Chapter 3

Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

What is Consciousness?
• Consciousness
• The feelings, thoughts, and aroused states of which
we are aware
• Awareness of self and environment
• Contents of consciousness are continuality changing
• William James – stream of consciousness

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

The Place of Consciousness in Psychology’s

History
• 1880s: Psychology defined as description and
explanation of states of consciousness
• First half of twentieth century: Direct observation of
behavior
• 1960s: Consciousness nearly lost; science of behavior
• After 1960s: Study of consciousness altered by
hypnosis, drugs, and meditation; importance of
cognition
• Today: Under the influence of cognitive psychology
and cognitive neuroscience, consciousness reclaims its
place as an important area of research.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

1
 Brain States and Consciousness
• Cognitive neuroscience
• Interdisciplinary study of
the brain activity linked
with cognition (including
perception, thinking,
memory, and language)

• Suggests consciousness
arises from synchronized
brain activity

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

Different States of Consciousness

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind

• Dual processing (two-tracks- each with its own neural
processing)
• Information is often simultaneously processed on
separate conscious (explicit) and unconscious
(implicit) tracks.
• Perceptions, memory, attitudes, and other
cognitions are affected.
• Blindsight awareness
• A person can respond to a visual stimulus without
consciously experiencing it.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

2
 Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind

• Parallel processing
• Processing many aspects of a problem
simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of
information processing for many functions
• (Unconscious)
• Sequential processing
• Focusing conscious awareness on a particular
stimulus that requires our attention.
• (Conscious)

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

Consciousness and Selective Attention

• Selective attention
• Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
• Reduces flow of sensory information to the brain by
voluntarily focusing on a sensory input.
• Inattentional blindness
• Failure to see visible objects when attention is directed
elsewhere
• Cocktail party effect
• Our ability to attend to one voice among a sea of other
voices
• Attention is selective but the other “channels” are still
being processed at some level

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

Consciousness and Selective Attention

• Change blindness
• Failure to notice changes in the environment, a
form of inattentional blindness

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

3
 What Is Sleep?

• Periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct

from unconsciousness resulting from a coma,
general anesthesia, or hibernation (adapted from
Dement, 1999)

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

10

Biological Rhythm and Sleep

• A biological rhythm is any cyclic
change in the level of a bodily
chemical or function.
• Circadian Rhythm- 24-hour biological
cycle of
• Body temperature rises as morning
approaches, peaks during the day,
dips in the early afternoon, and
begins to drop in the evening
• Altered by age and experience

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

11

The Biological Clock and Sleep

Bright morning light activates light-sensitive proteins
that trigger the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
production of melatonin in the morning; production in
the evening.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

12

4
 What Affects Our Sleep Patterns?

• Sleep patterns are influenced by a number of

factors such as genes, age, culture, lifestyle etc. .
• 6, 8 or 10 hours?
• People differ in the amount of sleep they need.
• Genetics: Genes may also play a role in the amount
of sleep that each of us requires
• Sleep pattern of identical twins vs fraternal twins

(Weiten et al., 2022)

Copyright © 2021 by Nelson Education Ltd

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

13

How Much Sleep Do We Need?

• Age. The older we get, the less sleep we need.
o Babies require a lot of sleep, between 16 and 18 hours

a day.
o Preschoolers require less sleep, about 10 to 12 hours a

day.
o Teenagers and young adults need less sleep than

children, but they still require 7 to 10 hours of sleep a

night.
• Lifestyle: Our lifestyle habits and our environment also
influence the amount of sleep that we need or get e.g.,
Job responsibilities, parenting, or living on one’s own
(Weiten et al., 2022)

Copyright © 2021 by Nelson Education Ltd

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

14

Why Do We Sleep?
• Sleep may have played a protective role in human
evolution by keeping people safe during potentially
dangerous periods.
• Sleep helps restore and repair damaged neurons.
• REM and NREM-2 sleep help strengthen neural
connections that build enduring memories.
• Sleep promotes creative problem solving the next
day.
• During deep sleep, the pituitary gland secretes a
growth hormone necessary for muscle development.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

15

5
 Measuring Sleep Activity
• Electroencephalograph – brain
electrical activity
• Electrocardiogram (ECG) –
heart activity
• Electromyograph – records
muscle activity and tension
• Electrooculograph – records
eye movements
• Other bodily functions also
observed

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

16

Measuring Sleep Activity

• Brain wave activity is divided
into four different bands
• Beta (13–24 cps) -correlated
with alertness and problem
solving
• Alpha (8–12 cps) -correlated
with resting and relaxation
• Theta (4–7 cps) -correlated
with low alertness and
sleep
• Delta (< 4 cps) -correlated
with deep, dreamless sleep
PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

17

Sleep Stages

• Stages1-3 is non-REM sleep.

•No eye movements, a progressively relaxed
state, less likely to have report vivid dreams
if awakened from non-REM sleep.

• REM sleep stage

• Vivid dreams and quick eye movements
• EEG similar to awake

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

18

6
 Sleep Stages
• NREM Stage 1: a brief, transitional stage
• Alpha  Theta- The EEG moves from
predominately alpha waves, when the person is
just about to fall asleep, to more theta activity.
• Hypnic jerks/myoclonic jerks -- brief muscle
contractions that occur when one is falling asleep
• Deeper into sleep  more relaxed  may
experience hypnagogic imagery – scrambled
dream like images that flit in and out of
consciousness
(Weiten et al., 2022)

Copyright © 2021 by Nelson Education Ltd

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

19

Sleep Stages
• NREM Stage 2: sleep spindles
o Brain slows down even more

• Characterized by more mixed brain wave activity

(theta, sleep spindles)
• Sleep spindles (12-14 cycles per second)- are a
pattern of slower theta waves with occasional
sudden intense bursts of electrical activity
• K-Complexes

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

20

Sleep Stages
• NREM Stage 3- Slow-Wave sleep/Deep Sleep
o Characterized by delta brain-wave patterns -large,

slow brain waves- (1-2 cycles per second)

• Extremely relaxed body; Reduced heart and
respiration rate
• Difficult to awaken people from deep sleep 
often confused or disoriented

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

21

7
 Sleep Stages
REM (rapid eye movement) Stage /Dream sleep
• Sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly
occur
• Although the rapid REM sleep waves resemble the
near-waking NREM-1 sleep waves, the brain is
more aroused during REM sleep than during
NREM sleep.
• Muscles are relaxed
• Paradoxical sleep

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

22

REM Sleep

• REM rebound
• Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM
sleep deprivation

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

23

Sleep Loss/Deprivation

• Microsleep
• After a succession of 5-hour nights, we
accumulate a sleep debt that cannot be
satisfied by one long sleep.
• Less sleep predicts more anger and relationship
conflicts.
• Sleep loss is a strong predictor of depressive
disorders.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

24

8
 How Sleep Deprivation Affects Us

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

25

Major Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia
• Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
• Occurs in three different patterns: trouble falling
asleep (onset), trouble remaining asleep, and
persistent early morning awakening.
• Rebound insomnia: It becomes more difficult to
sleep once people stop taking sleeping pills

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

26

Major Sleep Disorders

• Narcolepsy
• Sudden uncontrollable sleep attacks
• Sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep
• May occur with cataplexy - a complete loss of
muscle tone in people with narcolepsy

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

27

9
 Major Sleep Disorders
• Sleep apnea
• Stopping of breathing while asleep; associated with
obesity, especially in men
• Sleepwalking and Sleeptalking
• Walking or talking while fully asleep
• NREM-3 sleep disorder- not acting out dreams
• “Disorder of arousal," - something triggers the brain
into arousal from deep sleep
• Night terrors (Non-REM)
• High arousal and appearance of being terrified
PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

28

Major Sleep Disorders

Nightmares
• Brief scary dreams that typically occur during REM
sleep.
REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD)
• When you act out vivid dreams as you sleep

(Weiten et al., 2022)

Copyright © 2021 by Nelson Education Ltd

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

29

Sleep Aids
Exercise regularly but not in the late evening. (Late afternoon is best.)

Avoid caffeine after early afternoon, and avoid food and drink near
bedtime. The exception would be a glass of milk, which provides raw
materials for the manufacture of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that
facilitates sleep.
Relax before bedtime, using dimmer light.
Sleep on a regular schedule (rise at the same time even after a restless
night) and avoid long naps.
Hide time displays so you aren’t tempted to check repeatedly.
Reassure yourself that temporary sleep loss causes no great harm.
Focus your mind on non-arousing, engaging thoughts, such as song lyrics
or vacation travel (Gellis et al., 2013).
If all else fails, settle for less sleep, either going to bed later or getting up
earlier
PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

30

10
 References

• Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2021). Psychology (13th ed.). Worth Publishers.

• Weiten, W., McCann, D., & Matheson, D. (2022). Psychology: Themes and variations
(6th Canadian ed.). Cengage.

PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers | C. Nathan DeWall

31

11