ) (12)
t 2 sinh kd

The vertical particle velocity and acceleration are respectively

H sinh k ( d  z )
w  sin( kx  t ) (13)
2 sinh kd
and

w H sinh k ( d  z )
az   2 cos( kx  t ) (14)
t 2 sinh kd

It can be seen from Eqs. (11) and (13) that the horizontal and vertical particle velocities are 90o
out of phase at any position along the wave profile. Extreme values of horizontal velocity occur
in the crest (+, in the direction of wave propagation) and trough (–, in the direction opposite to
the direction of wave propagation) while extreme vertical velocities occur mid-way between the
crest and trough, where water displacement is zero. The u and w velocity components are at a
minimum at the bottom and both increase as distance upward in the water column increases.
Maximum vertical accelerations correspond to maximum in horizontal velocity and maximum
horizontal accelerations correspond to maximum in vertical velocity. Figure 1 provides a graphic
summary of these relationships. The particle displacements can be obtained by integrating the
velocity with respect to time and simplified by using the dispersion relationship (Eq. [2]) to give
a horizontal displacement
 H cosh k ( d  z o )
  sin( kxo  t ) (15)
2 sinh kd

and vertical displacem

ment

H sin k ( d  z o )
  cos( kxo  t ) (16)
2 sinh kd

where (xxo, zo) is the mean posittion of an in ndividual paarticle. It cann be shown by squaringg and
adding the horizonttal and verttical displaccements thatt the generaal form of a water paarticle
trajectory
y beneath a wave is ellip ptical. In deeep water, paarticle pathss are circularr and in shaallow-
water theey are highly
y elliptical ass shown in Figure
F 2.

Figure 2: Flu
uid particle patths for linear prrogressive wavves in differentt relative waterr depths.

Pressuree Field
The pressure distribu
ution beneath
h a progressiive water waave is given by the folloowing form oof the
Bernoulli equation

p   gz  gK p (zz ) (17)

where ρ is
i fluid density and Kp, the
t pressure response cooefficient, is

cosh k ( d  z)
z
K p ( z)  (18)
cosh kd

which wiill always bee less than 1,1 below meean still wateer level. Thee first term iin Eq. (17) iis the
hydrostattic pressure and the seccond is the dynamic
d preessure term. This dynam mic pressure term
accounts for two facttors that infl
fluence presssure, the freee surface dissplacement η and the veertical
componeent of acceleeration. Thee variation of o dynamic pressure is sinusoidal aand is maxiimum
beneath the
t crest of the
t wave. A summary of the formullations for caalculating linnear wave thheory
wave chaaracteristics in deep, inteermediate, an
nd shallow wwater is presented in Tabble 2.
Table 2: Summary off linear wavee theory, waave characterristics