COASTAL ENGINEERING 29

2 Wave Mechanics

Why is the study of waves important?

Source of energy
Influence planning and determination of wave forces on the
design of coastal structures and infrastructures
Determines the beach geometry and beach material
composition

Activity: Notes Taking (15mins)

Read the Costal Management Manual from 2.2.1-2.2.3 for
5minutes.
On a piece of paper note down important points. Turn on to your
neighbour and discuss about what you have noted and
understand from your reading . Add the information that you
missed out in your note.
Each pair will be randomly selected to explain to the whole class
using a white board. Lecturer will clariy the points and the grey
areas.
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2.1 Wave Fundamentals

Formed by SWELLS WAVE BREAKERS

WAVE PROPAGATION
WAVE GENERATION

WAVE DISSIPATAION
disturbing forces:
• Wind
• Underwater
earthquake (e.g.
tsunami)
• change in
atmospheric
pressure - seiches
SEAS

OFFSHORE NEARSHORE SHORE

Figure 2.1: Wave propagation.

2.1.1 Wave generation and dispersion

Waves generated by the action of the wind on water in the storm

zone.
Waves then spread across the ocean, maintaining frequency but
reducing in height
Each component frequency travels at a different speed, leading to
dispersion
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2.1.2 Characteristics of waves

Wind waves or seas

Wind waves (or seas or storm waves):

Consist of waves with same disturbing
force applied continuously
Generated by local wind field (at the place and time of
observation)
 Short-crested
 Wide frequency band
 Steep slope or steep waves
 Irregular in period and height, short-crested, but usually
short periods and lengths
 Steep (H/L 0.04 to 0.06), large range of frequencies and
directions, wave period 0.5s to 12s
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Swell waves

Waves that have travelled a long distance

from their generating area
 No longer subjected to wind action
 Behave like a free wave
 Low and long wave lengths, long crested, small steepness,
mild slope
 L≅30H to 500H
 Narrow frequency band or small range of frequencies
 Regular in period and height,
 long period 6s to 25s.

Three factors affect the growth of wind waves:

1. Wind strength
2. Wind duration
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3. Fetch length
-Area in which seas are generated by a wind having a fairly constant
direction and speed

Further reading:
Section 6.1, Sorensen, 2006.
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2.1.3 Basic parameters

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Figure 2.2: Definition of wave parameters for sinusoidal and

progressive wave (CEM 1110-2-1100 (Part II)).
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Definition Symbol
Wave height H
Wave amplitude aH /2
Wave length (between the passage of two
L  CT
successive wave crests or troughs at a point)
Wave period (between the passage of two
T
successive wave crests or troughs at a point)
Wave celerity or phase speed C  L /T  / k
Wave angular frequency (in radian)   2 / T
Wave phase   kx  t
Wave number k  2 / L
Wave steepness H/L
Relative depth d/L
Relative wave height H /d
Surface elevation   Acos  kx  t 
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2.1.4 Wave Classification

Wave classification

Wave period/
Relative
Wave length frequency/ Generation Motion
depth
spectrum

Wave classification by length

• SEAS: 𝐿 ≅ 10 − 20𝐻
• SWELLS: 𝐿 ≅ 30 − 500𝐻
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Wave classification by period/ frequency

Figure 2.3: Wave energy spectrum.

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Wave classification by relative depth

Table 2.1: Classification of water waves (CEM 1110-2-1100 (Part

II)).
Classification
d/L kd tanh (kd)

Π to 
Deep water ½ to  ≈1

tanh (kd)
Transitional 1/20 to 1/2 Π/10 to Π

Shallow ≈ kd
0 to 1/20 0 to Π/10
water

Wave classification by generation

Impulse –Tsunami (submarine disturbance)

Constant forcing –tides (gravitational forces) and wind waves
(wind)
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Further reading:
Appendix 2-A, Volume 3 – Coastal Management, DID
Manual,2009.
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Wave classification by motion

2.2 Linear wave theory (Airy's theory)

Underlying assumptions made in developing the linear wave

theory are:
The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible; therefore,
the density is constant.
Surface tension can be neglected.
Coriolis Effect due to the earth's rotation can be neglected.
The pressure at the free surface is uniform and constant.
The fluid is ideal or inviscid (lacks viscosity).
The particular wave being considered does not interact
with any other water motions. The flow is irrotational so
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that water particles do not rotate (only normal forces are

important and shearing forces are negligible).
The bed is a horizontal, fixed, impermeable boundary,
which implies that the vertical velocity at the bed is zero.
The wave amplitude is small and the waveform is invariant
in time and space.
Waves are plane or long-crested (two-dimensional).

Further reading:
Section 2.2, Sorensen, 2006. If you are confused, stop at page 12.
Otherwise, finish the section until pg 15.

2.2.1 Surface elevation, wave celerity and wave length

H  2 2  (1)
 cos  x t
2  L T 

2 2
Phase angle,   x t
L T

See video for supplement on developing wave equation as a

function of time and space.
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𝐿 𝑔𝑇 2𝜋𝑑 (2)
𝐶= = tanh
𝑇 2𝜋 𝐿

Dispersion relation:
Relates between 𝑘 and 𝜔 or 𝐿 and 𝑇

𝑔𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑑 (3)
𝐿= tanh
2𝜋 𝐿
L can be solved via trial and error.
Approximate equation subjected to ≈10% error is given by
Eckhart (1952):

𝑔𝑇 2 4𝜋2 𝑑 (4)
𝐿= √𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ
2𝜋 𝑇2𝑔
In deep water tanh kd  1, thus
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gL gC T gT (5)
C  o
o

2 2 2
o

gT 2
(6)
L 
2
o

In shallow water: C  gd

Activity: In Class Team (15minutes)

Form a group of 3 students.
Solve the problem together via the guided solution.
Solve the same problem in a piece of paper but for water depth;
100m, 50m, 10m and 5m.
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2.2.2 Local fluid velocities and acceleration

Max +ve horizontal velocities occurs when 𝜃 = 0, 2𝜋

Max -ve horizontal velocities occurs when 𝜃 = 𝜋, 3𝜋
Max +ve vertical velocities occurs when 𝜃 = 𝜋/2 , 5𝜋/2
Max -ve vertical velocities occurs when 𝜃 = 3𝜋/2, 7𝜋/2
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Figure 2.4: Local fluid velocities and accelerations (CEM 1110-2-

1100 (Part II)).

Horizontal, u , and vertical, w , components of local fluid

velocities are given by:
 2  z  d   (7)
cosh  
u
H gT  L  cos
2 L  2 d 
cosh  
 L 
 2  z  d   (8)
sinh  
w
H gT  L  sin 
2 L  2 d 
cosh  
 L 
Where   kx  t  2 x / L  2 t / T , so local fluid accelerations are
derivatives of equation (7) and (8) with respect to time, 𝑡.
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 2  z  d   (9)
cosh  
u  gH  L  sin 
a  
t  2 d 
x
L
cosh  
 L 
 2  z  d   (10)
sinh  
w  gH  L  cos 
a  
t  2 d 
z
L
cosh  
 L 

Further reading:
Section 2.4, Sorensen, 2006.
See supplementary video wavesbasic.mp4
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2.2.3 Water particle trajectories & displacements

Deep-water wave

 Waves do not interact with the seafloor.

 Orbits of the water particles are circular

Shallow-water wave

 Waves interact with the seafloor.

 Orbits of the water particles become elliptical
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Figure 2.5: Wave particle displacements from mean position

(CEM 1110-2-1100 (Part II)).
Horizontal particle displacements are large near the bottom
Vertical particle displacements vary from zero at bottom to max
of one-half wave height at the surface
(11)

(12)
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Simplifying using:

and equation of an ellipse with a major- (horizontal) semi-axis

equal to A and a minor (vertical) semi-axis equal to B

The lengths of A and B are measures of the horizontal and

vertical displacements of the water particles (see Figure 2.5).
Thus, the water particles are predicted to move in closed orbits
by linear wave theory; i.e., a fluid particle returns to its initial
position after each wave cycle.
Comparing laboratory measurements of particle orbits with this
theory shows that particle orbits are not completely closed. This
difference between linear theory and observations is due to the
mass transport phenomenon.
(13)
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(14)

In deep water, 𝑑/𝐿 <1/2:

𝐻 (2𝜋𝑧) (15)
𝐴=𝐵= 𝑒 𝐿
2
In shallow water, 𝑑/𝐿 <20:
𝐻 𝐿 (16)
𝐴=
2 2𝜋𝑑
𝐻 𝑧 (17)
𝐵 = (1 + )
2 𝑑
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2.2.4 Group velocity, 𝑪𝒈

Represent propagation of wave energy in space and time.

The speed of a group of waves or a wave train travels.
Group velocity, 𝐶𝑔 : is the speed of the wave packet, the speed of
wave energy transfer
The phase velocity, : is the speed of the individual waves.
𝑔𝑇 2𝜋𝑑
𝐶= tanh
2𝜋 𝐿

Not identical to wave celerity, i.e. 𝐶𝑔 ≠ 𝐶. General expression at

all water depth:
𝐶𝑔 = 𝑛𝐶 (18)
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In deep water, sin 𝑥 → ∞

1 1 𝐿𝑜 (19)
𝐶𝑔𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜 =
2 2𝑇
1
𝑛=
2

For intermediate water depth:

1𝐿 4𝜋𝑑/𝐿 (20)
𝐶𝑔 = 𝑛𝐶 = (1 + )
2𝑇 sinh 4𝜋𝑑/𝐿
1 4𝜋𝑑/𝐿
𝑛 = (1 + )
2 sinh 4𝜋𝑑/𝐿
In shallow water, sin 𝑥~𝑥
L (21)
C 
g
 C  gD
T
𝑛=1
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2.2.5 Wave Energy

Total wave energy in one wavelength per unit wave crest width,
(J)= Kinetic energy (due to wave motion) + Potential energy (due
to position of fluid mass above wave crest)
EE E
k p (22)
1 1 1
E  gH L   gH L   gH L
2 2 2

16 16 8
Wave energy density or specifiq energy per unit wave crest
width (J/m):
E 1 (23)
E    gH 2

L 8

Wave energy flux (or wave power) per unit wave crest width
(N/s or J/s or W per metre of wave crest width):
𝑃̅ = 𝐸̅ 𝐶𝑔 (24)
Wave energy flux is the rate at which energy is being transported
to the shore
kg m/s2=J=N, J/s=W,

Further reading:
Section 2.5, Sorensen, 2006.
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Table 2.2: Summary of Airy wave theory (CEM 1110-2-1100, Part

II).