=10

Feedback in Amplifiers

10.1 INTRODUCTION

feedback implies transfer of energy from the output of a system to its input. If a
h e term feedba
he or the whole) of the output signal of an amplifier is fed back and superimposed on the
Pt signal, the performance of the amplifier changes significantly. The amplifier is then said
a feedback
amplifier.)
to be
Peedback can be of two types negative feedback and positive feedback. When the feed-
Lk Sinal diminishes the magnitude of the input signal, the feedback is called negative,
innerse or degenerative feedback. Negative feedback reduces the overall gain of the amplifier.
referredto
Ifthe feedback signal enhances the magnitude of the input signal, the feedback isincreased
as positive,
direct or regenerative feedback. The overall gain of the amplifier is by
positive feedback.)
offers many
Despite the reduction in the overall gain of the amplifier, negative feedback
advantages, and is therefore used extensively in electronic circuits. On the contrary, positive
There-
feedback causes an instability in the gain of the amplifier and distorts the input signal.
sometimes in narrowband
fore, it is not generally used in amplifiers. It is used in oscillators and
amplifiers and radio receivers because it increases the signal power.

10.2 TRANSFER GAIN OF A FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

Fig. 10.1 shows the block diagram of a feedback
amplifier consisting of a basic or an internal
amplifier and a feedback network. The transfer Internal
gain of the internal amplifier is A = V,/V amplifier
A
where V, is its input voltage and V, the output
voltagèThefeedback network can contain
passive elements ike resistors inductors or
capacitorsand active elements like transistors. Feedback
network
A portionmVEBV,is extracted from the output V= BV
B
voltage V.and added to, or subtracted from, the
exterhally applied input signal voltage V, by the
feedback network. (The input voltage of the Feedback amplifier A
basic amplifieristhusV=V,£V,The positive Fig. 10.1 Block diagram of a
sign holds for positivefeedback and the negative
sign for negative feedback. The fraction feedback amplifier.
B V,/V is known as the feedback fraction, the feedback ratio, the reverse transfer ratio or the
reverse transmission factor.
221
 222 Electronics-Fundamentals
Ble and Applicati

he whole system in the dashed box in Fig. 10.1 constitutes the feedback amnlke
ifier. The
transfer gain A, of the feedback amplifier is theratio of the output voltage V. to thee
applied input signal voltage V, i.e.,
externally
4- S (10.1)
IfV =V,-V, we have
V = AV, = A(V,- V.
Since V=BV Eq. (10.2) gives 10.2
V.(1+Aß) =
AV, or,
AV,1+ AB
A. Thus
(10.3)
A represents the transfer.
In the absence of any feedback ß 0,= and A, =

gain
without feedback. The quantity-A Bis termed theloopga!n, because1t gives the product of
the gains of the branches making up the loop. It is also called the feedback factor, the ref
return
ratio the loop transmission.)
or

The difference between unity and the loop gain, i.e. (1 +Aß) is referred to as the retum
difference. The gain A, with feedback is sometimes called the closed-loop gain. The quantity A
is the gain without feedback, but încluding the loading effect of the feedback network. A i
is
known as the open-loop gain.
In Eq. (10.3), both A and ß can be real (positive or negative) quantities or complex funec.
tions of frequency.
If I 1+AB I> 1, we have I A, I < IA 1, which characterises negative feedback. If
1+AßI < 1, we obtain | A, l> l'A I, which gives positive feedback. If I 1+AßI =0.
1Al= o, implying that the amplifier gives an output signal even in the absence of an input
signal; the amplifier then becomes an oscillator.
The feedback introduced into an amplifier is usually expressed in decibel (dB) by the rela-

tionship
F dB of feedback = 20
log0 20 lo810 11+ Ap
20 los10+AB (10.4)
For the negative feedback, Fis negative since I 1 +A Bl>1 for such a feedback. When t
feedbackis positive, I1+ABl <1, and Fis positive.
10.3 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER TOPOLOGIES
The output signal in a feedback amplifer can be sampled by connecting the feedback network
either in shunt with the output(eoltage sampling) or in series with the output (currentsam
pling). In eachtype of sampling, the feedback signal can be returned to the input in series with
the externally applied signal (series mixing), or in shunt with the external signal (shunt
ing). This givesfour feedback topologies: (i) voltage-series feedback or voltage sampling-series
mixing, (iü) voltage-shunt feedback or voltage sampling-shunt mixing, (ii) current-series feed:
back or current sampling-series mixing, and (iv) current shunt feedback or current sampling
shunt mixing.
A) Voltage-series Feedback
Fig. 10.2 shows schematically the voltage-seriesfeedback configuration. The emitter follower
circuit of Fig. 10.3 is an illustration of voltage-series negative feedback In Fig. 10.3, the
outpue
voltage Vo appearing across the load resistance R, is tatally returned to the input. Conse
 cater. ioThens F e e
hack in Amplifiers
a
a 223

xternaly ntly,
feedback ratio B is unity here. In Fig. 10.3 the emitter-base.junction is forward
ho
th
through the resistance g The capacitance C decouples the signal source from the
bia V and behaves as a short cireuit Tor ac) The output voltage is thesampled signal. The
signal being a voltage, the feedback is voltage or shunt feedback. The feedback signal
(10.1 Sampe returned to the input in series with the external input signal voltage, so that we have
voltagng, So the feedback in the emitter follower circuit is voltage-series or uvoltage-voltage
or shunt-series feedback.

cc
(103)
sfer gain
Internal
oduct of
e returm amplifier Cin
B
A
e return
Feedback
k.antityAisA RLVo
network
3

x func
Feedback amplifier A
Fig. 10.2 Voltage-series feedback Fig. 10.3 An emitter follower circuit illustrating
configuration. voltage-series negative feedback.
ack. If
The input signal voltage to the transistor in Fig. 10.3 is V, = V, - Vo, where V, is the/

input externally applied inputsignal voltage. This shows that the feedback is negative. Sincefpr
negative feedback I 1 + ABI>1,theoverall voltage gain is
rela- A
(10.5)
A1+
AB
The gain A of the amplifier without feedback can be found by transferring the load resis-
(104 tance R from the emitter to the collector leg. Thus

en the A he R A (10.6)
(see Sec 8.9). As B = 1 here. Eq. (10.5) gives
h M
iwork
he Bz (10.7)
sam
Ah+ he R
with Equation (10.7) shows that the voltage gain is less than unity. This expression of the gain,
obtained from the concept of feedback, agrees with Eq (8.79) derived earlier.
erres Voltage-shunt Feedback
feed Fig. 10.4 depicts the block diagram of an amplifier with voltage-shunt feedback. An illustration
ng of this type of feedback is given by the circuit of Fig. 10.5. Here the transistor is in the CE
configuration and the resistor R, provides the feedback from the collector to the base of the
transistor. i'he capacitor C, isolates the sigrial source from the supply Ve and acts as a short
circuit for ac. The output voltage V, is much greaterthan the input voltage V, and 180° out of
wer
phase with it. An increase of the input signal voltage V, increases the current 1 Consequently,
both , and 1, will increase because ,
that the circuit provides
+1 The increase in , is less than that of , showing
a , negative feedback"
=
 Electronics-Fundamentals and Applicot.
224 lications
+Vcc
R
w
Internal C
Vso amplifier A Rs
w

s
V
Vs
Feedback
network B

Feedback amplifier A
Fig. 10.5 Circuit showing
10.4 Block diagram of
Fig.
voltage-shunt feedback.
voltage-shunt-feedbáck.
The feedback current is

(10.8)
R R
to the output voltage V shom
since V>» V, Thus the feedback current I, is proportional
that the feedback is voltage-shunt.
Current-series Feedback
current series feedback amplifier is schematically
shown in the block diagram of Fig. 106
A
o +Vcc

Internal
amplifier A
o C

Rs V

Feedback
V RE
network B

Feedback amplifier A

10.6 Block diagram of current-series Fig. 10.7 A circuit illustrating current

Fig.
feedback amplifier series feedback.

The circuit of such a 10.7. Here the feedback voltage is the

feedbackis shown in Fig. we have
voltage V, across the unbypassed emitter resistor Rp. Neglecting the base current, and
V= RE 1, where , is the output collector current. Thesampled signal is the current l,
-

the feedback signal is the voltage Ve Hence, the circuit is referred to as the current-series
feedback. Following the arguments put forward for an emitter follower, we find that the feed

back here is negative.

(iM Current-shunt Feedback
The block diagram of Fig. 10.8 depicts the current-shunt feedback, an example of whiet
provided by the cireuit of Fig. 10.9. HeretwotransistorsT,and 7, arein cascade. Theresista
Feedback in Amplifiers
225
ted between the emitter of T2 and the base of T, gives the feedback path. The output
R.con of the
first
voltageofthefirst
stage is much larger than and 180" out of phase
vekage-eacross R, 18 8hightly less than V and is in phase with the input voltage V
with it. So, V is much larger
V, and
180° out of phasewith it.
than

OVoc
Rc
Internal
amplifier A Rs
Is
w Vo
Feedback
network B REaVa
Feedback amplifier A
Fig. 10.8 Schematic representation of
Fig. 10.9 A circuit showing current-shunt feedback.
current-shunt feedback.

An increase in the input signal voltage V, is accompanied by a

, Consequently,1, and I, will increase since I, = I,+I. Clearly, thecorresponding
increase in I, increase in
is less than
that of , manifesting negative feedback.
We have for the feedback current

(10.9)
R R
since V>> V. Neglecting the base current of the transistor T, compared with its collector
current we have Ve2 = (-1,) RE2. So, we get from Eq. (10.9)

R
A
Or, RE21,
1,(R+R=1,Rg2 R+Rga (10.10)
The feedback current 1, being proportional to the output current 1, the feedback here is
current-shunt or current-current or series-shunt.

10EFFECTSOF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Negative feedback introduces the following modifications of the amplifier characteri
(i) The gain is reduced and stabilized with respect to the variations in transistor param-
eters like hfe
(ii)Phe nonlinear distortion is less so that the signal handling capacity of the amplifier
increases.
(iii) The input impedance can be changed by suitably combining the feedback signal with
the externally applied input signal. The output impedance of the amplifier can also
be changed by suitably extracting the feedback signal from the output.
(iv) The bandwidth of the amplifier increases and the frequency distortion becomes less.
 2226 Electronics-Fundamentals.and Applications
(v) The phase distortion is reduced.
(vi) The noise level is lowered.
discussed below.
These features of negative feedback are

Stability of Gain is
The overall gain of the negative feedback amplifier
O
A 1+ AB (10.11
where I1+A Bl > 1. If lA Bl >>1, Eq. (10.11)gives

A (10.12)
Thus the overall gain of the amplifier is determined by the feedback network and noa
the gain A of the internal amplifier. As the feedback network usually consists of stable passi
passive
elements, the stability of the gain is improved. Supply voltage variations, changes of Daran
eters of the active device, aging and temperature changes will not have significant effects on d
on
have marked effects on A.
A
although they can
If the loop gain in a negative feedback amplifier is not large, the stability of the gain e
can
be found by differentiating Eq. (10.11) with respect to A. Thus we get

dA 1 dA
1+ Aß A
(10.13)
A
The ratio of the fractional change in the overall gain to the fractional change in the gain
of the internal amplifier gives the sensitivity S of the transfer gain to changes in the internal
amplifier gain. Thus

(10.14)

The desensitivity D is given by

D 1+Aß (10.15)

Equations (10.13) and (10.15) give

(10.16)

As IDI> 1 for negative feedback, the percentage change in A,is less than that in A. The
overall gain stability is thus better.
pecrease in Nonlinear Distortion
rhe nonlinearity in the transfer characteristic of the amplifier active device distorts the outpu
signal when a large-amplitude signal is applied to the amplifier input. Let V and V,betne
For
signal component ofthe utput voltage and the distortion output voltage, respectively
simplicity, we assume here that the input signal voltage is sinusoidal and that the distorao
voltage is the second harmonic.
he
IFV, is the applied inputsignalvoltage, we have V, = AV, in the absence offeedback. 1
a*
voltage V, is introduced by the nonlinearity of the active device, it can be assumed to
Feedback in Amplifiers 227

effective distortion voltage VA applied at the input of a distortionless amplifier of

from a n effe

gainA.

the presence of negative feedback, both V and V, will diminish. To keepconstant

keep
value, the
value, is in
amplitude fs
input signal amplitude D
increased min1sh.
from V, = V, (1Vconstant
V, to To
t its previous
atitsprevious
+AB). As
attout voltage remains the same, the input voBtage of the internal amplifier is V V
When negative feedback is applied, let Vp be the distortion component of the output
ltage. As the overall gain 1s A/(l +A $) and the input distortion voltageis V /A, we have

Vp
NA 1+ Aß1+ Aß (10.17)
Since 11+A Bl> 1 for negative feedback, the distortion voltage is reducedat the output
by a factor 1(1 + A B). Note thatt the signal component of the output voltage remains un
changed because the amplitude of the applied input signal is enhanced by (1 +A B); this en-
hancement can be achieved by using a preamplifier. Clearly, the dynamic range or the signal
handling capacity of the amplifier is increased.
(i)Effect on Input and Output Impedances
(a) Input impedance: In the series-mixing feedback
of the
circuit Fig. 10.10,
ternal amplifier is
input impedance of the in
Internal
amplifier A

, (10.18)
if o of
The input impedance of the feedback amplifier
1S Feedback
network B
(10.19) Feedback amplifier, A,
The externally applied input signal voltage is Fig. 10.10 Calculation of impedances for
V=V, +V=V, + pV.=V,+A pV (10.20) voltage-series feedback.
since V = AV, where A is the voltage gain of the internal amplifier including the load resis-
tance R. Equation (10.20) yields
V, = V, (1+ A B) (10.21)
So, Eq. (10.19) gives
Z V, (1+ A) 2,1+Aß) (10.22)

sing Eq. (10.18). Negative feedback implies

|1+A BI >1. Hence, we find from Eq. (10.22)
Internal
that the input impedance of the amplifier in-
amplifier A
creases for series-mixing negative feedback.
Consider now the shunt-mixingfeedback Lof
of Fig. 10.11. Here, the current gain of the in-
ternal amplifier is A = 1 0 . The input imped- Feedback
network B
ance of the internal amplifier is
Feedback amplifier, A,
2,- w(10.23) Fig. 10.11 Calcuiation of impedances for
Current-shunt feedback.
 Electronics-Fundamentals and Application
228 ions
is
For the feedback amplifier, the input impedance

(10.24)
have
From Kirchhoffs current law, we

=1,+ transmission factor,

(10.25)
current. If Bis the reverse
where I, is the feedback
1,=B1,-A BI,, (10.26)
internal amplifier including the load
gain of the
current resis-
since , AT, where A is the (10.26),
=

we obtain
tance R. From Eqs. (10.25) and
=,(1 +A B). (10.27
Equation (10.24) gives
V Z (10.28)
Zy 1.(1+ AB) 1+ Ap
feedback, the input impedance af
where Eq. (10.23) is used. As I 1+ABI> 1 for negative
than that in the absence offeedback
is less
negative feedback amplifier with shunt mixing
(6) Output impedance: To calculate the output
zero and
impedance, we put the input signal voltage to
Then connect a
disconnect the load resistance R. we

source of voltage V across the load terminals. If I'is AV

the
the current delivered by the voltage source V in
absence of feedback in Fig. 10.10, the output imped-
ance of the amplifier without feedback
is
Fig. 10.12 Equivalent output circuit for
the calculation of the output impedance
(10.29)
ZT for voltage-series feedback.
When feedback is present, the input voltage of
the intermal amplifier is V, -V, since V,
= = 0. As V,= BV, we have
(10.30)
V,=- BV.
is an open-circuit, the
If A is the voltage gain of the internal amplifier when the output
The equivalent circuit at the output is as
open-circuit output voltage becomes A, V-A, BV.
shown in 10.12. The current supplied by the source V is
Fig.
1V-A,
I=- V.V+A,PV
Z Z
So, the output impedance with feedback is

Z 14A, (10.31)

Negative feedback givesI11+A,BI>1

So, the output impedance decreases for voltage-series
feedback.
For current-shunt feedback (Fig. 10.11), let Z, be the
A
output impedance without feedback. Then the current
supplied by the voltage source V in the absence of feed-
back is V/2, In the presence of feedback, let I be the cur- Fig. 10.13 Equivalent output circuito
rent delivered by the source V. With 1, = 0, I, = - I , = BI, the calculation of the output imped
since the feedback current is I,= - BI. ance for current-shunt feedback.
 Ampltfiers
y 229
feedback iin
n
thack
without feedback when the load terminals are short
IfA, is current gain of the amplifier
ie curre
circuit is then
he
ited, short-circuit output current is A, 1, A, BI. The equivalent output
theshort-
=

gited.i.
in Fig.
10.13. The current I supplied by the source V is
10.
shown
as V V
I A, -A,BI or, I1+A,B) Z
output impedance with feedback is
So, the
(10.32)
2,A, feed-
feedback, the output impedance for current-shunt
Since 11+A, PI>1for negative
than that without feedback.
hack is greater
Distortion
Reduction of Frequency stage of an RC-coupled
9.3, we have found that the low-frequency gain of one
In Sec.
amplifier is
(10.33)
A1-jifIf
is the mid-frequency gain and f, is the lower half-power frequency. The high-fre-
where A
quency gain is

Am (10.34)
A, 1+fIA
f being the upper half-power frequeney.low and
With feedback, the overall gains at high frequencies are

A (10.35)
A 1+ A

Ap 1+AAB
(10.36)
and

From Eqs. (10.35) and (10.33), we obtain

Am An (10.37)
A 1+AB-jfIf)1-jfi/f)
where A =A /(1 + A,B) is the mid-frequency gain with feedback, and fr =f(1 +A, B)
is the lower half-power frequency in the pres-
without feedback
ence of feedback. Negative feedback implies
I1+ A, Bl> 1, so
thatf <Ir
In a similar fashion, one can show from olage AN2 with feedback
gain
Eqs. (10.36) and (10.34) Amf
Am/N2
Amf (10.38)
A 1+ jfI far Iht (logscale)
where fr =f, (1 + A, B) is the upper half-
power frequency in the presence of negative Fig. 10.14 Magnitude of voltage gain versus
frequency tor one stage of an RC-coupled amplifier
feedback. Obviously, > h with and without feedback.
 230 Electronics-Fundamentals and Ap
We thus find that negative feedback decreases the lower half-power frequency and s
lications
the upper half-power frequency. The difference between the two two half-power frequer ncreases
uencies,
the bandwidth of the amplifier is consequently enhanced, and so
frequency distortion i.e.
the 1

reduced
The plot of the magmitude of the gain with frequency of an RC-coupled amplifier
is depicted in Fig. 10.14.
prgsence and in the absence of feedback
Decrease of Phase Distortion
When the load or the coupling impedance of an amplifier contains a reactive part, the c
the amplifier is a complex quantity with a magnitude and a phase angle. So, the gain A gain

amplifier without feedback can be written as

A IAI 20.
With feedback, the gain is
(10.39
A
A 1+ AB (10.40)
The feedback ratio ß can be real or a complex quantity. Taking f to be real for simplieity
we obtain
IAIL AIL
1+BIAIZ9 1+ßIAl(cos0+ j sin )
IAIZ
1+ßIAl cos 0)+ jBIAlsin
IAIL
IBIL0 (10.41)
where TBl =
1+BIAlcos) +(BIA lsin ) (10.42)

and = tan-1
BIAlsin (10.43)
1+BIAIcos 0
Writing
A I A l 20, (10.44)
we obtain from Eq. (10.41)

AI
AB (10.45)

and , - (10.46)
Clearly, negative feedback decreases the phase angle of the gain by 6. Since the phase
angle by which the output signal leads the input signal diminishes, the phase distortion is
reduced.
(vLowering of Output Noise
fv, is the noise voltage at the input of an amplifier of voltage gain A in the absence of feedback,
the noise voltage at the amplifier output is
VonAV (10.47)
In the presence of feedback withfeedback fraction B, the gain reduces to A, =A/(1 +A B,
so that the output noise voltage becomes

AV,
Von 14 Aß Van (10.48)
1+ Aß
 gative feedback |1+A
FoNote that thehe
reducea. N o t e Bl> 1. There
The efore, Vn<Van Thus
signal-to-noise
pack reduces
n g a t i v ef e e d b a r
the ratio at the
signal as well as the amplifier
231

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

amlonnus output
noise by the is
the
notoutput noise level is
same factor.improved since the
05

ated power supply gives a dc

out.
remains substantially
voltage that
even when the ac supply volt input AC
conste

the
geor the dc load current
changes. voltage Rectifier
ystem
contains (i) a rectifier with filtThe and
Filter Voltage
RLV
() voltage regulator
block
a
regulator, as shown
diagram of Fig. 1010wn in
the Fig. 10.15 Block
rectifier
Therectifier transtorms the diagram of a regulated
The output of the
oltage). The input alternating power supply.
0r alled the rectifier contains current (or voltage) into
voThe ails of the ripple. The filter following the
fluctuating a direct
current
rectifier and the filter the rectifier stage components of current (or
The output firom the filter can
action have smoothens out the
been discussed in ripples.
tance. The voltage vary with the Secs. 6.3
changes the ac supply through 6.6.
for circuit is explainedregulator tends to eliminate in
voltage the
help of the diagramthis fluctuation. The principle of a load
or
with the
woliage regulator.A fraction of
fxed reference voltage VR s V, of the output voltage V,Fig.of the
regu-
10.16, which is known as a series
eter P, BV, is made nearly appearing across the Zener
equal to VR The voltage diode Z. By
regulator is compared with a
amplifier comprising the transistor and difference (BV-adjusting the potentiom-
aDDlied to the base of the transistorT, the load resistance R TheV) is
by the amplified
exceeds the desired value, B Vo becomes T9» cálled the pass transistor. If theamplified voltage is
transistor T, to a more positive value. larger than V and drives the base output voltage V
thereby enhancing the voltage drop acrossConsequently, the collector eurrent ofvoltage
of the
emitter junction of T. Hence the R. This reduces the forward biasingT,ofincreases,
the base-
emitter current 1 of
current and hence the T, decreases.
output
change in V is countered by a voltage Vo decreases. Thus a negativeConsequently, the load
feedback occurs:
steady. The capacitor C bypasseschange
in the current I, any
the high-frequency causing V to remain more or less
further improving the components of the output voltage, thus
constancy
lated power supply, also called the
of the output voltage. The
percentage regulation of a regu
stabilised power supply, is much less than that of a simple
rectifier. This means that the internal resistance in
small, the system behaving like an ideal voltage source. R, the equivalent circuit of Fig 6.9 is
very

Rectifier
and filter
output Vo
voltage
BV
VA

regulator using transistors and a Zener diode.

Fig. 10.16 A series voltage